COLUMBIA  LIBRARIES  OFFSITE 

AVERY  FINE  ARTS  RESTRICTED 


AR00897116 


H°W  TO  B\J^ 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2014 


https://archive.org/details/fireinsurancehowOOmoor 


Ex  iGthria 


SEYMOUR  DURST 


When  you  leave,  please  leave  this  hook 

Because  it  has  heen  said 
"Ever'thing  comes  t'  him  who  waits 

Except  a  loaned  hook." 


Avery  Architectural  and  Fine  Arts  Library 
Gift  of  Seymour  B.  Durst  Old  York  Library 


FIRE  INSURANCE  AND  HOW  TO  BUILD 


By  FRANCIS  C.  MOORE 


FIRE  INSURANCE  AND  HOW  TO  BUILD.    Cloth,  800 
pages,  price  $5.00  net. 

HOW  TO  BUILD  FIREPROOF,  Paper,  50  cents.  (Included 
in  Fire  Insurance  and  How  to  Build.) 

HOW  TO  BUILD  A  HOME.    Cloth,  $1.00;  paper,  50  cents. 

UNEARNED  PREMIUM,  Cloth,  $2.00.  (Included  in  Fin- 
Insurance  and  How  to  Build.) 

WATER  WORKS  AND  PIPE  DISTRIBUTION.  Paper, 
25  cents.    (Included  in  Fire  Insurance  and  How  to  Build,  i 


FIRE  INSURANCE 

AND 
HOW  TO  BUILD 


COMBINING  ALSO  A  GUIDE  TO  INSURANCE  AGENTS 
RESPECTING  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  EXTINCTION, 
SPECIAL  FEATURES  OF  MANUFACTURING  RISKS, 
WRITING  OF  POLICIES,  ADJUSTMENT  OF  LOSSES, 
ETC..  ETC. 


FRANCIS  C.  MOORE 

Author  of  "Fire  Insurance  and  Causes  of 
Fires,"  "Unearned  Premium,"  "How- 
to  Build  a  Home."    "How  to 
Build  Fire  Proof."  "Water 
Works  and  Pipe  Dis- 
tribution." Etc.,  Etc 


NEW  YORK 

THE  BAKER  &  TAYLOR  COMPANY 
33-37  East  Seventeenth  Street 

Union  Square  North 
1903 


Copyright  1903, 
FRANCIS  C.  MOORE. 


PREFACE. 


Twenty-five  years  ago,  after  six  continuous  years  of  revision 
of  my  manuscript,  after  careful  study  of  the  subject  and  a  wide 
canvass  for  expert  judgment  and  criticism,  I  published  a  work 
entitled  "Fire  Insurance  and  Causes  of  Fires."  It  met  with  a 
success  beyond  my  anticipations,  and  the  favor  with  which  it 
was  received  by  underwriters  throughout  the  country  has  en- 
couraged me,  at  this  later  date,  when  I  have  had  a  quarter  of  a 
century  of  further  opportunity  for  observation  and  study,  to  put 
forth  the  following  pages. 

If  this  work  fails  to  secure  the  approval  of  my  readers,  I  can 
still  feel  myself  their  debtor  for  past  favors,  and  comfort  myself 
with  the  reflection  that,  at  least,  its  compilation  of  important 
facts  and  happenings  may  furnish  foundation  for  others  to  build 
upon,  and  so  prove  a  benefit  to  the  business  of  insurance — a 
business  worthy  of  the  best  efforts  of  its  ablest  men,  who  will 
continue  to  work  out  the  problem  of  adjusting  its  methods  and 
economies  to  a  point  where  it  will  be  no  greater  tax  upon  the 
community  than  is  necessary  to  protect  that  community  from 
its  most  insidious  and  destructive  enemy. 


Xeiv  York,  January,  1903. 


F.  C.  M. 


THEORY  OF  FIRE  INSURANCE,  AND  ITS  RELATION 
TO  THE  COMMUNITY. 

It  is,  of  course,  unnecessary  to  explain  to  an  insurance  agent 
that  the  "premium"  is  the  amount  paid  an  insurance  company 
for  assuming  a  fire  risk;  that  the  "rate"  is  the  charge  per  one 
hundred  dollars  of  insurance,  fixed  according  to  the  construction 
of  the  building,  its  occupation,  environment  and  facilities,  public 
and  private,  for  extinguishing  fires;  that  the  "policy"  is  the  con- 
tract written  and  issued  by  the  insurance  company,  through  its 
agent,  to  the  property-owner;  that  the  "policy  register"  is  the 
book  in  which  the  agent  keeps  the  record  of  his  policies,  making 
a  full  copy  of  the  written  portion  of  each ;  that  the  "daily  report" 
is  the  blank  on  which  he  reports  taking  the  risks  to  the  company, 
giving  a  full  copy  of  the  written  portion  of  the  policy  and  a 
diagram  of  the  building  and  the  surrounding  buildings  or  "ex- 
posures" and  other  facts  called  for  on  the  blank,  and  that  this 
must  be  mailed  on  the  day  the  insurance  is  made  binding,  so  that 
the  company  may  be  advised  promptly,  in  order  that  it  may 
write  or  telegraph  if  it  has  information  at  its  home  office  preju- 
dicial to  the  acceptance  of  it;  and  that  the  "monthly  report"  is 
the  report  to  be  sent  to  the  company  on  the  first  of  the  mouth, 
giving  a  full  report  of  all  the  policies  issued  during  the  preceding 
month,  with  a  check  or  draft  to  balance. 

It  is  not  generally  understood  that  a  policy  of  insurance  is  not 
an  agreement  to  pay  a  stipulated  sum  in  the  shape  of  liquidated 
damages  in  case  the  subject  of  insurance  is  destroyed  by  fire,  but 
is  simply  an  undertaking  on  the  part  of  the  insurance  company, 
as  the  printed  part  of  the  policy  states,  to  indemnify  the  owner 
to  the  extent  of  his  loss  in  actual  value  damaged  or  destroyed ; 
the  amount  of  insurance  named  in  the  policy  and  paid  for  at  the 
rate  of  premium  being  a  limit  of  claim,  and  not  a  measure  of  it. 
There  is,  therefore,  no  "abandonment"  m  fire  insurance,  by 


6 


DEFINITION  OF  INSURANCE  TERMS. 


which  is  meant  the  right  of  a  property-owner  to  turn  over  what 
is  left  in  the  way  of  salvage  to  the  company  and  demand  a  full 
payment  of  the  policy.  This  is  a  feature  of  marine  insurance, 
but  not  of  fire  insurance.  The  owner  is  obliged,  according  to 
the  terms  of  his  policy,  to  take  care  of  all  damaged  property  and 
to  preserve  it  from  further  injury. 

The  "rate"  of  premium  or  price  charged  by  the  company  is 
not  based  upon  the  expectation  of  burning  of  a  particular  risk 
insured,  but  upon  the  number  of  risks  of  like  kind  which  would 
be  burned  or  damaged  out  of  say  a  thousand  in  any  single  year. 
At  a  rate  of  one  per  cent,  for  example,  a  thousand  risks,  each 
insured  for  a  thousand  dollars,  would  yield  ten  thousand  dollars 
in  premium ;  if  ten  risks  out  of  the  thousand  should  bum  in  a 
year,  the  entire  amount  of  premium  would  be  required  to  pay 
the  loss.  It  is  evident  that  a  smaller  number  than  ten  must 
burn  or  a  higher  rate  than  one  per  cent  must  be  obtained  to  pro- 
vide for  expenses,  in  addition  to  losses.  The  rate  of  premium, 
therefore,  for  any  class  of  risks — dwellings,  churches,  schools, 
&c, — should  be  the  "fire  cost"  of  the  class,  i.  e.,  the  amount  of 
loss  for  a  year  on  each  one  hundred  dollars  of  amount  at  risk ;  to 
which  should  be  added  a  sufficient  sum  to  pay  the  expenses  of 
conducting  the  business — commission  of  agents,  salaries  of  officers 
and  other  employees,  cost  of  blanks,  inspections,  taxes,  &c,  &c. 
— and  a  further  sum  to  represent  a  fair  return  on  the  capital  of 
the  stockholders  paid  in  by  them  and  placed  at  the  risk  of  the 
business.  There  should  be  at  least  five  per  cent  profit  for  the 
stockholders  on  the  amount  of  premiums  received,  and  a  further 
five  per  cent  laid  aside  for  meeting  exceptional  conflagrations, 
like  those  of  Chicago  and  Boston.  There  was  not  a  single  large 
company  doing  business  in  the  city  of  Chicago  in  1871  which  did 
not  lose  all  of  its  net  surplus,  while  most  of  them  lost  in  addition 
a  portion  of  their  capital.  As  some  of  them  had  been  doing  bus- 
iness for  twenty  years  or  more,  this  shows  that  five  per  cent  is 
not  too  large  a  sum  to  set  aside  for  such  exceptional  fires. 

Luck  in  Fire  Insurance.  There  is  absolutely  no  such  thing  as 
luck  as  to  fire  losses,  or  as  to  the  percentage  of  loss  to  amount 
insured  in  the  case  of  a  large  fire  insurance  company  intelligently 
managed,  and  conducting  its  operations  over  a  field  wide  enough 
for  the  laws  of  average.    The  probabilities  of  the  burning  or 


NO   LI  CK  IN  FIRE  INSURANCE. 


7 


escape  of  a  single  building  are,  of  course,  uncertain  and  would 
afford  to  a  gambler  tbe  basis  for  a  wager,  but  tbe  probabilities 
of  the  burning  of  one  or  more  buildings  out  of  ten  thousand  of 
the  same  construction,  occupancy,  fire-extinguishing  appliances, 
management,  moral  hazard  and  environment  may  be  matters  of 
ascertained  certainty.  There  would,  in  fact,  be  less  element  of 
chance  or  luck  in  the  matter  by  far  than  in  the  rise  or  fall  of 
values  of  the  necessaries  of  life  in  the  markets  of  the  world. 
Indeed,  I  doubt  if  those  in  any  business  could  count  with  such 
certainty  as  to  its  ups  and  downs  of  trade  as  can  underwriters 
with  regard  to  the  fluctuations  of  loss  for  each  hundred  dollars 
of  amount  at  risk. 

With  a  small  company,  doing  business  in  a  restricted  territory, 
or  a  large  company  taking  an  unduly  large  line  upon  a  single 
risk,  the  element  of  luck  becomes  a  factor.  An  excessive  line 
on  a  single  risk  is  like  a  mountain  peak  rising  above  the  level  of 
an  extended  plain,  conspicuous  for  its  prominence.  Any  com- 
pany taking  large  lines  must  be  careful  to  see  that  it  has  enough 
of  them  to  make  a  second  or  third  average  on  a  higher  level.  If 
its  average  of  lines  on  a  given  class  of  hazards  is  $10,000  in 
amount  and  it  has  a  $100,000  line  on  a  single  risk  of  the  same 
class,  it  is  conducting  its  business  on  a  gambling  basis,  instead 
of  on  an  underwriting  basis. 

It  is  due,  probably,  to  a  mistaken  view  of  this  important  fact, 
rather  than  to  any  other  consideration,  that  the  rates  on  risks  of 
some  classes  have  been  inadequate,  through  a  competition  which 
has  been  more  greedy  than  discreet. 

The  writer  once  heard  an  underwriter  remark,  in  commenting 
on  the  sufficiency  of  a  rate  on  a  special  hazard,  that  it  would 
burn  just  as  easily  at  5$  as  at  %%,  and  this  he  regarded  as  an  in- 
telligent view  of  the  case.  He  failed  to  see,  that  while  this  was 
a  fact,  one  loss  on  a  thousand  risks  at  2fo  would  be  a  very  differ- 
ent affair,  when  he  came  to  balance  his  accounts,  from  one  loss 
on  a  thousand  risks  at  5$. 

It  may  safely  be  said  that  the  underwriting  of  to-day  is  grow- 
ing, year  by  year,  to  closer  lines,  requiring  more  careful  inspec- 
tion and  a  better  knowledge  of  fire  cost,  and  that  the  days  when 
an  underwriter  needed  only  a  shovel  to  take  in  premiums,  the 
average  of  which  would  be  high  enough  to  cover  all  mistakes 


8 


CO-OI'KKATIOX  OK  INSURANCE  COMPANIES. 


and  to  make  up  for  inadequate  rates  on  exceptional  classes,  have 
gone  by  forever.  There  is  absolutely  no  luck,  good  or  bad,  in 
fire  insurance,  and  the  underwriter  who  contends  for  and  acts 
on  an  opposite  the<  >ry  would  do  well  to  sell  his  stock  and  get  into 
some  other  busine». 

To  ascertain  the  average  percentage  of  loss  on  the  various 
classes  of  risks,  a  comparison  of  experience  of  a  sufficient  number 
of  companies  doing  a  general  and  large  business  throughout  the 
country  is  necessary  in  the  case  of  most  hazards,  for  the  obvious 
reason  that  one  company  would  not  have  enough  of  any  one  class 
of  risks  on  its  books,  outside  of  such  large  classes  as  dwelling 
houses,  farm  buildings,  churches,  &c,  especially  in  single  States, 
to  indicate  the  expectation  of  what  might  be  termed  the  "fire 
mortality,"  or  the  loss  on  the  class.  This  consideration  alone  is 
sufficient  to  indicate  the  mistake  of  confining  the  business  of  an 
insurance  company  to  a  single  city  or  limited  territory,  as  it 
would  deprive  the  company  of  a  sufficient  average;  and  any 
legislation,  therefore,  which  prohibits  a  conference  of  companies 
for  comparing  their  experience,  in  order  to  ascertain  adequate 
and  equitable  rates,  is  subversive  of  the  principles  of  insurance. 

It  might  happen,  and  often  does,  that  a  single  company  in  a 
single  state,  or  a  single  company  throughout  the  United  States, 
would  show  a  loss  on  a  certain  class  of  hazards  at  the  same  time 
that  the  experience  of  all  companies  put  together  would  show  a 
fair  profit  at  the  rate  obtained. 

The  writer  found  that  in  the  case  of  whiskey  in  brick  ware- 
houses, the  company  with  which  he  is  connected,  and  which  too 
had  an  exceptionally  broad  general  experience,  incurred  losses  on 
this  particular  class,  during  a  five  year  period,  in  the  two  states 
of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  in  excess  of  the  premiums  taken. 
Such  an  experience  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  rate  obtained, 
of  90  cents  per  $100,  was  too  low,  whereas  the  experience  of  all 
the  companies  doing  business  in  the  two  states  named  proved 
that  it  was  sufficiently  high,  and  the  rate  was  not  raised.  This 
same  company,  on  the  other  hand,  during  the  same  period,  in 
another  section  of  the  country,  the  Middle  States,  lost  nothing 
on  the  same  class  of  risks ;  an  experience  which,  taken  alone, 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  rate  obtained  was  for  that  local- 
ity too  high,  which  was  not  a  fact,  however,  for  the  experience 


WHY  CANNOT  AN  INDIVIDUAL  INSURE  HIMSELF.  9 

of  all  the  companies  doing  business  in  the  territory  showed  the 
rate  had  been  properly  fixed  and  that  the  experience  of  this  single 
company  was  simply  exceptionally  unprofitable  in  the  one  terri- 
tory and  exceptionally  profitable  in  the  other. 

No  better  argument  than  this  could  be  offered  to  the  legislators 
of  a  State  to  show  that  laws  preventing  the  conference  of  com- 
panies to  secure  a  broad  basis  for  fixing  rates  are  unjust,  not 
alone  to  the  underwriters,  but  to  the  property-owners  themselves. 

Why  cannot  an  individual  insure  himself  or  carry  his  own  risk? 
The  agent  is  frequently  confronted  with  a  proposition  on  the 
part  of  a  property-owner,  dissatisfied  with  his  rate,  that  he  will 
carry  his  own  risk.  He  urges  that  he  has  been  paying  for  in- 
surance for  a  long  series  of  years  and  has  never  had  a  loss.  The 
contention  overlooks  the  fact  that,  at  a  rate  of  one  per  cent,  it 
would  take  nearly  forty-one  years,  compounding  the  interest  at 
4$,  for  a  sum  of  money  paid  at  the  beginning  of  each  year  to 
equal  the  principal  or  sum  insured  and,  therefore,  enough  to  pay 
a  total  loss,  and  this  without  any  allowance  whatever  for  the 
expense  of  conducting  the  business.  Anyone  can  verify  this 
computation  for  himself.  One  dollar  collected  and  invested  at 
the  beginning  of  each  year,  the  interest  being  compounded  at  4 
per  cent.,  would  amount  to  $98.82  at  the  end  of  forty  years. 
Four  per  cent.,  it  is  unnecessary  to  add,  is  a  larger  return  of 
interest  than  insurance  companies  receive  under  existing  and 
proper  legislative  limitation  as  to  investments  in  safe  securities. 

The  most  reckless  gambler  would  not  give  such  odds  as  one 
hundred  to  one  against  the  happening  of  a  single  fire  within  a 
period  of  forty  years,  knowing  the  hundreds  of  ways  in  which  a 
fire  could  occur ;  and  the  property-owner  who  carries  his  own  risk 
is,  therefore,  taking  a  chance  of  losing  his  all  upon  odds  which 
a  professional  gambler  would  ridicule.  In  fact,  the  only  in- 
dividual who  can  afford  to  go  without  insurance  and  take  the 
risk  of  the  burning  of  his  own  property  is  one — if  there  be  one — 
who  has  hundreds  of  different  pieces  of  property,  all  of  the  same 
average  value  and  so  separated  that  no  two  could  be  destroyed 
by  the  happening  of  a  single  fire.  If  he  is  not  so  situated,  fire 
insurance  is  necessary  for  his  protection.  His  commercial  credit 
will  be  found  to  depend  upon  it ;  no  one  can  afford  to  sell  him 
goods  on  time  or  lend  him  money  if  he  is  not  insured,  for  his 


10  WHY  CANNOT  A  STATE  INSURE  ITS  CITIZENS. 

ability  to  pay  would  be  destroyed  by  a  fire  and  his  creditors 
would  find  that  they  had  practically  been  insuring  him  them- 
selves, without  the  compensation  that  a  prudent  insurance  com- 
pany, engaged  in  the  business  of  taking  risks,  would  have 
charged.  The  cost  of  insuring  a  frame  building  in  a  frame 
neighborhood  in  localities  beyond  the  protection  of  fire  depart- 
ments might  be  5  per  cent,  or  more ;  and  this  being  so,  the  mer- 
chant who  sells  goods  to  a  customer  who  does  not  insure  would 
practically  be  insuring  him  for  nothing  but  at  a  cost  equal  to,  or 
more  than,  the  profit  on  his  sales. 

It  is  this  ignorance  of  the  danger  of  fire,  due  to  the  limited 
experience  of  a  single  risk,  that  leads  to  mistaken  views  of  In- 
surance, which  requires  for  its  successful  conduct  as  a  business 
sufficient  knowledge  of  all  others  to  estimate  properly  the  fire 
hazards  of  their  methods.  The  owner  of  a  saw  mill  may  never 
have  suffered  from  fire ;  he  would  necessarily  be  ignorant,  there- 
fore, as  to  the  causes  of  fires  which  have  occurred  in  other  mills 
than  his  own ;  but  the  underwriter,  who  has  had  to  pay  for  losses 
on  thousands  of  properties,  is  not  and  cannot  afford  to  be  igno- 
rant. It  is  best  for  the  individual  to  entrust  this  branch  of  his 
worldly  affairs  to  those  who  understand  it,  for  the  same  reason 
that  he  entrusts  the  erection  of  his  building  to  the  architect,  car- 
penter and  mason. 

CANNOT  THE  STATE  SAFELY  CONDUCT  THE  BUS- 
INESS OF  INSURANCE  FOR  ITS  CITIZENS? 

Theoretically,  yes ;  but  practically  nothing  would  be  gained, 
the  chances  being  largely  in  favor  of  a  higher  cost  to  citizens 
and  poorer  management  than  would  result  from  the  conduct  of 
the  business  by  men  engaged  in  it  for  a  livelihood.  The  State 
would  need  the  same  clerical  and  expert  labor  as  would  an  in- 
surance company.  It  would  require  inspectors,  adjusters,  book- 
keepers, and  men  qualified  for  the  various  branches  of  the 
business  to  the  same  extent  that  insurance  companies  would, 
but  with  this  difference,  that  these  men  would  too  often  be 
appointed  for  political  reasons,  rather  than  because  of  personal 
qualifications  for  the  duties  to  be  discharged.  Is  there  more 
reason  why  the  State  should  conduct  the  business  of  insurance 
than  why  it  should  conduct  any  other  business — that  of  groceries, 


PROFITS  OF  THE  INSURANCE  BUSINESS. 


11 


dry  goods  or  manufacturing  ?  It  is  safe  to  say  that  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  labor  in  a  community  the  community  will  regulate 
itself.  No  single  calling  can  secure  an  undue  amount  of 
profit  without  attracting  to  it  enough  competitors  from 
other  callings  to  keep  prices  at  a  proper  level. 

What  would  have  been  the  burden  of  the  citizens  at  large  of 
the  two  states  of  Illinois  and  Massachusetts  if  they  had  been 
called  upon  to  pay  the  losses  of  their  two  cities  of  Chicago  and 
Boston  in  the  years  1871  and  1872?  Fortunately  for  them  the 
citizens  of  the  entire  country,  almost  of  the  entire  world,  con- 
tributed, through  the  fire  insurance  companies,  to  pay  the  mill- 
ions that  were  required  for  the  purpose. 

PROFITS  OF  THE  INSURANCE  BUSINESS. 

The  rates  obtained  by  insurance  companies  are  sufficient  simply 
to  insure  the  payment  of  losses  and  a  moderate  profit  on  the 
capital.  N~o  combination,  in  any  business  can  possibly  be 
injurious  to  the  public  if  it  furnishes  to  that  public  the 
article  produced  at  the  lowest  price  consistent  with  fair 
return  upon  the  capital  invested  and  proper  remuneration 
for  the  labor  employed.  The  statistics  of  all  the  companies 
engaged  in  the  business,  through  a  long  series  of  years,  show 
that  the  profits  of  the  business  of  insurance  have  been  less 
than  three  per  cent,  of  the  premiums  collected  and  that 
dividends  paid  to  stockholders  in  excess  of  that  per  cent, 
have  been  received  from  interest  returns  on  capital  and 
invested  surplus — an  increment  which  would  have  come  to  the 
owners  of  such  assets,  it  should  be  remembered,  without  placing 
them  at  the  risk  of  fire. 

The  laws  of  the  various  States  require  detailed  statements  of 
insurance  companies,  showing  every  item  of  their  income  and 
every  item  of  expense ;  the  amount  of  their  premiums  received 
and  of  losses  paid.  There  is,  in  fact,  no  other  business  whose 
methods,  income,  expenses,  losses  and  profits  are  thus  exploited 
for  the  information  of  the  public.  There  are  no  trade  secrets  in 
fire  insurance.  If  the  business  is  conducted  at  unnecessary  ex- 
pense or  with  undue  profit,  the  result  will  be  known  and  invite 
new  companies  to  enter  into  competition,  and  it  is  impossible  for 
any  single  company,  or  any  number  of  insurance  companies,  to 


12 


PI  BLISHED  STATEMENTS  OF  COMPANIES. 


maintain  any  form  of  monopoly. 

It  is  doubtful  if  any  mercantile  or  manufacturing  business 
could  live  if  obliged  thus  to  publish  at  the  end  of  each  year,  for 
the  information  of  competitors  and  customers,  the  fullest  details 
of  its  transactions.  Indeed,  if  the  laws  now  in  force  for  the 
regulation  of  the  business  of  fire  insurance— the  compulsory 
publication  of  accounts,  etc., — were  applied  to  other  branches  of 
business,  manufacturing  and  mercantile,  the  present  war  against 
so-called  "trusts"  and  combinations  in  those  branches  would  be 
unnecessary. 

What,  then,  has  been  the  protection  of  the  business  of  fire  in- 
surance that  it  has  been  able  to  survive  this  public  exhibit  of  all 
the  details  of  its  methods  and  its  exact  profits?  It  has  been  the 
fact  that  the  profit  of  the  business  lias  been  so  low  as  not  to  en- 
courage the  organization  of  companies.  Does  not  the  simple 
fact  that  the  public  shows  its  unwillingness  to  invest  in  insurance 
stocks  on  other  than  a  "six  per  cent,  basis,"  indicate  what  the 
published  figures  of  the  business  clearly  prove,  that  there  is  no 
abnormal  profit  in  it  and  that  investors  recognize  the  element  of 
risk  and  have  an  apprehension  of  the  facts,  or  surely  the  stocks 
would  find  purchasers  on  a  lower  basis  than  6  per  cent.?  The 
stocks  of  well-managed  railroads  are  to-day  selling  on  a  4  per 
cent,  basis. 

In  connection  with  this  should  be  taken  into  consideration  tha  t 
new  companies  can  be  easily  organized.  They  have  to  acquire 
no  "right  of  way,"  no  franchise  or  valuable  building  plant ;  there 
are  no  patent  rights  or  copyrights  involved ;  the  necessary  capital 
— and  the  law  does  not  require  a  large  one, — with  a  little  office 
furniture  and  stationery,  is  all  that  is  needed  to  launch  a  new  fire 
insurance  company.  Much  more  is  required  to  conduct  it  at  a 
profit.  Surely  the  written  and  unwritten  law  of  trade  and  the 
rules  of  competition  can  be  relied  upon  to  regulate  the  profits  of 
such  a  business  without  legislative  interference. 

ADEQUATE  RATES  ARE  IN  THE  INTEREST  OF  THE 

PUBLIC. 

As  already  stated,  the  ascertainment  of  the  average  percent- 
age of  loss,  to  be  correct,  involves  comparison  by  insurance  com- 
panies of  their  experience,  in  the  interest  of  the  property-owner, 


ADEQUATE  RATES  IN  INTEREST  OF  PUBLIC. 


13 


as  well  as  in  the  interest  of  the  insurance  companies;  for  an  in- 
accurate estimate  would  be  as  likely  to  be  too  high  as  too  low. 
If  it  is  too  high,  the  property-owner  will  be  called  upon  to  pay 
an  excessive  rate  of  premium ;  if  it  is  too  low,  the  company  will 
lose  money;  and  as  capital  is  simply  an  incident  of  security, 
grossly  inadequate  if  the  premium  should  prove  insufficient  for 
the  risk  run,  the  property-owner  would  not  secure  the  indemnity 
he  is  paying  for.  The  total  capital  of  all  the  fire  insurance  com- 
panies, domestic  and  foreign,  reporting  to  the  New  York  In- 
surance Department  at  the  close  of  1900,  was  less  than  eighty- 
nine  millions  (888,833,586),  while  the  amount  of  premiums  held 
by  them  for  their  insurance  in  force  was  one  hundred  and  four- 
teen millions  of  dollars  (81 14,129,232),  whereas  the  losses  paid 
for  the  single  year  named  were  eighty-nine  millions  ($89, 
566,340),  a  sum,  it  will  be  observed,  exceeding  the  total 
capital  of  all  the  companies  engaged  in  the  business. 

This  simple  but  significant  fact  shows  how  important  it  is  for 
the  community  at  large  that  the  average  rate  of  premium  of  the 
companies  should  be  high  enough  to  pay  the  losses  and  expenses, 
and  that  it  would  not  be  safe  to  rely  upon  the  capital  as  a 
security.  State  laws  recognize  this  fact  and  require  that  when- 
ever the  reserves  of  a  company  are  not  equal  to  its  liabilities  so 
that  its  capital  becomes  impaired,  the  company  must  immedi- 
ately make  good  its  capital  or  retire  from  business. 

PUBLIC  PREJUDICE  AGAINST  CORPORATIONS. 

Animosity  towards  corporations  grows  largely  out  of  mis- 
apprehension in  regard  to  them.  The  individual  citizen  does 
not  and  should  not  lose  his  rights  by  becoming  a  member  of  a 
corporation  any  more  than  by  becoming  a  member  of  a  partner- 
ship firm.  It  is  in  the  power  of  any  citizen  to  become  a  share- 
holder, even  though  his  means  are  limited.  One  hundred  dollars 
will  buy  a  share  in  a  new  insurance  company.  For  this  sum  he 
can  engage  in  a  business  which  he  may  not  understand  and 
secure  intelligent  management  and  expert  knowledge  which  he 
does  not  himself  possess. 

Corporations  enable  people  of  small  means,  by  joining 
forces  and  uniting  their  savings,  to  secure  the  same  advan- 
tages for  business  purposes  that  millionaire  capitalists 


1 1 


EXPENSE  OF  THE  INSURANCE  BUSINESS. 


enjoy;  and  a  corporation  thus  becomes  a  poor  man's  oppor- 
tunity. Were  it  not  for  corporations  millionaires  would  enjoy  a 
monopoly  of  all  large  enterprises  and  would  have  things  their 
own  way.  In  fact  millionaires,  if  they  should  act  on  strictly 
selfish  lines,  might  well  seek  to  do  away  with  corporations 
altogether.  Among  the  stockholders  of  insurance  companies, 
thousands  in  number,  are  widows  and  orphans,  who  are  thus 
enabled  to  keep  their  modest  capital  employed  and  to  have  an 
active  partnership  in  commercial  undertakings. 

THE  EXPENSE  OF  THE  INSURANCE  BUSINESS. 

It  is,  perhaps,  not  unnatural  tbat  property-owners,  having  in 
mind  only  the  simple  process  of  writing  a  policy  of  insurance  by 
an  agent  of  an  insurance  company  and  the  delivery  of  it  by  him 
to  the  assured  or  property-owner,  should  regard  the  expense  of 
transacting  the  business  as  merely  nominal.  They  overlook  the 
fact  that  a  greater  number  of  persons  of  various  qualifications 
must  be  employed  and  remunerated  before  the  policy  of  in- 
surance can  be  written  and  delivered  by  the  agent ;  and  that  the 
percentage  of  the  premium  required  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the 
business  (about  35  per  cent.)  is  not  greater  than  that  involved 
in  the  sale  of  merchandise — a  piece  of  calico,  for  example,  which 
includes  a  profit  to  the  planter  who  raises  the  cotton;  to  the 
compress  that  presses  it ;  to  the  commission  merchant  who  sells 
it ;  to  the  common  carrier  that  carries  it  to  the  mill ;  to  the  mill 
owner  who  manufactures  it  into  cloth,  including  his  operatives ; 
to  the  dye  and  print  establishment  that  prints  it ;  to  the  com- 
mission merchant  in  the  distributing  centre  of  a  great  uity  who 
sells  it ;  to  the  wholesale  merchant  who,  in  turn,  sells  to  the 
retailer,  who  in  turn  delivers  it  to  the  consumer.  All  of  these 
processes  involve  separate  remunerations  and  an  aggregate  per- 
centage of  expense  fully  equal  to  that  of  the  insurance  business, 
Avhich  requires  the  agent  in  the  town,  who  writes  and  delivers 
the  policy  of  insurance ;  the  expert  who  inspects  the  building 
from  time  to  time  during  the  term  of  the  policy ;  the  rating  ex- 
pert who  fixes  the  rate,  recognizing  every  point  of  construction, 
occupancy  and  environment ;  the  adjuster  who  must  adjust  the 
losses ;  the  accountants  and  book-keepers  in  the  offices  of  the 
company ;  and,  lastly,  the  executive  officers,  who  must  employ 
all  of  these  men,  supervise  their  work,  and  attend  to  the  invest- 


ANALYSIS  OF  EXPENSE  OF  INSURANCE  BUSINESS.  15 

ment  of  the  assets  and  reserves  of  the  company,  not  forgetting 
office  rent,  stationery,  blank  books,  printing,  postage,  and  last, 
but  not  least,  taxes — the  latter  seldom  less  than  two  and  a  half 
per  cent,  of  the  premium,  to  be  paid  whether  the  company 
makes  money  or  not.  So  that  it  is  doubtful  if  any  business  in- 
volves greater  necessary  outlay  or  requires  higher  executive 
ability  or  a  broader  education  as  to  the  methods  and  hazards  of 
all  other  occupations. 

The  expenses  of  the  insurance  business,  as  already  stated,  will 
be  found  to  be  not  far  from  35  per  cent.  Of  this  sum  15  per 
cent.,  would  be  required  for  the  compensation  of  the  local 
agents  in  the  cities  and  towns  throughout  the  country,  out  of 
which  they  have  to  pay  their  office  rent,  and  the  cost  of  con- 
veyances for  visiting  risks  to  inspect  them,  some  of  which 
would  be  located  in  the  country  on  farms,  for  example.  This 
percentage  on  the  average  premiums  often  amounts  after  a  hard 
day's  labor,  in  the  average  town,  to  little  more  than  the  wages 
of  a  skilled  mechanic.  To  secure  this  commission  the  agent 
must  inspect  each  building  carefully,  write  and  deliver  the 
policy,  collect  the  premium  and  remit  it  to  the  company  and 
report  all  the  facts  of  the  risk  to  the  principal  office,  maintaining 
supervision  of  it  throughout  the  life  of  the  policy  in  the  interest 
of  his  company,  to  detect  and  report  any  change  or  increase  in 
the  hazard. 

In  addition  to  this  percentage  paid  to  the  agent,  43^  per  cent. 
of  the  premium  would  be  required  for  adjusters  and  special 
agents,  traveling  inspecting  experts,  and  their  hotel  and  other 
traveling  expenses,  for  supervising  the  business,  going  from 
agency  to  agency.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  well  to  state 
that  money  expended  for  inspecting  buildings,  calling  the  at- 
tention of  ignorant  or  careless  property-holders  to  faults  of 
management  or  negligence,  to  faults  of  construction,  etc. ,  etc. , 
all  tending  to  prevent  fires,  and  especially  to  prevent  large  or 
sweeping  conflagrations,  is  money  actually  expended  in  the  in- 
terest of  the  public — the  property -owners  themselves. 

About  thirteen  per  cent,  would  be  necessary  to  pay  the 
official  staff  at  the  principal  office,  clerks,  book-keepers,  rent, 
advertising,  postage,  expressage,  printing,  stationery,  blank 
books,  etc.,  etc. 

Two  and  a  half  per  cent,  would  be  required  for  taxes.  In 


16 


TAXATION  OF  INSURANCE  COMPANIES. 


this  connection  it  will  probably  surprise  those  engaged  in  other 
lines  of  business  to  learn  that  insurance  companies  are  taxed, 
not  upon  the  profit  of  their  business,  but  upon  their  premiums, 
which  is  equivalent  to  taxing  a  merchant  2%  per  cent,  on  his 
sales.  It  sometimes  results  that  in  a  state  in  which  the  business 
has  been  unprofitable,  the  company  actually  pays  a  tax  for  the 
privilege,  of  leaving  more  money  in  the  state  than  it  takes  out  of 
it,  and  so  for  the  privilege  of  making  a  loss. 

There  have  been  years  when  the  insurance  companies  paid 
taxes  amounting  to  millions  of  dollars  when  their  total  business 
showed  a  loss. 

In  1889  there  was  a  loss  of  5,369,983  when  a  tax  was  paid  of  2,368,360 

1891  "       "        "         9,218,797     "         "  "  2,596,902 

1892  6,377,489     "         "  "  2,727,974 

1893  "  "  "  10,410,102  "  "  "  2,961,571 
1898     "       "         "         1,919,650     "          "  "  3,900,134 

$33,296,021  $14,554,941 

The  ratio  of  taxes  paid  to  net  gain  (i.  e.,  excess  of  premiums 
over  losses  and  expenses)  for  the  remaining  years  of  the  decade, 
viz.,  1888,  1890,  1894,  1895,  1896,  and  1897,  were  as  follows: 


Year. 

No.  of  Cos. 

Ratio  of  Taxes  to 
Net  Gain. 

1888 

152 

323.69 

1890 

148 

88.49 

1894 

121 

28.31 

1895 

121 

33.11 

IS'.lli 

134 

25.38 

1897 

152 

36.45 

Can  any  other  business  show  such  a  burden  of  taxation  ? 

As  the  insurance  company  must  collect  enough  from  property- 
owners  to  pay  its  losses  and  expenses  and  yield  a  living  profit, 
it  is  clear  that  the  citizens  of  a  state,  after  all,  must  pay  the 
tax,  with  the  expense  of  collecting  it  added — which  is  a  farce. 
A  tax  upon  the  profits,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  tax  upon  the  in- 
surance company  that  it  should  pay  without  complaining ;  while 
a  tax  upon  the  premium,  is  a  tax  upon  the  assured  property- 
owner  and  one  he  ought  not  to  pay.  No  insurance  company 
would  complain  of  being  taxed  2%  per  cent,  on  that  portion  of 
the  premiums  received  in  a  state  after  deducting  the  losses  and 
expenses  paid  to  its  citizens,  and  this  should  be  the  basis  of 


CO-OPERATION  OF  INSURANCE  COMPANIES. 


17 


taxation  everywhere.  Certainly  the  amount  paid  for  fire  losses 
should,  at  least,  be  deducted  and  insurance  agents  should  work 
to  secure  this  much  at  the  hands  of  the  legislature. 

Are   Local   Boards,    Combinations   of    Fire    Underwriters  for 
Rate  Making,  &o,  Inimical  to  the  Interests  of 
Property-holders. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  relation  of  insurance  to  the  community 
has  been  explained  in  such  manner  as  to  secure  a  negative  to 
this  important  question  and  that  the  following  facts  have  been 
established. 

First — That  Fire  Insurance  is  a  commercial  and  com- 
munity necessity: 

Second — Ttiaf  a  policy  of  fire  insurance  is  a  contract  of 
indent  n  ity;  and 

Third — That  the  reliability  of  the  indemnity  depends  up- 
on the  sufficiency  of  the  rate  of  premium;  because 

1.  State  laws  properly  require  that  if  the  capital  is  impaired 
it  must  be  made  good,  or  the  company  must  cease  doing  business. 
If  companies  cannot  pay  their  losses  and  expenses  and  secure  a 
fair  profit  return  on  the  capital  adventured  they  will  neither  be 
organized  nor  continue  in  business  if  already  organized;  there- 
fore, capital  is  only  an  incident  of  the  business  and  an  adequate 
rate  is  indispensable.  Insurance  capital  must  and  should  have 
a  fair  return  for  the  risk  run — a  law  of  community. 

2.  Adequate  and  equitable  rates  based  upon  the  merits  and 
demerits  of  each  risk  are  necessary  for  the  protection  of  the 
policy-holder  as  well  as  for  the  protection  of  the  stock-holder. 
*  >therwise  the  burden  of  insurance  will  be  unequally  distributed 
and  one  man's  property,  if  insured  below  a  proper  rate,  will  be 
protected  at  the  expense  of  another. 

3.  As  inspection  and  supervision  necessary  for  the  ascer- 
tainment of  correct  rates  can  be  as  cheaply  performed  for  one 
hundred  companies  insuring  a  single  building  or  risk  as  for  any 
one  of  them,  co-operation  is  advisable  to  reduce  the  expense 
percentage.  At  the  same  time  it  would  reduce  the  loss  per- 
centage by  securing  correction  of  faults  which  would  cause 
fires  and  by  encouraging  proper  construction  which  would  tend 


18  CO-OPERATION  OF  INSURANCE  COMPANIES. 

to  prevent  their  spread,  and  so  result  in  cheaper  insurance  to 
property-owners.  In  this  view,  co-operation  of  insurance  com- 
panies is  directly  in  the  interest  of  the  community  and  should  be 
encouraged  and  not  prohibited.  Laws  which  prevent  companies 
from  co-operating  in  this  way,  compelling  each  company  to  in- 
spect each  building  for  itself,  must  increase  the  expenses  of 
transacting  the  business  and  result  in  unnecessarily  higher  rates 
of  premium. 

4.  As  the  labor  required  to  ascertain  and  fix  proper  and 
equitable  rates  for  a  building  and  its  contents  can  be  performed 
by  the  same  expert  in  the  same  time  for  one  hundred  companies 
who  insure  it  as  for  any  one  of  them,  co-operation  to  ascertain 
and  fix  rates  would  result  in  a  saving  of  this  expense  also,  and 
so  further  cheapen  the  cost  of  insurance  to  the  property-owner 
and  be  directly  in  the  interest  of  the  public. 

5.  As  rates  of  insurance  are  based  upon  the  experience  of 
the  companies  through  terms  of  years  on  the  various  classes  of 
hazard,  most  of  which  are  so  few  in  number  that  there  would 
not  be  enough  of  a  class  in  a  single  state  or  on  the  books  of  a 
single  company  to  determine  the  experience  cost  of  insuring 
them,  the  statistics  of  experience  should,  in  justice  to  the  own- 
ers of  such  risks,  be  collated  from  the  whole  country,  and  not 
based  upon  the  abnormal  loss  ratio  of  a  small  class  in  a  single 
state,  which  would  indicate  the  necessity  for  an  exorbitant  rate 
on  the  class  in  such  state,  when  in  fact  it  might  not  be  neces- 
sary. 

6.  The  burden  of  insurance  rates  should  be  graded  according 
to  the  percentage  of  insurance  carried  to  value,  just  as  munici- 
pal and  state  taxes  are  based  upon  uniform  assessments  of  the 
same  percentage  of  value;  and  the  property-owner  who  insures 
a  proper  percentage  of  his  value  is  entitled  to  a  lower  rate 
than  one  who  insures  a  small  percentage,  there  being  a 
difference  between  the  cost  of  insuring  different  percentages  of 
value  greater  even  than  the  difference  between  that  of  whole- 
sale and  retail  prices  in  mercantile  business.  Otherwise  one 
class  of  citizens  would  be  securing  insurance  at  a  lower  cost 
than  another  and,  therefore,  at  the  expense  of  another.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  insurance  is  itself  a  tax,  and  the 
cost  of  the  tax  should  be  apportioned  fairly  or  equalized  among 


CO-OPERATION  OF  COMPANIES  NECESSARY. 


L9 


all  contributing,  not  only  according  to  faults  of  construction 
and  other  features  that  add  to  the  hazard  of  fire,  but  according 
to  the  percentage  of  the  value  insured.  If,  as  has  been  well 
said,  "It  would  be  the  height  of  absurdity  for  a  municipality 
to  attempt  to  establish  and  collect  a  rate  of  taxation  without  an 
assessment  of  the  value  of  each  piece  of  property  taxed,  and 
no  community  would  attempt  such  an  absurdity,"  it  would  be 
an  equal  absurdity  to  charge  those  property-owners  who  insure 
only  a  small  percentage  of  their  value  at  the  same  rate  as  those 
who  insure  a  proper  percentage  and  then  base  the  rate  charged 
to  both  on  the  percentage  of  the  total  losses  to  the  total  premi- 
ums, with  the  inevitable  result  of  placing  the  burden  unduly 
upon  those  who  have  contributed  most  liberally  to  the  common 
loss  and  expense.  Co-operation  of  companies,  therefore,  is 
necessary  to  provide  for  this  in  percentage  co-insurance  clauses 
in  all  policies. 

It  follows,  therefore,  since  co-operation  is  necessary 

To  ascertain  cost ; 

To  ascertain  and  secure  adequate  rates  for  indemnity ; 

To  prevent  fires  and  thus  cheapen  the  cost  of  insurance ; 

To  divide  and  lessen  expense  and  so  to  further  cheapen  the 
cost  of  insurance ; 

To  secure  that  the  same  percentage  of  insurance  should  be 
carried  by  all  owners  or  a  difference  in  rate  made — the  princi- 
ple of  co-insurance  or  average  which  has  always  been  a  feature 
of  marine  insurance ; 

That  the  conference  of  insurance  companies  and  their  co- 
operation must  be  in  the  interest  not  only  of  the  companies 
themselves,  but  of  their  customers,  the  insuring  public. 

Co-operation  in  insurance  is,  therefore,  not  a  "trust,"  in  the 
modern  and  ordinary  acceptation  of  the  term,  by  which  is 
meant  a  combination  of  those  engaged  in  a  particular  business 
to  extort  improper  prices  from  their  fellow-members  of  the 
community  and  so  to  obtain  an  undue  share  of  community 
benefit.  There  is  not  now  and  never  has  been,  any  "pooling" 
in  the  business  of  insurance.  The  ease  with  which  any  number 
of  citizens  can  organize  an  insurance  company  will  always 
prevent  a  monopoly  of  the  business,  and  those  engaged  in  it  can 


0,1 


IMPORTANCE  OF  FIKE  1NSFKANCK. 


always  be  relied  upon,  in  their  own  interests,  to  regulate  their 
prices  with  reference  to  this  important  fact.  Exorbitant  rates 
and  abnormal  profits  always  attract  competition,  which  results 
in  inadequate  rates,  and  those  engaged  in  the  business  thor- 
oughly understand  this.  Managed  on  true  underwriting  lines, 
an  insurance  company  is  simply  a  great  machine  for  distributing 
the  burden  of  the  fire  loss  of  the  individual  citizen  among  his 
neighbors  throughout  the  entire  country,  so  that  the  burden  of 
helping  one  who  is  unfortunate  will  be  lightly  felt  by  all.  It 
is  the  truest  and  most  sensible  method  of  carrying  out  the 
scriptural  injunction  as  to  the  distribution  of  burthens,  and  it  is 
amenable  to  the  laws  of  trade  which  automatically  regulate  the 
profits  of  all  commercial  enterprises  so  that  no  one  class  of 
citizens  can  long  retain  any  undue  advantage  of  their  neighbors 
or  any  improper  share  of  the  community  wealth.* 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  FIRE  INSURANCE. 

The  Importance  of  Fire  Insurance  and  its  influence  upon  com- 
merce and  manufactures  are  not  generally  understood  or  ap- 
preciated. Even  the  reflecting  are  apt  to  think  that,  becan si- 
Fire  Insurance  was  almost  unknown  before  the  last  century, 
and  has  only  grown  to  importance  within  the  present  one/  the 
business  world  could  dispense  with  it  as  easily  as  did  our  an- 
cestors. They  forget  that  it  has  become  a  necessity  of  trade; 
that  without  its  assuring  protection,  undertakings  of  the  magni- 
tude at  present  readily  assumed,  would  never  be  attempted ; 
ventures  are  made,  without  hesitation,  which  would  appall  those 
embarking  in  them  if  liable  to  miscarry  through  a  single  fire ; 
large  values  are  boldly  collected  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
commerce,  where  an  accidental  conflagration  might  destroy 
them  in  a  night ;  loans  are  made  by  the  capitalist  on  insured 
buildings  for  many  times  the  value  of  the  land  on  which  they 
stand,  simply  because  the  insurance  policy,  as  collateral  between 
him  and  loss,  makes  them  valuable  for  security ;  merchants  sell 

*I  have  drawn  largely  in  the  preceding  pages  on  a  compilation  made  by  a 
committee,  of  which  I  was  chairman,  for  the  purpose  of  having  in  our  hands, 
when  confronted  with  adverse  legislation,  carefully  prepared  arguments  to 
offer  to  members  of  the  legislature.  The  pamphlet  is  entitled  "Fire  Insurance," 
and  is  published  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters.  Any  agent 
wishing  copies  of  the  pamphlet  for  use  can  secure  them  by  writing  to  the 
General  Agent  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  New  York. 


IMPORTANCE  OF  FIRE  INSURANCE. 


21 


their  goods  on  extended  credits,  knowing  that,  although  the 
misfortune  of  fire  may  overtake  the  purchaser,  his  insurance 
indemnity  will  enable  him  to  pay  for  them  not  less  readily  than 
before ;  vast  industries  giving  employment  to  thousands  of  oper- 
atives and  supporting  whole  towns  by  their  enterprise,  testify 
not  more  to  the  energy  of  their  projectors  than  to  the  confidence 
they  repose  in  the  protection  which  insurance  extends  to  their 
undertakings,  and  to-day,  insurance  is  as  certainly  a  necessity 
of  commerce  and  manufacture  as  is  the  railroad  or  telegraph, 
or  steam-power  itself.  All  transactions  of  any  magnitude  recog- 
nize it  as  an  essential  factor.  It  is  closely  and  inseparably  in- 
terwoven with  every  scheme  of  profit  and  trade,  a  strong, 
continuous  warp-thread  which  lends  security  to  the  fabric  and, 
without  which,  it  is  doubtful  if  the  temerity  of  capitalists 
would  meet  the  necessities  of  the  poorer  population  for  em- 
ployment! 

In  this  view  it  becomes  a  serious  question  as  to  what  might 
be  the  result  if  this  important  factor  of  all  business  calculations 
were  suddenly  to  be  eliminated ;  if  the  wholesale  destruction  of 
property,  such  as  occurred  at  Chicago  and  Boston,  for  instance, 
and  which  is  liable  to  be  repeated  elsewere,  should,  some  day, 
check  the  recuperative  power  of  companies,  i.  e. ,  the  inclina- 
tion of  stockholders  to  advance  new  capitals.  Can  the  con- 
sequences be  even  approximately  estimated  of  the  sudden  and 
inevitable  result  of  contracted  enterprise  and  over-cautious  in- 
vestment and  the  calling  in  of  mortgage  loans  above  the  mere 
value  of  the  land  on  wh  ich  expensive  structures  stand. 

No  one  can  estimate  the  consequences  if  a  fire,  as  extensive 
in  the  area  covered  as  that  of  Chicago,  should  take  place  in 
New  York — the  peculiar  resort,  for  business,  of  insurance  com- 
panies— and  what  city  is  secure  from  destruction?  Scarcely  had 
the  underwriters  of  Boston  ceased  congratulating  themselves 
upon  their  substantial  buildings,  efficient  fire  department,  and 
immunity  from  the  high  winds  of  the  western  metropolis,  ere 
they  sank  beneath  the  overwhelming  calamity  of  their  own  city ! 

Is  the  subject  not  a  serious  one  for  the  country,  and  worthy 
the  profound  consideration  ot  statesman  and  financier,  of  cap- 
italist and  laboring  man  ? 

If  we  compare  the  slow  recovery  of  London  from  its  great 


QUALIFICATIONS  OF  AN  UNDERWRITER. 


fire  of  1666  with  the  wonderful  reproduction  of  Chicago  and 
the  substantial  and  rapid  restoration  of  Boston,  can  we  doubt 
that  the  great  recuperative  power  of  both  cities  was  due  to  their 
insurance  indemnity,  and  that,  without  it,  they  might  still  be 
struggling,  to  attain  to  the  prosperity  which  they  reached  within 
three  months  after  their  destruction ! 

In  Chicago  alone  the  amount  paid  by  the  underwriters  to  its 
citizens  was  nearly  sixty  millions  of  dollars — almost,  if  not  quite, 
one-half  of  their  entire  loss — while  in  Boston  a  still  larger  pro- 
portion of  the  loss  was  made  up  by  the  insurance  companies. 

Vast  and  important  responsibilities  rest  upon  the  officers  and 
agents  of  insurance  companies  to  so  strengthen  the  companies 
they  represent,  not  only  by  avoiding  unprofitable  risks  and  in- 
adequate rates,  but  by  the  energetic  and  judicious  accumulation 
of  such  a  number  of  distributed  risks  as  will  enable  them  to 
meet  exceptional  disasters  and  extraordinary  losses. 

That  he  may  properly  discriminate  between  safe  and  unsafe 
risks,  and  decide  as  to  adequate  rates  of  premium,  it  must  be 
evident  that  the  information  of  an  underwriter  should  be  varied 
and  extensive.  He  should  know,  if  possible,  something  of  every 
other  business  whose  hazard  he  undertakes  to  insure. 

There  is  probably  no  calling  requiring  so  intimate  a  knowledge 
of  every  other  as  this.  He  who  assumes  the  risk  of  a  flour  mill, 
for  example,  should  know  more  of  its  dangers  than  the  miller 
himself.  Indeed,  it  is  doubtful  if  an  underwriter  can  be  too 
well  informed  on  any  subject,  or  that  he  would  be  too  well 
qualified  for  his  profession  if  he  could  serve  a  fife-time  at  every 
other.  Drawing  a  greater  number  of  contracts  in  a  year  than  do 
many  lawyers  in  a  life-time,  and  standing  often  face  to  face 
with  the  most  perplexing  questions  of  jurisprudence,  it  may  be 
questioned  if  he  should  know  less  of  law  than  does  the  attorney 
who  has  made  it  his  profession. 

Seriously  affected  by  every  discovery  of  tne  chemist,  and 
liable,  at  any  moment,  to  have  his  chances  of  loss  on  whole 
classes  of  risks  alarmingly  increased  by  new  chemical  combi- 
nations which  follow  each  other  as  rapidly  as  the  changes  of  a 
kaleidoscope,  he  should  know  not  less  of  them  all  than  does  the 
chemist  himself. 

In  short,  there  is  scarcely  a  science,  art  or  manufacture  with 


ORDER  OF  ARRANGEMENT. 


23 


which  he  should  not  be  more  or  less  familiar,  and  if  the  success- 
ful conduct  of  any  one  business  or  calling  requires  a  life-time  of 
study  and  application,  how  much  more  should  the  business  of 
insurance — which  demands  a  knowledge  more  or  less  intimate 
of  every  other — require  life-long  study  and  the  closest  and  most 
constant  observation ! 

In  the  following  pages  it  has  been  my  aim  to  place  before 
agents,  as  briefly  as  possible,  such  facts  as  have  been  demon- 
strated in  a  business  extended  over  the  entire  country  for  many 
years,  the  statistics  of  which  have  been  carefully  preserved  and 
closely  studied.  During  this  time  we  have  had  ample  oppor- 
tunity to  observe  the  successes  or  misfortunes  of  other  companies 
in  the  same  business,  and  we  think  no  intelligent  agent,  in  the 
conduct  of  our  business  at  least,  will  insist  upon  substituting 
for  theories  of  cause  and  prevention,  of  profit  and  loss,  of  ad- 
equate rates  and  desirable  risks,  which  we  present  for  his  con- 
sideration and  guidance,  any  opinions  he  may  himself  have 
formed,  from  a  less  extensive  experience  in  a  more  contracted 
field  of  observation. 

ARRANGEMENT. 

While  it  is  hoped  that  the  following  work  will  be  found  to 
contain  much  that  will  prove  interesting  to  the  experienced 
underwriter,  as  well  as  to  the  unprofessional  reader;  the  ar- 
rangement of  it,  from  beginning  to  end,  has  been  with  reference 
to  that  natural  order  or  sequence  in  which  an  inexperienced 
agent — one  who  is  just  entering  upon  the  duties  of  his  new  call- 
ing— would  be  most  likely  to  have  occasion  to  refer  to  its  pages. 

In  accordance  with  this  plan,  the  opening  chapters  after  treat- 
ing of  the  importance  op  FIRE  insurance  and  of  the  relation 
of  the  agent  to  his  company,  explain  the  books,  papers  and  other 
agency  supplies  sent  to  him  as  an  outfit,  including  his  com- 
mission of  authority,  defining  his  powers  as  agent;  together  with 
numerous  useful  hints  as  to  the  importance  of  soliciting. 

He  is,  then,  instructed  as  to  the  inspection  of  risks;  con- 
sidering, under  this  head,  first,  the  moral  hazard,  or  most 
important  feature  of  a  risk  and  applicant,  and,  afterward,  the 
physical  hazard — first,  as  to  the  external  physical  hazard  of 


24 


ORDER  OK  ARRANGEMENT. 


EXPOSURES,  which,  like  the  moral  hazard,  should  be  satisfactory 
before  the  risk  itself  is  entertained — then  the  internal  physical 
hazard  of  construction,  occupation,  and  condition,  as  to 
cleanliness,  or  negligence  of  tenants,  pointing  out  the  dangers 

Of  FIRES  FROM  CARELESSNESS,  SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION,  un- 
safe KEROSENE,  GAS  MACHINES,  and  other  CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 

Then  follow  suggestions  as  to  fire  departments  and  water 
supply;  instructions  as  to  rates  and  LINES;  instructions  as  to 
the  writing  OF  policies,  with  the  best  methods  of  insuring 
the  various  interests  in  property;  directions  as  to  the  manner  of 
reporting  risks  to  the  company,  both  by  daily  and  monthly 
report,  with  full  instructions  as  to  the  MAKING  OF  diagrams 
and  sundry  rules  governing  the  conduct  of  CORRESPONDENCE; 
instructions  as  to  cancelation,  where  such  action  may  be 
necessary,  and  tables  of  short  rates;  directions  as  to  How 
to  proceed  in  case  of  fire  and  how  to  proceed  in  case 
of  loss  ;  followed  by  explicit  instructions  as  to  the  inspection 
of  special  hazards,  with  a  list  of  risks,  alphabetically 
arranged  for  reference,  showing  special  features  of  manufact- 
uring and  other  hazards;  the  whole  concluding  with  a  collection 
of  forms  for  policies,  endorsements,  transfers,  privileges,  etc. 

The  reader  will  observe  that  the  arrangement  of  the  work, 
throughout,  is  indicated  by  the  running  heads  of  pages  and  by 
the  "face  type,"  which  has  been  employed  to  give  prominence  to 
the  rules  and  practice  of  the  Company,  the  smaller  type  having 
been  reserved  for  explanations  and  statistics. 


AGENCY  SUPPLIES,  INSURANCE  BLANKS,  BOOKS 
OF  ACCOUNT,  &c,  &c. 

It  is  obviously  necessary  that  an  agent  should  understand  the 
supplies,  blanks,  &c.,  furnished  him  by  the  company.  They 
are  the  following : 

Commission  as  Agent. — Some  companies  require  that  this  should 
be  fastened  in  the  front  part  of  the  policy  register ;  others  that  it 
should  be  framed  and  kept  in  sight.  It  should  be  carefully  pre- 
served so  that  it  may  be  found  if,  at  any  time,  the  company 
should  recall  it.  It  is  probably  needless  to  say  that  the  com- 
mission defines  the  powers  of  the  agent,  and  that  if  he  takes  any 
action  which  is  ultra  vires,  or  beyond  the  powers  conferred  upon 
him,  he  will  become  responsible  to  his  principal,  on  the  one  hand, 
for  any  injury  it  might  sustain  by  his  action,  and  to  a  claimant, 
on  the  other  hand,  if  he  should  suffer  by  reason  of  the  assumed 
powers  which  the  agent  does  not  possess. 

Policy  Register. — This  is  a  book  in  which  all  insurance  policies 
or  contracts,  renewals  and  endorsements  are  to  be  entered  on 
the  day  the  insurance  is  made  binding;  and  from  this  entry 
the  policy  itself  should  be  copied — a  mechanical  rule  which  will 
insure  that  a  proper  record  is  kept  of  every  transaction.  Where 
the  agent  writes  the  policy  first  and  copies  it  into  the  register 
afterwards,  there  is  danger  of  omitting  to  make  the  record.  The 
policy  register  is  the  property  of  the  company  and  is  to  be  con- 
sidered confidential  and  must  not  be  exhibited  to  anyone  without 
the  consent  or  authority  of  the  company. 

Policies. — It  is  probably  unnecessary  to  state  that  the  policy  is 
the  form  of  contract  furnished  by  the  company,  signed  in  blank 
by  its  officers,  but  not  valid  until  countersigned  by  the  agent. 
A  careful  record  of  the  policies  is  kept  in  the  office  of  the  com- 
pany, and  the  agent  should  keep  them  in  a  safe  place  where  they 
could  not  fall  into  dishonest  hands.    He  is  charged  with  the 


2t; 


AGENCY  BLANKS,   SUPPLIES,  ETC. 


number  sent  him,  from  time  to  time,  and  credited  with  the  num- 
ber written  and  with  the  blanks  returned  to  the  company  as 
"spoiled",  canceled  or  "not  taken";  the  agent  being  careful  to 
forward  such  blanks  to  the  company  at  once. 

Daily  Reports. — These  are  blanks  for  reporting  risks  to  the 
company.  They  are  self-explanatory,  and  the  instructions  on 
them  should  be  literally  followed  and  all  questions  answered. 
The  Daily  Report  should  be  mailed  to  the  company  on  the  day 
the  risk  is  made  binding,  in  order  that  the  company  may  be 
promptly  informed,  so  that  in  case  its  records  show  reason  for 
declining  to  insure  the  party,  it  may  avoid  a  loss.  It  is  there- 
fore dangerous  to  delay.  If  a  daily  report  is  not  so  mailed  the 
name  becomes  a  misnomer. 

Monthly  Account  Blanks. — For  reporting  the  business  of  the 
month.  Should  be  forwarded  promptly  on  the  last  day  of  the 
month ;  not  later,  in  any  case,  than  the  first  of  the  month  follow- 
ing. 

Endorsement  Reports. — These  are  smaller  blanks  than  the  daily 
reports,  for  reporting  all  endorsements  made  upon  policies,  such 
as  changes  of  ownership,  assignments,  removal  of  property  from 
one  building  to  another,  &c. 

Expiration  Notices. — The  best  expiration  notice  for  a  desirable 
risk  is  the  renewal  itself,  or  a  new  policy  (where  the  company 
does  not  issue  renewal  blanks — and  most  do  not),  placed  by  an 
active  agent  in  the  hands  of  the  assured  at  least  thirty  days 
before  the  expiration  of  the  risk. 

Book  of  Instructions. — This  is  the  property  of  the  company  and 
is  to  be  returned  if  the  agency  is  withdrawn. 

Insurance  Maps. — These  are  made  by  map  companies.  The 
insurance  company  retains  a  duplicate,  and  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  refer  on  the  daily  report  to  a  building  insured  by  its 
street  and  block  number  to  indicate  the  risk,  saving  the  agent 
the  trouble  of  making  a  diagram,  unless  some  change  has  been 
made  in  the  building  or  its  surroundings  after  the  map  was 
issued,  in  which  case  advise  the  company  and  send  a  new  dia- 
gram to  correct  the  map. 

Applications,  Surveys.  &c. — The  company  will  furnish  proper 
applications  for  the  various  kinds  of  hazards — farm  and  home- 


ADVERTISING  MATERIAL,  ETC. 


2? 


stead  property,  dwelling  houses,  manufacturing  risks,  &c.  An 
application  should  in  all  cases  be  taken  for  farm  property;  com- 
panies do  not  always  require  one  in  the  case  of  dwellings,  school- 
houses  and  risks  under  the  immediate  and  daily  supervision  of 
the  agent.  The  agent  should  remember,  however,  that  personal 
inspection  of  every  risk  is  indispensable. 
Envelopes. — Large,  addressed  to  company. 
Small 

For  policies. 

Large  plain,  for  writing  to  customers. 
Small  " 

Advertising  Material. — Will  be  furnished  by  the  company,  in- 
cluding Circulars,  in  English  and  German. 
Blotting  Pads. 
Calendars. 

Large  Show  Cards,  framed  and  unframed,  for 
office. 

Metal  Signs,  for  the  outside  of  office. 
House  Plates,  &c.    These  latter  are  seldom  used, 
except  in  some  localities. 

All  advertising  material  should  be  judiciously  used  and  care- 
fully secured  from  injury  by  dust,  Sec.  Requisition  should  not 
be  made  upon  the  company  for  material  which  the  agent  does 
not  intend  to  distribute.  Otherwise  the  company  will  be  sub- 
jected to  an  expense  which,  multiplied  by  a  large  number  of 
agencies,  would  be  considerable,  and  which  a  loyal  agent  would 
wish  to  save.  In  making  requisitions  for  supplies  the  agent 
should  examine  the  requisition  slip  of  the  company  carefully  to 
see  just  what  supplies  are  needed,  and  the  probable  quantity, 
and  not  order  any  he  cannot  use.  To  save  unnecessary  postage 
and  express  charges,  however,  a  requisition  should  be  complete 
for  all  supplies  needed  or  likely  to  be  needed  in  the  immediate 
fixture,  so  as  to  save  the  time  and  expense  of  later  shipments. 

Do  iwt  pay  any  express  charges  on  packages  received 
(they  are  always  prepaid),  unless  the  package  is  needed  and  the 
express  company  refuses  to  leave  it  without  collecting,  in  which 
case  take  a  receipt  and  forward  to  the  company,  explaining  the 
matter,  so  that  it  may  recover  the  amount  at  its  principal  office. 


28 


AGENT'S  COMMISSION  COMPENSATION. 

The  commission  or  compensation  allowed  to  agents  by  the  com- 
panies has,  for  many  years,  been  15$  of  the  premiums  collected. 
Some  companies  advocate  a  mixed  or  profit-sharing  commission, 
consisting  of  10$  of  the  amount  of  the  premium  written  and  a 
further  15$  of  the  profits  at  the  end  of  the  year,  to  be  computed 
by  deducting  from  the  premiums  remitted  to  the  company  the 
losses  and  expenses  incurred  at  the  agency.  This  would  tend  to 
make  agents  interested  in  results  and  would  enable  those  agents 
who  are  careful  as  to  inspection  and  supervision  to  receive  more 
money  than  those  who  are  careless  or  indifferent.  The  whole 
matter  is  naturally  the  subject  of  agreement  between  the  agent 
and  his  company. 

It  should  lie  the  aim  of  an  agent  not  merely  to  seek  the  better 
class  of  risks,  but  to  induce  owners  to  improve  those  which 
are  not  desirable  by  reforms  in  management,  construction . 
&c.  He  will  thus  increase  his  own  income  and  that  of  his 
company  and  benefit  the  community  in  which  he  lives.  An 
agent  can  only  expect  to  retain  his  companies  by  doing  a  profi- 
table business  for  them,  and  in  case  he  should  lose  the  agency 
through  losses  due  to  his  negligence  or  poor  judgment  he  may 
find  it  difficult  to  secure  others.  The  time  lost  in  trying  to 
induce  companies  of  experience  to  accept  poor,  high  rated  risks 
which,  notwithstanding  their  high  rates,  may  be  unprofitable, 
will  be  found  to  more  than  balance  any  extra  amount  of  com- 
mission obtained  on  them. 

An  examination  of  the  total  business  of  all  the  companies  for 
years  past  will  show  that,  at  15$,  the  commission  of  the  agent 
amounts  to  more  than  three  times  the  average  profits  of  success- 
ful companies  on  their  business.  The  agent,  therefore,  without 
running  any  risk  of  invested  capital,  is  really  better  paid  than 
his  company.  Statistics  of  all  the  companies  engaged  in  the 
business,  through  a  long  series  of  years,  show  that  the  profits  of 
the  business  of  insurance  have  been  less  than  three  per  cent  of 
the  premiums  collected. 

INTEREST  OF  AGENT  AND  COMPANY  IDENTICAL. 

It  must  be  evident  that  the  interests  of  the  agent  and  the  com- 
pany are  identical.    If  the  company  is  conservative  and  well 


INTEREST  OF  COMPANY  AND  AGENT  IDENTICAL.  29 

managed  and  the  agent  successful  and  energetic,  the  connection 
is  likely  to  prove  a  permanent  one.  No  company  would  wish  to 
change  an  agent  who  steadily  makes  money  for  it,  and  the 
agency  of  a  conservative  company  may,  therefore,  safely  he  re- 
garded as  a  reliance  for  the  lifetime  of  the  agent  and  a  legacy  to 
his  family.  It  not  infrequently  happens  that  the  widow  of  an 
agent  is  able  to  conduct  the  business  of  the  agency  after  the  de- 
cease of  her  husband.  It  is,  therefore,  very  important  for  an 
agent  to  assure  himself  before  entering  into  so  important  a  re- 
lation that  the  company  he  is  to  represent  is  worthy  of  his  best 
efforts.  Nothing  can  be  more  humiliating  or  embarrassing  than 
for  an  active  and  intelligent  man  to  discover,  after  months  or 
years  of  honest  labor,  that  the  company  with  which  he  has 
identified  himself,  and  in  which  he  has  persuaded  his  friends  to 
insure,  has  been  unsound  from  the  start  and  is  unreliable  in  the 
hour  of  need.  The  business  of  a  lifetime  may  thus  be  lost  by 
building  on  an  unsafe  beginning. 

It  is  difficult  to  convince  customers  who,  in  the  hour  of  disaster, 
discover  that  their  policies  are  worthless,  that  the  agent  upon 
whom  they  relied  for  a  proper  understanding  of  his  business  and 
an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  company  he  represents,  has  acted 
honorably  and  in  good  faith  towards  them ;  for,  while  the  failure 
of  numerous  insurance  companies  during  the  last  few  years  has 
led  most  men  to  examine  for  themselves  into  the  standing  of  com- 
panies in  which  to  insure,  there  are  still  many  business  men  who 
rely  implicitly  upon  the  recommendations  of  the  agent,  especially 
if  he  is  a  personal  friend,  as  to  the  reliability  of  his  companies; 
and  they  do  not  fail  to  hold  him  strictly  to  account  if  they  lose 
by  reason  of  his  neglect  to  inform  himself  as  to  the  facts. 
Although  an  agent  may  represent  twenty  good  companies,  the 
failure  of  a  single  "wild  cat,"  dishonest  company  might  lose  for 
him  the  confidence  of  the  public. 

It  is  a  cruel  wrong  to  a  confiding  patron  to  leave  him  in 
the  hour  of  his  misfortune  with  a  worthless  policy. 

The  Relation  a  Confidential  One.— Though  an  agent  may  repre- 
sent many  different  companies,  his  relation  to  each  is  that  of  a 
separate,  individual  trust.  All  of  its  books  and  letters  of  in- 
structions are  strictly  confidential  and  should  be  shown  to  no 
one  without  its  consent. 


30 


POWERS  OF  AN  AGENT. 


An  Agency  may  be  withdrawn  at  any  time  and  the  commission 
rescinded,  if  the  company  so  elects.  This  provision  will  he  found 
in  the  commission  of  appointment.  On  the  other  hand,  the  agent 
can,  of  course,  resign  the  company  whenever  he  chooses. 

POWERS  OF  AN  AGENT. 

These  are  plainly  defined  in  his  commission  of  authority  and 
in  the  printed  iind  written  instructionsof  the  company.  He  can- 
not delegate  them,  and  his  policies  and  renewals  signed  by  any- 
one else,  even  though  by  his  direction,  are  absolutely  void  and 
of  no  effect. 

He  cannot  exceed  the  powers  expressly  given  to  him,  or  bind 
his  principal  in  any  other  direction  than  as  expressly  laid  down 
in  his  instructions  and  commission ;  and  to  attempt  to  do  so  would 
only  make  him  liable  to  a  party  suffering  loss  in  consequence  of 
an  unwarranted  assumption  of  authority. 

The  most  serious  and  inexcusable  mistakes  are  sometimes 
made  by  agents  as  to  their  powers,  some  even  inferring  that  the 
mere  promulgation  by  the  company  of  a  printed  tariff  of  rates 
implies  authority  to  write  upon  any  risk  mentioned  in  it.  The 
only  safe  rule  for  an  agent  is  to  refer  to  his  commission  and  pol- 
icies and  to  assume  that  powers  not  expressly  granted  are,  for 
some  good  reason,  withheld.  In  case  his  commission  is  not 
sufficiently  liberal  to  meet  the  necessities  of  his  business,  he 
should  write  to  the  company  and  explain  the  circumstances. 

Under  no  circumstances  should  he  issue  a  policy  on  prop- 
erty located  outside  his  territory.    It  would  he  void. 

SOLICITING. 

The  success  of  an  agent  depends  largely,  if  not  entirely,  upon 
energetic  and  intelligent  solicitation.  Personal  visits,  oft  re- 
peated, to  property-owners,  displaying  tact  not  less  than  talent, 
can  alone  be  relied  upon  for  securing  patronage.  The  expedience 
of  insurance  and  the  merits  of  his  company  must  be  urged  by 
personal  application. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  advertisements  in  newspapers, 
printed  circulars  or  conspicuous  office  signs  are  sufficent  to  secure 
patronage.  And  it  is  a  false  modesty  which  makes  an  agent 
hesitate  to  introduce  either  the  subject  of  insurance  or  the  merits 


SOLICITING. 


31 


of  his  company  to  the  attention  of  property-owners,  whether 
acquaintances  or  not — unless  his  company  is  of  questionable 
character  and  unworthy  of  his  recommendation.  He  who  con- 
siders himself  above  the  earnest,  sincere  effort  which  his  chosen 
business  requires  stultifies  himself  and  deserves,  and  usually 
meets  with,  the  contempt  of  sensible  men.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  agent  who  persistently  and  intelligently  improves  every  fitting 
opportunity  to  bring  the  merits  of  his  company  to  the  notice  of 
the  public  seldom  fails  to  secure  patronage  and  respect.  Indeed, 
if  we  may  judge  from  the  success  which  the  weakest  and  most 
unreliable  companies  sometimes  meet  with  in  localities  where 
they  are  fortunate  enough  to  secure  energetic  representatives,  it 
would  seem  that  it  is  not  always  necessary  for  an  agent  to  have 
sound  companies,  if  he  be  only  determined  to  succeed,  for  it 
sometimes  happens  that  such  an  agent  will  actually  persuade  an 
ignorant  policy-holder  to  exchange  the  protection  of  a  reliable 
company  for  a  worthless  policy  in  a  company  which  he  happens 
to  represent.  How  much  rather,  then,  should  an  agent  succeed 
who  represents  a  company  of  undoubted  strength,  of  fire-tried 
reputation,  managed  by  experienced  officers  and  numbering 
among  its  directors  the  first  merchants  of  the  land ! 

"The  great  difference  between  men,  between  the  feeble  and 
the  powerful,  the  great  and  the  insignificant,  is  energ3* — in- 
vincible determination,  a  purpose  once  fixed,  and  then  death  or 
victory!"    (Daniel  Webster.) 

A  successful  agent  should  not  only  know  the  merits  of  his  own 
company  and  how  to  explain  them,  but  he  should  observe  the 
weak  points  of  unprincipled  adversaries.  It  is  the  duty  of  an 
honest  man  to  expose  fraud  and  deception  wherever  met  with ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  will  not  misuse  the  time  in  assailing 
an  honorable  competitor  which  would  be  better  employed  in 
explaining  the  merits  of  his  own  company, 

COMPETITION  IN  FIRE  INSURANCE. 

To  work  effectually  he  must  work  intelligently.  Some  classes 
of  customers  require  more  explanation  than  others,  and  some 
men  do  not  like  to  ask  for  explanations.  All  persons,  for  in- 
stance, do  not  so  readily  understand  a  proposal  to  insure  their 
property  "at  as  if  stated  "at  $13.50  per  % 1,000."  The 


RELATIVE  STRENGTH  OP  COMPANIES. 


difference  also,  of  §2.50,  on  every  thousand,  between  1#  arid 
\%ffc,  seems  less  important  to  most  men  than  does  the  difference 
in  rate,  especially  where  a  stronger  company  is  secured.  The 
man  who  may  not  understand  that  he  can  insure  his  dwelling  at 
50  cents  per  8100  will  immediately  comprehend  a  proposition  to 
insure  it  for  $5.00  per  $1,000. 

The  occasional  indifference,  however,  of  those  who  claim  to  be 
intelligent  business  men,  as  to  the  strength  and  standing  of  com- 
panies, in  considering  questions  of  rate  is  most  surprising.  If  a 
merchant  is  offered  two  notes  of  different  individuals — the  one 
thriftless,  irresponsible  and  unreliable,  and  the  other  possessed 
:  of  an  ample  fortune,  accumulated  by  well  directed  energy  and 
economy,  and  with  an  established  reputation  for  meeting  his 
obligations — he  is  not  long  in  deciding  as  to  the  relative  value  of 
the  two  promises,  especially  if  they  have  a  year  to  run;  but 
the  same  merchant,  in  considering  a  proposal  for  insurance  of 
ten  times  the  amount  of  such  a  note,  will  sometimes  accept  the 
policy  of  a  worthless  company  simply  because  he  gets  it  a 
dollar  or  two  cheaper  than  that  of  another  possessed  possibly  of 
twenty  times  its  assets,  and  with  a  reputation  established  by 
years  of  trial  and  fire.  Can  anything  be  more  inconsistent  than 
the  conduct  of  a  business  man  who  is  thus  cautious  and  particular 
as  to  a  note  for  a  few  hundred  dollars,  but  who  carelessly  places 
insurance  policies  for  thousands  of  dollars  in  his  safe  with- 
out reading  them  and  without  satisfying  himself  as  to  the 
reliability  of  the  companies? 

Many  persons  assume  that  because  an  insurance  company  is 
admitted  to  do  business  in  a  State  by  its  insurance  department, 
and  has  passed  the  scrutiny  of  the  department,  it  must  be,  by 
reason  of  that  fact,  thoroughly  reliable.  But  the  property-owner 
should  have  explained  to  him  that  the  State  Insurance  Depart- 
ment requires  only  the  minimum  amount  of  capital  and  surplus, 
and  a  company  which  might  literally  comply  with  the  law 
might  yet  be  weak  and  become  insolvent  by  a  single  exceptional 
fire.  As  it  costs  no  more  to  insure  in  a  company  with  millions 
of  surplus  than  in  one  having  no  surplus  at  all,  the  property- 
owner  is  foolish  if  he  takes  it  for  granted  that  all  companies  are 
equally  reliable  simply  because  they  are  permitted  to  do  business 
under  the  insurance  law  of  the  State. 


TACT  IN  SOLICITING. 


33 


It  is  the  duty  of  an  agent  to  qualify  himself,  by  close  obser- 
vation and  study,  to  explain  the  strength  of  his  company  and  to 
urge  the  desirability  of  reliable  insurance  upon  property-owners; 
to  convince  them  by  persistent  effort,  clear  and  logical  argument 
and  apt  illustrations,  that  so-called  "cheap"  insurance  is  not  in- 
surance ;  that  a  company  can  no  more  afford  to  sell  its  indemnity 
below  cost  than  the  merchant  his  goods,  and  that  what  rate 
would  be  below  the  cost  of  carrying  his  risk,  as  one  of  a  large 
class,  is  almost  as  easy  of  ascertainment  as  the  cost  of  any  com- 
modity on  his  shelves.. 

Competition,  which  is  claimed  by  some  to  be  the  life  of  trade, 
is  the  death  of  insurance  if  it  results  in  inadequate  prices  or  rates. 
The  proper  conduct  of  the  business  in  the  interest  of  all  concerned 
involves  accurately  ascertained  and  equitable  rates ;  a  cheap  price 
for  insurance  generally  implies  reduced  security,  or  the  absence 
of  that  which  it  is  intended  to  purchase,  and  inadequate  rates 
must  sooner  or  later  surely  result  in  worthless  policies. 

It  should  not  require  argument  to  demonstrate  that,  since  all 
the  companies  having  policies  on  a  burned  property  must 
incur  the  same  percentage  of  loss  and  also  the  same  per- 
centage of  expense,  they  should  get  the  same  rate,  and  the 
property-owner  may  well  be  suspicious  of  a  company  offer- 
ing to  write  at  a  lower  rate  than  the  majority  of  companies 
are  willing  to  accept.  The  buyer  of  merchandise,  who  secures 
possession,  when  he  acquires  title,  of  an  article  of  whose  value 
he  is  a  competent  judge,  may  felicitate  himself  on  a  good  bar- 
gain if  he  gets  it  below  cost.  With  the  merchandise  in  his 
possession  and  sure  of  its  value,  he  has  no  reason  to  care  whether 
the  seller  has  lost  money  on  it  or  not,  but  it  is  not  so  with  in- 
surance. Insurance  is  not  a  "good  delivery"  until  the  policy 
has  expired  or,  in  case  of  fire,  until  the  loss  has  been  collected ; 
and  he  who  secures  it  at  a  rate  below  cost  and  flatters  himself 
that  the  other  customers  of  the  company  do  not  secure  the  same 
terms,  or  overlooks  the  fact  that,  if  they  do,  his  insurance  is 
likely  to  be  worthless,  would  do  well  to  keep  his  money  in  his 
pocket  or  deposit  it  in  a  savings  bank. 

Tact  Versus  Talent.  A  successful  solicitor  should  be  a  tactful 
man.  He  needs  not  merely  persistence,  but  judgment.  He 
may  accomplish  much  by  "main  strength  and  stupidity,"  but  he 


34 


TACT    IN  SOLICITING 


will  need  tact  rather  than  talent,  although  the  latter  is,  of  course, 
admirable  in  its  way.  Tact  has  been  described  as  being,  "not  a 
sixth  sense,  but  the  life  of  all  the  five.  It  is  the  open  eye,  the 
quick  ear,  the  judging  taste  and  the  lively  touch.  It  makes  no 
false  step ;  it  loses  no  time ;  it  takes  all  hints ;  it  has  no  left-hand ; 
no  deaf  ear;  no  blind  side."  After  all,  tact,  carefully  analyzed, 
wall  be  found  to  be  largely  a  proper,  unselfish  regard  for  ;i 
neighbor's  feelings.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  a  good  listener  usu- 
ally makes  a  more  favorable  impression  than  a  fluent  talker. 
Some  one  has  truly  said  that  tact  consists  rather  in  knowing 
what  should  not  be  said  than  in  knowing  what  to  say. 

One  of  the  most  successful  insurance  brokers  in  the  city  of 
New  York  owed  a  handsome  annual  income  to  persistent  and 
tactful  soliciting.  I  was  informed  by  one  of  his  best  customers 
that  he  was  led  to  give  him  charge  of  his  business  simply  bemuse 
he  became  convinced  that  his  interests  would  be  well  cared  for 
by  one  who  looked  so  well  after  his  own.  The  frequent  good- 
natured  greeting  "Can  I  do  anything  for  you  to-day  in  in- 
surance?" instead  of  annoying  the  merchant,  led  him  to  believe, 
in  time,  that  so  persistent  a  man  must  be  well  worth  patronizing. 

An  incident  showing  the  value  of  tact  and  shrewdness  came  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  writer  while  traveling  as  special  agent  of 
the  company  with  which  he  is  still  connected.  An  agent  in  the 
western  part  of  Pennsylvania  found  great  difficulty  in  inducing 
the  property-owners  of  his  neighborhood  to  insure,  owing  to  the 
honest  but  mistaken  views  of  a  clergyman  who  enjoyed  the  con- 
fidence of  his  congregation  to  such  an  extent  that  he  became 
their  leader  and  adviser  in  temporal  as  well  as  spiritual  affairs. 
He  believed  that  it  was  wicked  to  insure  either  life  or  property, 
on  the  ground  that  it  was  tempting  Providence.  The  agent  in 
question  soon  reached  the  conclusion  that  to  accomplish  any- 
thing with  the  congregation  it  was  necessaiy  to  capture  the 
'  'bell  wether  "  of  the  flock,  and  he  said  to  him,  one  day : 

"I  am  not  so  well  acquainted  with  the  Good  Book  as  you  are, 
but  my  understanding  is  that  it  enjoins  upon  men  to  bear  one 
another's  burdens ;  am  I  not  correct  ?  " 

"You  are,"  was  the  reply. 

"Well,  you  believe  that  when  a  man's  house  or  barn  burns,  it 
is  the  duty  of  his  neighbors  to  assist  him  in  his.  misfortune 
to  furnish  the  money  for  rebuilding  ? " 


SOLICITING. 


"Certainly,"  was  the  reply. 

"Do  yon  not  think  that  all  fellow-citizens  in  the  United  States, 
the  man  in  Texas  and  the  man  in  Maine,  as  well  as  onr  fellow- 
townsmen  here,  are  neighbors  to  one  who  is  unfortunate,  no 
matter  in  what  locality  he  may  live,  if  the  misfortune  is  brought 
to  their  attention  ?" 

The  reply  was  in  the  affirmative. 

"Well,"  said  the  agent,  "I  represent  a  large  insurance  com- 
pany which  does  business  in  every  city,  town  and  hamlet  through- 
out the  United  States.  In  case  a  man's  house  or  barn  burns  here 
in  this  town  the  hat  is  not  passed  around  among  a  few  of  his 
immediate  neighbors,  who  are  little  better  off  than  himself  and 
who  can  ill  afford  to  give  any  considerable  amount  to  his 
necessity;  but  the  company,  by  its  well  regidated  machinery, 
collects  money  from  the  entire  country  and  distributes  the 
harden  among  all  of  a  man's  neighbors  everywhere,  so  that  no 
one  feels  it  unduly  or  beyond  the  amount  of  a  small  annual 
premium  payment.  Is  not  such  co-operation  a  better  way  of 
bearing  one  another's  burdens  than  the  process  which  you  ad- 
vocate? " 

He  had  for  his  opponent,  fortunately,  a  man  who,  while  bigoted 
and  mistaken,  was  fair,  and  who  frankly  acknowledged  that  the 
matter  had  never  been  presented  to  him  in  such  a  light.  The 
agent  succeeded  in  securing  insurance  on  his  own  dwelling  house, 
and,  soon  after,  insured  almost  every  man  in  the  neighborhood. 

I  was  so  impressed  with  the  shrewdness  and  tact  of  the  agent 
that  I  recommended  him  to  the  company  for  appointment,  and 
he  holds  the  agency  to-day,  after  a  faithful  service  of  more  than 
a  quarter  of  a  century. 

His  simple  presentation  of  the  theory  of  insurance  is  none  the 
less  an  accurate  analysis  of  the  principle  upon  which  all  insurance 
policies  are  issued ;  for  it  explains  not  only  its  beneficent  oper- 
ation from  the  community  viewpoint,  but  also  the  scientific 
principle  of  average  upon  which  the  calculations  of  underwriters 
are  based  for  their  profit.  A  company  that  confines  its  business 
to  a  small  locality  is  not  so  reliable  as  one  that  draws  upon  a 
large  territory  for  its  income,  and  thus  averages,  not  merely  its 
premium  receipts,  but  its  losses,  by  distribution  over  an  area 
which  is  not  disturbed  by  the  exceptional  misfortunes  of  a  single 
neighborhood. 


36 


SECURING 


BUILDERS'  KISKs. 


It  is  advisable  to  secure  the  custom  of  enterprising  builders 
and  architects.  In  this  way  many  desirable  risks  may  be 
obtained  by  notice  from  them  in  advance,  and  the  foolish  in- 
difference of  some  property-owners  as  to  what  company  they 
insure  with  turned  to  advantage.  The  purchaser  of  a  building 
is  generally  willing  to  accept,  at  least  for  the  unexpired  time, 
the  insurance  in  force  on  it  at  the  time  of  his  purchase,  and  he 
can  have  less  objection  if  the  policies  are  those  of  reliable  com- 
panies. 5  or  this  reason  the  policy  should  be  written,  if  possible, 
for  a  year,  with  the  charge  for  the  extra  hazard  of  the  builder's 
risk  at  short  rates  for  the  term  added  to  the  annual  rate.  Re- 
newals of  such  policies  should  be  written  and  delivered  at  least 
thirty  days  before  expiration,  or,  in  case  renewals  are  not  em- 
ployed by  the  company,  new  policies  should  be  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  property-owner.  Xo  policy  should  be  allowed  to 
run  within  30  days  of  expiration  without  this  precaution.  Most 
persons  have  a  natural  reluctance  to  return  a  policy  once  accepted 
in  order  to  take  that  of  another  agent,  and  not  a  few  property- 
owners  regard  a  policy  once  delivered  as  a  consummation  of  a 
contract  which  they  are  in  honor  bound  to  cany  out;  so  that 
more  than  nine  points  are  gained  if  the  agent  succeeds  in  placing 
his  policy  in  the  possession  of  his  customer  thirty  days  before  ex- 
piration. A  good  agent  can  in  most  cases  retain  business  once 
secured. 

A  desirable  feature  of  builders'  risks  is  the  opportunity  they 
afford  a  careful  agent  to  discover  faults  of  construction,  which 
are  not  apparent  after  the  building  is  finished,  and  which  may. 
if  he  is  true  to  his  calling,  be  corrected  in  time.  This  is  especially 
true  of  smoke  flues,  which  can  only  be  examined  while  in  process 
of  construction.  They  should  be  surrounded,  as  is  elsewhere  ex- 
plained, by  at  least  eight  inches  of  good  brickwork,  well  laid  in 
good  mortar,  and  no  woodwork  should  be  framed  into  them. 
They  would  be  still  safer  if  lined  with  a  good  burnt  clay  or  cast- 
iron  pipe.  Ordinary  drain  pipe  or  vitrified  sewer  pipe  is  a  good 
lining.  It  not  only  improves  the  chimney  as  to  safety  from  fire, 
but  prevents  accumulation  of  soot  and  insures  a  good  draft.  If 
the  agent  will  acquaint  himself  with  the  features  of  a  good  flue 
elsewhere  explained  in  this  book  he  may  render  his  client  a 
lasting  service.  Nothing  is  more  disagreeable  than  a  smoking 
fireplace. 


SOLICITING 


— SPECULATIVE  BUILDERS. 


37 


The  agent  should  remember  that  when  a  risk  is  destroyed  by 
fire,  not  only  does  his  company  lose  the  amount  of  the  insurance, 
but  he  himself  loses  the  commission  which  might  have  been  se- 
cured each  year  during  the  life  of  a  permanent  structure. 

The  risk*  of  a  certain  class  of  speculative  builders,  often 
men  of  poor  judgment  and  unscrupulous  character,  tcho 
erect  buildings  in  advance  of  ami  possible  demand  for  them, 
with  a  view  to  selling  Iheiu  to  parties  unacquainted  with 
their  defective  construction,  should  be  avoided.  Such  build- 
ings are  in  the  nature  of  "experiments." 

For  full  instructions  as  to  the  insurance  of  builder's  risks  and 
proper  forms,  see  index. 

A  pocket  expiration  book  (for  which  an  ordinary  cheap  diary 
that  will  last  for  several  years  is  well  adapted)  should  be  kept, 
in  which  to  note  the  date  of  expiration  of  insurance  which  has 
been  promised  to  the  agent.  Many  persons  who  will  not  give  a 
positive  assurance  as  to  their  business  will  not  hesitate  to  in- 
form an  agent  when  their  policies  expire,  and  if  he  keeps  a 
record  of  them  hi*  may  gather  the  fruit  when  ripe  by  calling  say 
thirty-five  days  beforehand.  It  is  generally  useless  to  argue 
with  a  man  whose  policies  have  a  year  to  run — unless  his  com- 
panies are  utterly  worthless  and  afford  him  no  protection  what- 
ever— or  to  apply  after  renewals  have  been  placed  in  his  hands 
by  an  enterprising  agent  who  has  taken  advantage  of  the  natural 
and  very  proper  reluctance  of  most  men  to  return  a  contract  once 
accepted  and  has  delivered  his  at  least  a  month  beforehand. 

"Nothing  to  Burn".  Every  insurance  agent  while  soliciting  has 
become  familiar  with  the  stereotyped  argument  of  the  average 
property-owner  that  there  is  nothing  about  his  risk  to  burn,  and 
that  his  rate,  for  that  reason,  should  be  lower.  Probably  no 
better  illustration  in  refutation  of  this  argument  could  be  offered 
than  the  risk  shown  by  the  accompanying  photograph  of  the 
metal-worker  of  the  Brown  Hoisting  Machine  Company,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  burned  December  IT,  1900.  I  do  not  believe  many 
underwriters  contemplating  this  risk  as  it  stood  before  the  fire, 
would  have  supposed  it  possible  for  the  entire  structure  to  be 
destroyed,  as  it  was,  including  iron- work.  There  seemed  to  be 
nothing  combustible  about  the  buildings,  except  an  ordinary 
board  roof,  covered  with  slate,  and  a  few  wooden  trusses  and 


38 


OWNERS'  faith  in  safety  of  their  risks. 


wooden  story  posts,  which  one  would  suppose  a  single  fire  com- 
pany could  easily  deal  with.  The  floors  were  either  of  earth  or 
heavy  plank.  The  machinery  manufactured,  as  well  as  thai 
employed,  was  of  the  lieavii  si  character.  And  yel  the  loss  was 
nearly  total  to  the  insurance  companies,  one  large  company 
losing  $37,000,  where  the  reasonable  expectation  was  that  there 
could  not  he  more  than  a  $10,000  loss.  I  do  not  believe,  more- 
over, that  anyone  looking  at  the  office  building  would  have 
supposed  the  fire  would  have  spared  this  structure  and  destroyed 
the  building  on  the  right,  marked  "D,"  so  remote  from  the 
starting  point,  which  was,  as  shown  on  the  diagram,  at  the 
extreme  end  of  "A." 

I  think  agents  will  find  this  fire  a  convenient  argument  with 
a  certain  class  of  property-owners  in  convincing  them  of  the 
necessity  <  >f  carrying  SO;,  insurance,  and  of  paying  a  proper  rate; 
and  in  this  view  I  have  taken  pains  to  insert  the  photographs. 

The  ordinary  household  furniture  in  one  of  the  best  fire-proof 
apartment  houses  in  New  York,  constructed  in  the  old-fashioned, 
solid  manner,  with  brick  floor  arches  and  brick  partitions,  was 
destroyed  as  effectually  as  if  it  had  been  in  a  frame  building — 
perhaps  more  effectually  and  thoroughly,  because  it  is  an 
observed  feature  of  fires  in  fireproof  buildings  that  there  is  little 
salvage  on  a  single  floor  where  the  fire  once  gets  under  fill 
headway.  Ex-Chief  Bonner  and  Chief  Croker,  his  successor  in 
the  New  York  Fire  Department,  who  have  had  more  experience 
with  fires  in  fireproof  buildings,  because  of  the  greater  number 
in  that  city,  than  the  chiefs  of  other  cities,  tell  me  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  for  firemen  to  work  on  the  floor  of  a  fireproof 
building  when  the  contents,  even  as  simple  as  office  furniture, 
are  once  thoroughly  on  fire.  The  effect  seems  to  be  that  of  a 
reverberating  furnace,  fireproof  materials  confining  the  fire  and 
increasing  its  intensity,  on  the  principle  of  a  brick  oven.  My 
own  observation  of  such  fires  convinces  me  that  it  is  not  safe  for 
underwriters  to  expect  salvage  on  the  contents  of  fireproof  build- 
ings under  circumstances  where  a  fire  once  gets  under  headway, 
a  loss  being  more  nearly  total  than  in  the  case  of  ordinary 
structures,  whose  collapse,  as  already  explained,  tends  to  pile 
the  merchandise  in  the  bottom  of  the  building  in  heaps  whose 
interiors  are  not  reached  for  want  of  air,  on  the  principle  that  in 


39 


to 


THE    BROWN    HOISTING  AND  CONVE> 


BURNED  DECEMBER  17,  1900. 


ACH1NE  WORKS,   CLEVELAND,  OHIO. 

FIRE  STARTED  IN  "A."    ALL  BURNED  EXCEPT  "  C." 


42 


INSPECTION  OK  RISKS. 


i:; 


the  case  of  a  pile  of  shavings  fire  seldom  goes  more  than  three 
or  four  inches  into  the  pile,  the  inner  shavings  being  white  and 
untouched. 

INSPECTION  OF  RISKS. 

It  is  doubtful  if  any  duty  performed  by  an  agent  is  more  im- 
portant for  the  purpose  of  preventing  fire  losses  and  insuring  a 
profit  to  his  company,  than  that  of  inspecting  the  risks  which  he 
insures.  Inspection  sbould  be  thorough,  involving  careful  and 
intelligent  examination  of  everything,  from  the  top  of  tbe  roof 
to  the  sub-cellar  floor.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  the  most  im- 
portant question  to  be  considered  before  writing  a  policy  is  the 
character  of  the  applicant,  I  shall  deal  first  with  what  is  known 
among  underwriters  as  the  moral  hazard,  or  the  danger  of  afire 
from  the  carelessness  or  viciousness  of  the  owner  himself  or  of 
those  having  custody  of  the  property.  The  best  risk  physically 
becomes  a  bad  risk  in  the  hands  of  an  unscrupulous  or  careless 
man. 

To  detect  danger  growing  out  of  the  desire  of  a  property- 
owner  to  realize  upon  his  property  by  a  sale  to  the  insurance 
company,  requires  sometimes  unusual  shrewdness,  not  to  say 
detective  talent,  and  the  exercise  of  a  No.  1  quality  of  common 
sense.  The  percentage  of  incendiary  fires  for  purposes  of  gain 
is  smaller  in  cities  with  good  fire  departments  than  in  localities 
where  the  chances  are  small  of  extinguishing  a  fire.  The  prol  la- 
bilities of  extinction,  in  a  city  with  an  effective  fire  department, 
involve  probabilities  of  discovery  of  contrived  fires,  and  the  in- 
cendiary is  often  deterred  from  starting  a  fire  by  these  consider- 
ations, realizing  that  the  chances  of  his  being  detected  and 
punished  are  against  him. 

The  percentage  of  incendiary  fires  as  compared  with  the  whole 
number,  however,  is  generally  grossly  overestimated.  The  as- 
sertion is  frequently  heard  that  one-third  of  all  fires  are  contrived. 
That  this  cannot  be  the  fact  is  easily  demonstrated.  The  per- 
centage of  fires  exceeding  80$  of  the  value,  in  cities  with  fire 
departments,  is  not  over  6$  of  the  whole  number;  and  outside 
of  fire  departments,  the  percentage  of  this  class  of  fires  would 
not  in  most  States,  especially  in  the  older,  well  settled  States, 
exceed  85$  of  the  whole  number,    On  farms,  the  percentage 


1  1 


PERCENTAGE  OF  INCENDIARY  LOSSES. 


is  about  Making  due  allowance  for  the  fact  that  a  very 

large  proportion  of  the  fires  in  this  percentage  are  due  to  frame 
construction,  as  well  as  to  the  absence  of  fire-extinguishing  ap- 
pliances, the  number  of  incendiary  or  contrived  fires  must  be 
greatly  less  than  any  estimate  which  has  heretofore  been  placed 
upon  them;  for  it  requir<  s  no  argument  to  believe  that,  as  an  in- 
cendiary has  the  choice  of  time  and  circumstance  for  starting  his 
fire,  the  majority  of  contrived  tin  s  would  pass  the  80$!  of  value 
line;  indeed,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  95$  of  contrived  fires  would 
be  total.  If  one-third  (the  usual  estimate)  of  all  fires,  therefore, 
were  incendiary,  and  95^  of  them  were  total,  as  they  would  be, 
there  would  have  been  no  profit  in  the  insurance  business. 

The  writer  became  impressed  with  the  unreliability  of  off-hand 
estimates,  even  when  made  by  careful,  practical  men,  by  tabu- 
lating the  causes  of  fires  for  a  series  of  years  based  upon  the 
opinion  expressed  by  the  adjuster,  in  each  case,  while  on  the 
ground.  In  this  case  the  adjusters  were  requested  to  express 
tin  ir  opinion  as  to  the  cause  of  a  fire  at  the  time  of  adjusting  the 
loss,  even  though  not  sure  of  the  matter,  being  advised  that  in 
a  large  number  of  fires,  running  into  the  thousands,  errors  would 
compensate  each  other;  fires  attributed  to  defective  flues  but  due 
to  incendiarism,  for  example,  would  balance  those  attributed  to 
incendiarism  but  due  to  defective  flues,  &c. ;  so  that  for  all 
practical  purposes,  the  tabulation  made,  based  upon  the  opinion 
of  intelligent  men  on  the  ground,  carefully  investigating  the 
best  sourci  s  of  information,  would  be  thoroughly  reliable. 

This  tabulation  showed  that  in  a  purely  farm  business  less  than 
3fo  in  number,  and  less  than  4^  in  amount,  of  all  the  fires  were 
attributed  to  incendiarism  internal — that  is,  by  the  owner — and 
thai  1<  ss  than  .V,  in  number,  and  les.s  than  12^  in  amount,  of  all 
the  fires  for  the  period  were  due  to  what  would  be  called  "exter- 
nal"  incendiarism,  i.  e.,  burning  by  enemies,  tramps,  &c.  On 
other  classes  of  risks,  mercantile,  manufacturing,  &c,  less  than 
2$  in  number  and  less  than  4^  in  amount  were  due  to  incendiarism 
internal,  and  less  than  5$  in  number  and  less  than  9$  in  amount 
were  due  to  incendiarism  external. 

At  the  end  of  the  period,  the  adjusters  upon  whose  careful  in- 
vestigations and  reports  this  tabulation  had  been  made  were 
asked,  one  by  one,  to  state  their  opinion  offhand  and  from  mem- 


FIRES  DUE  TO  INCENDIARISM. 


45 


oiy  as  to  what  percentage  of  all  the  losses  adjusted  by  them 
to  date  were  due  to  incendiarism  internal  and  external.  The 
percentages  were  much  above  the  figures  named.  When  in- 
formed as  to  the  actual  facts,  however,  they,  of  course,  preferred 
that  their  careful  statements,  made  in  each  case  while  on  the 
ground  and  at  the  time  of  the  fire  should  be  taken,  rather  than 
any  off-hand  opinion  as  to  the  sum  total  at  the  end  of  the  term. 

These  interesting  figures  clearly  demonstrate,  it  seems  to  me, 
that  the  percentage  of  number  of  fires  and  of  fire  loss  due  to 
incendiarism  is  grossly  overestimated.  It  would  be  well,  how- 
ever, to  keep  in  mind  an  important  fact,  viz.,  that  the  experience 
is  that  of  a  large  company  employing  competent  inspectors, 
careful  agents  and  careful  office  examiners,  and  paying  liberally 
for  special  mercantile  agency  reports  and  putting  all  of  its  bus- 
iness through  alphabetical  lists  of  unreliable  parties  who  have 
had  previous  suspicious  fires.  In  other  words,  the  business  tabu- 
lated was  what  might  be  called  a  "culled"  business,  such  as 
would  be  found  on  the  books  of  the  largest,  most  experienced 
and  careful  agency  insurance  companies. 

A  slight  increase  of  the  percentage  of  total  losses,  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind,  would  effectually  interfere  with  the  profit  of  an 
insurance  company,  however,  and  the  agent  who  contributes  by 
overinsurance,  or  in  any  way,  to  an  incendiary  fire  not  only  pre- 
vents a  profit  to  his  company,  but  endangers  the  common  safety 
and  commits  a  crime  against  society. 

It  may  safely  be  assumed  that,  while  the  percentage  of  in- 
cendiary losses  on  such  a  culled  business,  with  a  careful  company, 
is  small,  the  percentage  of  incendiary  losses  on  risks 

WITH  A  MORAL  HAZARD  IS  ALMOST  CERTAIN  TO  BE  ONE  HUN- 
DRED per  cent  and  the  agent  is  cautioned  therefore  to  take  no 
chances  if  he  has  any  suspicions. 

A  compiled  table  of  fires  in  the  City  of  New  York  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  indicated  that  33$  of  the  amount  of  loss  was  attrib- 
uted to  incendiarism.  I  have  always  doubted  the  figures,  and 
my  doubt  is  founded  upon  the  fact  already  stated  that,  inasmuch 
as  90$  at  least  of  the  incendiary  fires  must  be  total,  the  incen- 
diary losses  must  be  less  as  a  percentage  than  the  percentage  of 
the  total  losses,  thus  corroborating  the  figures  of  the  table  I  have 
constructed  from  actual  reports  made  by  adjusters  at  the  time  of 
the  fire, 


SCRUTINY  OF  VALUES  AND  CHARACTER. 


While  overinsurance  causes  fires,  it  should  he  remembered 
that  a  proper  amount  of  insurance  may  prevent  them,  by  teach- 
ing malicious  vagabonds  that  they  cannot  harm  an  enemy  by 
burning  his  property,  as  the  insurance  company's  interposition 
restores  the  loss.  In  this  way  the  business  of  insurance,  properly 
conducted,  is  a  safeguard  of  society.  It  is  undoubtedly  a  fact 
that  more  property  would  be  burned,  year  by  year,  if  the  mali- 
cious and  unscrupulous  enemies  of  reputable  citizens  felt  that 
they  could  bring  them  to  want  by  applying  a  match.  Even 
those  who  are  simply  envious  and  jealous  of  the  prosperity  of 
others  could  compass  the  ruin  of  the  industrious  and  prosperous 
were  it  not  for  the  protection  which  insurance  extends  over  their 
property  by  day  and  night. 

Constant  supervision  and  watchfulness,  with  a  keen  judgment 
of  men  and  values,  are  necessary  to  keep  losses  within  the  figures 
to  which  the  more  careful  companies  have  hitherto  succeeded  in 
confining  them.  Not  only  must  property  be  worth  more  than  it 
is  insured  for,  but  it  must  be  a  prod  url  i  re  a  nd  paying  iuresi- 
ment  to  its  owners.  Unless  this  is  the  case,  its  safety  is  not 
likely  to  be  a  subject  of  anxiety  to  them.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  companies  lose  more  money  in  consequence  of  the  indiffer- 
ence of  owners  to  the  safety  of  property  which  brings  them  no 
income,  and  which  is  fully  insured,  than  by  the  designing 
villainy  of  those  who  do  not  scruple  to  apply  the  match.  In- 
deed, let  this  element  of  safety  be  once  removed;  this  safeguard, 
which  is  so  often  the  only  barrier  between  the  underwriter  and 
loss;  this  protection,  which  is  greater  than  iron  doors  or  fire 
walls — the  anxiety  of  an  otcner  for  the  safety  of  his  prop- 
erty— and  the  chances  of  escaping  loss  become  so  remote  that 
it  is  best  to  cancel  the  policy  at  once. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  sum  of  insurance  losses  follows 
the  ups  and  downs  of  trade,  like  a  barometer  of  misfortune. 
When  certain  classes  of  risks  are  making  money  for  their  owners 
— notwithstanding  the  fact  that,  at  such  times,  there  may  be  the 
extra  hazard  of  overwork  and  forced  production — the  fewest  fires 
occur;  but  let  the  times  change  and  the  manufacturer,  who, 
while  he  had  profitable  contracts  to  fill,  examined  critically  for 
It  int  self,  and  with  the  proverbial  thoroughness  of  the  "master's 
eye,"  lest  any  untoward  accident  should  interrupt  his  good  for- 


SCRUTINY  OF  VALVES  NECESSARY. 


47 


t  imc,  becomes  careless  and  indifferent  to  danger — especially  ij 
fully  insured.  In  this  way  the  moral  hazard  of  unproductive 
property,  even  when  it  is  insured  below  its  value,  may  become 
greater  than  that  of  over-insured  and  productive  and  profitable 
property. 

Value  is  not,  therefore,  the  only  thing  to  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration, especially  if  it  is  estimated  on  the  basis  of  cost, 
although  more  important,  perhaps,  than  any  other.  It  is  un- 
necessary to  suggest  to  any  intelligent  man  that  cost  is  not  al- 
ways a  safe  test  of  value,  especially  in  the  case  of  buildings, 
which  through  poor  management,  miscalculation,  overcharges 
or  exceptionally  high  prices  of  labor  and  material  at  the  time  of 
erection,  can  often  be  replaced  for  less  than  their  original  cost. 
Evidences  of  this  occur  in  the  experience  of  all  insurance  com- 
panies when  adjusting  their  losses,  proposals  being  often  re- 
ceived from  the  very  builders  by  whom  destroyed  buildings 
were  originally  constructed  to  replace  them  for  a  much 
smaller  sum  than  that  originally  charged.  Especially  is  this 
the  case  in  dull  seasons,  when  neither  labor  nor  materials  are 
high. 

It  often  happens  that  a  manufactory,  erected,  building  by  * 
building,  to  meet  the  demand  for  new  space,  is  not  adapted  to 
economical  methods  and  is  not  calculated  to  compete  with  one 
more  intelligently  and  systematically  planned  to  save  labor,  &c. 
Instances  have  been  brought  to  the  attention  of  insurance  com- 
panies where  such  buildings  have  been  burned,  in  some  cases  by 
the  owners,  and  in  others  by  overzealous  and  mistakenly  loyal 
employees,  who  have  heard  an  employer  remark  that  if  the 
building  should  burn  and  he  could  get  his  insurance  he  would 
build  a  new  factory  which  would  be  better  suited  to  the  work,  &c. 

Buildings,  through  mismanagement,  are  often  found  to  be 
either  too  large  or  too  small,  or  in  other  respects  unsuited  for  the 
purpose  for  which  they  were  originally  designed  and  constructed, 
and  if  not  available  for  this  purpose  are  almost  valueless  for  any 
other.  An  elevator  building  or  a  sugar  refinery,  for  example, 
could  not  well  be  used  for  any  other  occupancy.  It  is  clear  that 
in  such  cases  the  cost  of  the  building  is  no  indication  of  its  market 
value.  A  proper  allowance  should  also  be  made  for  the  probable 
deterioration  of  the  property  during  the  term  of  the  insurance, 


48 


CHANGES  IN  VALUES,  BOOKS  OF   ACCOUNT,  ETC. 


especially  if  the  policy  is  issued  for  a  longer  term  than  a  year. 
Some  classes  of  property,  manufacturing  and  mercantile  risks, 
should  not  be  insured  for  more  than  one  year  at  a  time,  term 
policies  being  confined  to  dwellings,  churches,  etc. 

Over-valuation  is  the  rule,  and  not  the  exception.  It  is 
natural  for  an  owner  to  overestimate  his  property.  He  seldom 
makes  proper  deductions  for  depreciation  from  age,  wear,  use, 
change  of  fashion  or  system.  The  underwriter,  however,  must 
be  careful  and  discriminate  intelligently  between  old,  shelf-worn 
and  unsalable  stocks,  and  new.  stylish  and  salable  goods. 

<  hvners  of  property  who  are  desirous  of  selling  are  apt  to  seek 
an  excessive  amount  of  insurance,  thinking  that  the  sum  that 
insurance  companies  are  willing  to  carry  upon  a  property  may 
be  regarded  by  a  purchaser  or  mortgagee  as  an  evidence  of  its 
value. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  it  is  difficult  to  lay  down  any  safe  or 
invariable  rule  for  estimating  values.  In  the  case  of  buildings, 
the  opinion  of  some  reliable  builder  may  be  secured.  In  the 
case  of  stocks  of  merchandise,  the  opinions  of  others  in  the 
same  line  of  business  may  often  be  obtained  without  difficulty, 
and  such  opinions  are  frequently  quite  accurate.  In  stocks 
where  a  single  class  of  merchandise  is  kept,  such,  for  example, 
as  clothing,  boots  and  shoes,  &c,  a  rough  estimate  may  be 
made  by  counting  shelves  and  estimating  the  value  of  each ;  but 
this  is  unreliable.  Every  agent  has  trusted  acquaintances  in 
each  line  of  business  whose  opinions  may  be  obtained  to  assist 
his  own. 

Investigations  as  to  the  character  of  stocks  of  merchandise, 
however,  are  of  little  practical  value  in  determining  the  moral 
hazard,  except  for  the  purpose  of  detecting  evidence  of  over- 
insurance  or  contemplated  fraud  at  the  time  of  effecting  the 
insurance.  It  is  so  easy  to  move  merchandise  by  shipping  it  to 
distant  points,  or  to  reduce  its  value  below  the  insurance,  by 
failing  to  replenish  stocks  depleted  by  sales,  that  intended 
incendiarism  can  seldom  be  frustrated  by  either  initial  or 
subsequent  inspections. 

Books  of  account  should  be  kept  in  fire-proof  safes.  Where 
a  merchant  does  not  keep  satisfactory  books  of  account  in  a 
safe  depository  at  night,  taking  an  inventory  at  least  once  a 


CO-INSURANCE ;  THREE-QU AKTER  CLAUSE,  ETC. 


49 


year,  and  keeping  copies  of  it,  it  is  best  to  let  him  insure  him- 
self. Adjustments  are  difficult  and  always  unsatisfactory  in 
such  cases.  In  insuring  country  stores  in  isolated  locations, 
the  "iron  safe  clause"  should  be  inserted  in  every  policy. 

A  further  important  reason  for  not  writing  insurance  in  excess 
of  the  actual  cash  market  value  is  the  difficulty  of  making  satis- 
factory adjustments  with  the  assured  in  case  of  loss.  It  is 
difficult  to  persuade  a  property-owner  who  has  paid  premium 
for  a  certain  amount  of  insurance  that  he  should  accept  less  than 
the  sum  insured  in  case  of  total  destruction,  notwithstanding 
that  the  value  of  his  property  may  be  much  less  than  the  amount 
of  his  insurance.  Certainly  an  agent  who  has  persuaded  him 
to  take  an  excessive  amount  would  find  it  an  embarrassing  task 
to  adjust  a  loss  at  a  smaller  figure. 

CO-INSURANCE. 

It  is  important,  however,  in  considering  the  question  of  moral 
hazard,  and  the  objection  to  over-insurance,  that  underwriters 
should  not  lose  sight  of  the  importance  of  having  a  sufficient 
amount  of  insurance  in  proportion  to  value  to  prevent  total 
losses  under  their  policies  in  cases  where  the  subject  of  in- 
surance is  only  partially  destroyed  or,  perhaps,  slightly  dam- 
aged. Indeed,  this  may  be  so  important  as  to  dwarf  all  con- 
siderations of  moral  hazard,  which  must  be  guarded  against 
rather  by  shrewd  observation  as  to  the  anxiety  of  the  owner  for 
the  preservation  of  his  property  and  a  careful  estimate  of  his 
character  for  honesty,  than  by  attaching  importance  to  a 
margin  between  value  and  insurance. 

So  lax  have  been  the  methods  of  the  past  in  this  respect, 
especially  in  towns  with  good  fire  departments,  that  we  have 
been  carrying  too  little,  rather  than  too  much,  insurance,  and 
have  been  estimating  our  rates  upon  bricks  and  mortar  and  in- 
combustible iron  beams,  overlooking  the  fact  that  we  have 
really,  by  reason  of  short  insurance,  been  insuring  plate  glass, 
veneered  woods  and  fresco  work — as  damageable  as  stocks  of 
millinery.  As  already  stated  it  is  a  comparatively  easy  task 
for  the  owner  of  a  stock  of  merchandise,  to  ship  to  distant 
points,  or  to  other  buildings  in  the  same  town,  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  values  which  were  in  the  store  at  the  time  of 


50 


MORAL  HAZARD  AND  SHORT  INSURANCE. 


writing  the  insurance:  and  our  experience  with  fraudulent 
claims  of  this  character  leads  us  inevitably  to  the  conclusion 
that,  especially  in  the  case  of  movable  property,  all  reliance 
upon  estimates  of  value,  and  attempts  to  restrict  insurance  to 
a  safe  figure,  count  for  little  as  compared  with  intelligent 
estimates  of  the  character  of  the  assured.  If  he  intends  to 
defraud  the  company  by  removing  the  goods  after  inspection, 
or  by  failing  to  replenish  a  stock  depleted  by  sales,  no  three- 
quarter  loss  clause  will  prevent  his  doing  so. 

In  this  view,  I  believe  the  value  of  the  so-called  "three 
quarter  loss  clause"  is  grossly  over-estimated.  Indeed,  I  doubt 
if  it  has  ever  prevented  a  fire.*  It  has  secured  many  an  apparent 
salvage,  which,  however,  like  gardening  on  paper,  is  only  ap- 
parent. While  the  amount  paid  for  a  loss  may  be  three-fourths 
of  the  amount  of  the  assured's  claim,  three-fourths  of  his  claim 
may  be  five-fourths,  or  even  a  larger  fraction,  of  his  inventory 
and  amount  to  an  over-insurance  of  150$  or  more  of  true  value. 
(  )ne  has  only  to  walk  into  any  store  or  warehouse  to  see  how 
impossible  would  be  the  task,  even  for  an  expei't  dealer  in  the 
same  line  of  goods,  to  make  a  reliable  estimate  of  the  value  of 
the  stock  from  nailed-up  boxes,  covered  bales,  corked  bottles,  or 
tiered  barrels.  Two-thirds  of  the  packages  may  be  empty 
witnesses  on  dress  parade.  If  it  be  impossible  to  prevent  a 
designing  rogue  from  deceiving  us  as  to  his  values — and  I  claim 
that  it  is — why  should  we  lose  the  premiums  on  25$  of  the 
values  of  honest  men,  who  outnumber  the  rascals  a  hundred 
to  one? 

We  must,  after  all,  rely  for  values,  largely  on  the  good  faith, 
carefulness  and  intelligence  of  our  agents  and  inspectors,  and. 
in  no  small  degree,  upon  the  honesty  of  the  assured  himself,  and 
his  reputation  for  fair  dealing.  We  will  find  that  there  is  greater 
safety  and  more  profit  in  insuring  an  honest  and  careful  property- 
holder,  for  the  full  value  of  his  property,  than  in  insuring  a 
dishonest  and  careless  one  to  the  limit  of  one-half  his  values: 
and  the  great  problem  of  our  business  in  the  future,  probably, 
will  be  twofold — to  make  sure  of  a  premium  for  one  hundred 
per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  property  insured,  and  to  make  sure 

*These  remarks  do  not  apply  to  the  clause  on  buildings,  the  value  of  which 
can  be  ascertained.  It  is  important  that  the  owner  of  a  building  should  have 
a  one  fourth  interest  in  caring  for  it. 


IMPOSSIBILITY  OP  LIMITING  VALUES. 


51 


of  one  hundred  per  cent  of  honesty  in  its  owner.  This  can  only 
be  secured  by  means  of  an  intelligent  representative  of  the  com- 
pany on  the  ground,  viz..  the  local  agent.  He  alone  can  deter- 
mine the  character  of  the  man  we  insure,  and  keep  watch  of  him 
throughout  the  term  of  the  policy. 

In  the  case  of  dangerous  special  hazards,  for  obvious  reasons, 
requiring  care  and  watchfulness  on  the  part  of  their  owners,  it 
is  best  to  see  that  the  owner  retains  a  sufficient  interest  above 
the  amount  of  insurance  to  make  him  careful  of  the  property. 
Where,  notwithstanding  a  high  rate,  the  owner  of  property  seeks 
an  excessive  amount  of  insurance,  it  is  wise  to  decline  the  risk. 
It  is  safe  to  assume  that  he  has  some  unusual  cause  for  anxiety. 

I  realize  that  the  views  I  have  here  expressed  on  the  subject 
of  the  three-quarter  clause  and  the  percentage  of  moral  hazard 
losses,  differ  from  my  earlier  writings  but  I  have  reached  my 
present  conclusions  after  careful  stud}'  of  the  1(  >sses  of  my  com- 
pany through  a  long  series  of  years  and  after  careful  tabulation 
of  the  actual  figures  from  thp  reports  of  adjusters  made  on  the 
ground  at  the  time  of  investigating  each  fire. 

The  following  propositions  were  submitted  by  me  some  years 
ago  to  a  large  number  of  underwriters,  and  an  overwhelming 
majority  of  them  assented  to  the  deductions : 

1st— It  is  practically  not  possible  to  determine  the  value  of  a  stock  of  mer 
chandise,  for  the  purpose  of  insurance,  at  the  time  of  writing  a  policy.  Reliance 
must  be  placed  upon  the  statement  of  the  assured  as  to  the  quantity  and  value 
of  goods  in  packages  and  on  shelves.  It  would  not  be  possible  for  another 
dealer  in  the  same  line  of  goods  in  any  city  to  determine  the  value  of  stock. 
The  owner  could  not  do  it  himself  without  the  assistance  of  his  clerks  and  a 
careful  inventory.  It  would  not  be  possible  for  five  experts  in  any  line  of 
goods — groceries,  hardware,  tobacco — to  determine  the  value  of  the  stock  of 
any  other  merchant  in  their  own  line  of  trade.  Therefore,  it  is  not  possible  or 
practicable  for  an  underwriter  to  do  so. 

2nd— As  already  stated,  even  if  the  value  of  a  stock  could  be  determined  at 
the  date  of  writing  the  policy,  it  would  not  remain  unchanged,  but  might 
decrease  by  honest  sales  or  dishonest  removals,  or  by  depreciation  owing  to 
change  of  style  or  fashion,  shelf-wear  or  fly-specks.  It  is  utterly  impossible 
by  any  process  to  maintain  the  ratio  of  insurance  to  value  at  100$  or  80$  or 
any  other  figure. 

3rd— If  it  be  impossible  to  determine  the  value  of  a  stock  when  writing  the 
policy,  and  impossible  to  regulate  the  value  during  the  life  of  the  policy,  is  it 
not  impossible,  by  any  limit  of  insurance  to  value,  to  place  any  restrictions 
upon  a  would-be  incendiary?   Is  it  not  perfectly  easy  for  a  dishonest  insured 


LIMITING  INSURANCE  TO  EIGHTY   PEK  CENT. 


to  remove  bona  fide  values  after  inspection,  as  a  well  known  New  York  firm 
shipped  theirs  to  a  confederate  in  the  West?  Is  it  not  perfectly  easy  for  a 
t'Ogue  to  claim  a  value  of  one  hundred  thousand  dollars  on  goods  worth  only 
twenty  thousand  dollars  by  a  "dress  parade"  of  empty  packages  for  inspection, 
insure  them  for  $80,000,  w  ith  an  SO;,'  co-insurance  clause,  contrive;  a  fire  and 
collect  400?  of  value  by  means  of  false  inventory  and  books  of  account,  or  by 
books  and  inventories  destroyed  in  the  tire?  In  fact,  a  fire-bug  likes  nothing 
better  than  a  three-quarters  clause  or  80?  co-insurance  limit  clause.  In  order 
to  have  appearances  in  his  favor,  he  would  take  a  term  policy,  if  we  would 
let  him,  especially  as  the  premium  would  come  out  of  our  pockets. 

4th— If  we  must  rely  upon  the  honesty  of  the  assured  as  to  quantities  and 
values  when  we  insure  and  when  we  adjust  and  pay  him  (and  we  must,  because 
we  cannot  disprove  them),  why  should  we  not  rely  upon  his  honesty  for  nol 
burning  his  property?  The  temptation  of  an  excess  of  insurance  to  value  is 
no  greater  by  reason  of  his  having  it,  for  it  is  easy  for  him  to  secure  it  at  any 
time  he  wants  it. 

5th — Was  there  ever  a  case  of  fraudulent  burning  in  which,  with  all  our 
precautions  and  rules,  three-quarter  clauses,  etc.,  etc.,  the  claimant  was  nol 
overinsured  in  fact,  although  not  apparently  so?  If  we  have  never  succeeded 
in  catching  a  rogue  by  a  75?  limit  of  insurance  to  value,  why  should  we  keep 
on  setting  the  old  trap,  with  the'  expensive  bait  of  one-fourth  of  our  income, 
losing  the  premium  or  contribution  of  25$  of  the  values  of  honest  men,  or  one 
full  year's  premium  out  of  every  four! 

(ith — Why  should  an  honest  man  with  a  small  capital,  who  buys  upon  credit, 
be  unable  to  protect  his  fraction  of  the  stock,  and  have  all  of  his  insurance  go 
to  his  creditors  who  must,  of  course,  he  paid  even  though  he  should  become 
a  bankrupt?  Take,  for  example,  a  man  with  a  capital  of  .$'25,000,  and  a  stock 
of  §100,000,  which  he  is  enabled  to  handle  by  reason  of  ability  to  purchase  on 
long  credit;  the  25;,'  which  we  do  not  allow  him  to  insure  is  his  own  and  he 
would  lose  ii  altogether  by  tire.  Why  should  he  not  be  able  to  protect  it  if  he 
pays  for  it?  It  is  for  the  interest  of  the  public,  and  even  of  the  underwriter, 
that  such  a  man  should  not  become  a  bankrupt. 

7t  h — Is  it  not  perfectly  easy  to  grade  our  rates  so  as  to  make  as  much  money 
with  50?  of  value  insured  as  with  80?  or  100?,  and  if  so,  is  it  not  wise  to  do  so, 
in  view  of  the  opposition  of  legislators  and  the  antagonism  of  property-owners? 
Our  insistence  upon  80?  of  insurance — neither  more  nor  less — is  as  unreason- 
able as  it  would  be  for  a  merchant  to  decline  to  sell  a  man  less  than  a  hundred 
cases  of  goods  who  has  facilities  for  disposing  of  only  one,  but  who  is  willing 
to  pay  a  retail  price  instead  of  a  wholesale  price.  How  much  better  to  be  able 
to  say  to  the  objecting  applicant  at  our  counter:  "We  do  not  care  how  much 
you  insure;  you  can  take  as  much  or  as  little  as  you  please;  our  prices,  of  course, 
vary  between  wholesale  and  retail,  just  as  your  own  do."  Opposition  would 
be  disarmed  and  hostile  legislation  avoided.  If  it  is  easy  to  do  this  (and  it  is), 
then  is  not  the  easy  way,  if  it  he  just  as  good,  the  best  way? 

If  we  could  ascertain  and  fix  the  value  of  property  and  maintain  the  ratio 
of  100  to  80  or  100  to  75  of  value  to  insurance,  during  the  life  of  our  con- 
tract, there  might  he  some  advantage  in  an  80?  or  75?  limit  of  insurance;  but 


I  TIN  El!  A  NT  DANGEROUS  CUSTOMERS. 


53 


we  cannot  do  it,  and  we  may  as  well  ,iu've  UP  trying  and  secure  the  premiums 
or  contribution  on  the  20%  of  the  values  of  honest  men. 

1  trust  that  nothing- 1  have  written  on  the  subject  of  the  desira- 
bility of  co-insurance  and  on  the  difficulty  of  estimating  the 
value  of  stocks,  however,  will  lead  any  agent  to  suppose  that  I 
underestimate  the  importance  of  careful  scrutiny  of  every  risk 
offered,  to  detect  improper  motives ;  the  main  object — never  to 
be  lost  sight  of — is  to  avoid  dishonest  applicants  for  insurance, 
and  particularly  to  avoid  those  careless  property-owners  who 
neglect  the  simple,  obvious  precautions  of  safety,  and  permit 
accumulations  of  rubbish  which  may  ignite  spontaneously,  and 
who,  overlooking  precautions  which  would  prevent  the  starting 
of  fires,  and  failing  to  provide  appliances  for  extinguishing 
them,  prove  undesirable  subjects  of  insurance. 

Do  not  insure  litigious  or  quarrelsome  men.  They  usually 
have  enemies,  and  often  unscrupulous  ones.  Inquire  carefully 
whether  any  threats  have  been  made  to  burn  the  property: 
whether  any  fires  from  unknown  causes  have  occurred  either 
to  the  property  on  which  insurance  is  sought  or  any  other  be- 
longing to  the  applicant.  Unless  the  applicant  is  a  well-known 
citizen,  his  antecedents  should  be  rigidly  inquired  into.  In  this 
matter  the  company  is  always  willing  to  be  of  assistance,  as  it 
needs  only  to  write  to  its  agent  in  the  town  from  which  the 
newcomer  has  emigrated  to  find  out  all  about  him.  Do  not  fail, 
therefore,  to  inform  the  company  as  to  the  applicant's  statement 
( »f  his  antecedents. 

A  dangerous  class  of  men  is  traveling  from  one  point  to  an- 
other, burning  out  in  one  place  after  another;  and  while  the 
company's  records  at  the  home  office  might  give  it  the  infor- 
mation a  fire  sometimes  occurs  between  the  writing  of  the  policy 
and  the  request  for  cancellation  from  the  office  of  the  company 
on  the  receipt  of  the  daily  report.  Therefore,  where  there  is  the 
least  doubt  as  to  the  character  of  a  party,  do  not  insure  until  the 
company  is  advised — by  telegraph  if  necessary. 

Decline  to  insure  "'exceptional  property"  for  parties,  as  where 
they  insure  only  on  certain  buildings,  carrying  others  them- 
selves. There  is  generally  a  reason  for  it,  which  we  ought  to 
know.  Some  men  insure  their  barns  only,  carrying  the  dwell- 
ings themselves.    Railroad  companies  are  apt  to  insure  only 


r,  i 


MORAL  HAZARD — EXPERIMENTS,  ETC. 


such  bridges,  depots  or  other  structures  as  they  consider  danger- 
ous. 

Inquire  whether  applicants  have  been  trying  to  sell  out,  and 
why.  Have  they  been  in  the  habit  of  regularly  insuring  against 
loss  by  fire,  or  have  they  become  suddenly  impressed  with  the 
value  of  insurance?  Such  changes  of  opinion  will  always  bear 
investigation,  which  may  disclose  threats  of  enemies  to  burn 
the  property.  Avoid  heavily  mortgaged  property,  especially  if 
mortgages  are  falling  due;  and  decline  to  insure  property  the 
title  to  which  is  a  matter  either  of  dispute  or  litigation,  build- 
ings or  merchandise  in  the  hands  of  sheriffs,  U.  S.  Marshals, 
&c,  &c.  The  chief  objection  in  the  latter  case  is  to  the  dif- 
ficulty of  adjusting  the  loss  and  of  determining  who  is  the 
proper  party  to  receive  the  money. 

Leases  should  not  lie  insured  unless  the  applicant  has  a  good 
bargain.  He  may  have  taken  the  property  during  prosperous 
times,  when  rentals  were  high,  and  be  losing  money  in  con- 
sequence of  a  change  of  trade,  &c. 

Avoid  "experiments" — undertakings  the  result  of  which  is, 
at  best,  problematical — "new  departures,"  &c.  The  insurance 
company  too  often  furnishes  the  money  in  case  the  enterprise 
fails. 

A  large  and  expensive  grain  elevator  may  be  located  where 
it  cannot  possibly  receive  grain  enough  to  fill  it,  and  disappoint 
its  owners ;  or  it  may,  by  a  change  of  railroad  or  canal  facilities, 
be  left  stranded  without  possibility  of  patronage.  A  large 
manufactory,  fitted  out  with  costly  machinery,  may  be  erected 
to  manufacture  some  article  which  does  not  meet  with  a  ready 
and  steady  sale,  and  prove  ill  adapted  for  manufacturing  any 
other.  An  expensive  stock  of  silks  and  laces  is  taken  to  some 
country  town,  whose  people  are  possessed  of  more  intelligence 
than  money,  and  finds  no  purchasers.  Every  undertaking  of 
some  men  is  an  experiment,  on  account  of  the  entire  absence  of 
judgment  displayed.  If  stocks  of  merchandise  are  purchased 
they  are  not  suited  to  the  trade,  or  are  too  large  for  the  demand ; 
if  a  manufactory  is  erected,  it  is  too  large  or  too  small  for  the 
purpose,  or  impractical  for  some  other  reason  which  might  have 
been  foreseen.  The  result  is,  and  must  inevitably  be,  failure. 
An  insurance  company  will  do  well  to  avoid  such  risks,  relying 


CARELESSNESS  AS  TO    ASHES,  ETC. 


55 


upon  the  exercise  of  wise  caution  and  discrimination  on  the 
part  of  its  agents,  who  should  always  remember  that  upon  the 
probabilities  of  success  of  undertakings  depend,  in  eery 
many  eases,  the  probabilities  of  profit  for  the  underwriter. 

If  initial  inspection  and  careful  supervision  do  not  result  in 
as  great  a  saving  to  the  insurance  companies  as  their  estimates 
of  moral  hazard  losses  have  led  them  to  expect,  claims  of  this 
character  will  be  restricted  to  a  point  where  a  loss  will  be  the 
result  only  of  neglect  on  the  part  of  the  local  agent  to  carefully 
and  shrewdly  investigate  each  claimant  for  insurance  and  to 
keep  track  of  him  throughout  the  life  of  the  policy. 

The  old  saying  "another  good  man  gone  wrong"  it  is  right- 
fully claimed  should  generally  read  "another  bad  man  found 
out."  Lapses  from  honesty  on  the  part  of  men  of  good  stand- 
ing, where  they  deserve  their  reputation,  may  be  rare;  but 
departure  from  correct  living  may  be  expected  at  any  time  of  a 
man  who  has  more  reputation  than  character  and  who  joins  a 
church  to  be  popular  or  to  inspire  confidence.  Therefore,  the 
agent  should  be  constantly  on  the  alert.  The  gossip  around  the 
cracker  barrel  of  the  corner  grocery  may  be  worth  listening  to. 
But  equally,  if  not  more,  important,  is  the  necessity  of  inspect- 
ing carefully  with  a  view  to  preventing  fires  from  carelessness 
and  from  indifference  to  safety.  The  neglected  ash  or  rubbish 
heap  has  cost  insurance  companies  more  money  than  the  tramp 
or  the  incendiary.  Rubbish  in  cellars  is  particularly  objection- 
able, but  ash  heaps  may  be  found  even  on  the  upper  floors  of 
buildings  in  the  best  localities. 

Thirty  years  ago,  Avhile  inspecting  buildings  in  the  city  of 
Philadelphia,  I  found  800  cases  of  ashes  kept  in  wooden  boxes, 
barrels  and  other  combustible  receptacles;  and  on  the  top  floor 
of  one  of  the  most  pretentious  buildings,  on  the  most  fashion- 
able street  (Chestnut  Street),  I  found,  after  insisting  on  the 
janitor  unlocking  the  door  of  a  small  room,  that  it  was  used  as 
a  general  ash  dump  of  the  entire  building.  At  the  time  of  my 
visit  there  must  have  been  not  less  than  five  cart-loads  of  ashes 
on  the  floor,  it  having  been  the  practice  of  the  employees  of 
tenants  throughout  the  building  to  dump  their  ashes  on  the 
floor  in  the  same  manner  as  they  would  have  done  if  the  ash 
heap  had  been  in  the  back  yard. 


SAWDUST  ON  FLOORS,  ETC. 


J 11  ;i  machine-shop,  I  found,  wedged  tightly  between  the 
floor  and  the  lower  head  of  a  heating  drum,  a  bunch  of  oily 
waste.  It  required  an  effort  to  pull  it  out,  and  the  lower  head 
of  the  drum  was  so  near  the  floor  that  I  literally  had  to  "stoop 
to  conquer."  for  it  was  not  observable  to  one  walking  through 
the  loom.  I  had  observed  on  the  floor  below  that  a  large 
cylinder  stove  was  red  hot,  and  I  resolved  naturally  to  follow 
the  pipe  on  the  upper  floor  where  the  drum  was  located.  The 
bunch  of  oily  waste  when  detached  was  brown  on  the  surface 
next  the  drum.  As  it  was  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  the 
foreman  readily  assented  to  my  proposition  that  it  would  have 
caused  a  fire,  probably,  within  a  few  hours  after  closing. 

In  this  connection  let  me  say  that  all  heating  drums  of  this 
character  should  be  raised  to  a  sufficient  elevation  above  floors 
to  bring  into  full  sight  any  rubbish  collected  beneath  them. 

When,  in  the  boiler  room  of  this  same  factory,  I  found  nearly 
half  a  cord  of  old  lumber  piled  on  the  top  of  the  boilers  to  dry, 
I  concluded  that  my  company  would  be  safer  without  the  risk. 

Careful  analysis  of  the  causes  of  fires,  made  from  the  reports 
of  adjusters  at  the  time  of  adjusting  the  losses,  shows  that  GO^ 
of  them  are  due  to  preventable  causes.  Assuming  that  one- 
half  of  these  mighi  be  prevented  would  imply  that  forty  millions 
of  dollars  each  year  are  unnecessarily  lost  by  property  destroyed 
throughout  the  country.  This  estimate  of  salvage  is  below  the 
true  figure  in  all  probability. 

Where  sawdust  is  used  upon  floors,  especially  in  risks  using 
or  selling  oil,  such  as  drug  stores,  paint  stores,  grocery  stores, 
&c,  the  sweepings  are  particularly  dangerous  if  piled  up 
where  the  heat  can  accumulate,  as  when  deposited  in  barrels. 
Such  sweepings  should  be  immediately  removed  from  the  build- 
ing and  located  where  ignition  could  not  endanger  it.  In  the 
case  of  a  large  wholesale  drug  store,  I  was  informed  that  these 
sweepings  caught  fire  almost  daily,  and  the  owners  had  been 
admonished  by  their  own  experience  as  to  the  importance  of  the 
precaution  I  have  suggested. 

Be  careful  as  to  insuring  '"Branch  stores."  They  nearly  always 
have  shelf- worn,  unsalable  stocks,  and  owners  have  been  known 
to  transfer  large  amounts  of  merchandise  from  one  store  to 
another  without  keeping  proper  book  entries. 


DILAPIDATED  STRUCTURES,    NUISANCES,  ETC 


Country  stores  not  occupied  in  part  as  family  dwellings,  or 
which  are  not  near  dwellings,  at  cross-roads  or  isolated  loca- 
tions, having  small  custom  and  a  poor  trade,  have  always  been 
losing  risks  to  insurance  companies — possibly  because  their 
situation  and  vacancy  at  night  admit  of  fraud  on  the  part  of 
the  owners  by  removal  of  the  goods  before  a  fire;  or  of  robbery 
by  others  and  subsequent  burning  to  cover  traces  of  the  crime. 

Do  not  insure  "nuisances" — those  risks  which,  by  reason  of 
some  disagreeable  feature,  become  obnoxious  to  persons  living 
near  them,  the  value  of  whose  property  is  affected  by  them; 
such  as  slaughter-houses,  bone-boiling  establishments,  soap 
factories,  garbage  crematories,  some  classes  of  chemical  works 
emitting  disagreeable  odors,  etc.  They  are  very  liable  to  be 
set  on  fire,  even  if  located  in  the  country,  especially  if  on  the 
road  to  a  town.  Even  when  surrounded  by  farms  they  are  apt 
to  be  burned  by  owners  of  adjacent  property,  as  their  presence 
would  deter  anyone  from  purchasing  land  for  the  erection  of 
dwellings,  &c. 

Decline  barns  or  stables  situated  in  the  outskirts  of  towns,  es- 
pecially if  unpainted,  dilapidated  or  unconnected  with  dwell- 
ings. The  very  appearance  of  unpainted,  neglected  buildings 
suggests  and  invites  incendiarism  on  the  part  of  malicious  boys 
and  unprincipled  firemen,  to  have  a  "run"  with  the  engine.  It 
may  generally  be  assumed  that  frame  buildings  unpainted  and 
weather-beaten  in  appearance  are  undesirable  risks.  They  in- 
dicate, if  nothing  else,  an  absence  of  care  on  the  part  of  the 
owner.  A  neat,  well  painted  building,  kept  in  repair  by  a 
thrifty  owner,  is  a  much  safer  risk  than  an  old,  dilapidated  one, 
although  the  occupation  and  exposures  may  be  the  same.  Barns 
standing  in  the  outskirts  of  towns  and  unconnected  with  dwell- 
ings are  very  different  risks  from  the  neat,  well  painted  struct- 
ure of  a  thrifty  owner,  on  the  same  lot  with  his  dwelling,  and 
are  very  much  poorer  risks,  also,  than  farm  barns,  which, 
though  sometimes  unpainted,  may  be  safe  risks  if  near  to  and 
insured  with  the  dwelling  of  the  owner. 

When  reporting  a  barn  risk  to  the  company,  be  careful 
to  explain  the  circumstances  fully  in  the  daily  report,  as  to 
whether  the  company  insures  or  will  insure  the  dwelling, 
&c,  d'C    It  will  save  subsequent  correspondence. 


58     INSURANCE  COMPANIES  MERELY  DISTRIBUTE  LOSSES. 


Old.  dilapidated  manufactories,  or  other  structures,  in  the  compact 
parts  of  towns,  which  stand  in  the  way  of  improvement,  and  have 
become  "eye-sores,"  if  not  actually  set  on  fire  to  get  them  out 
of  the  way,  become  dangerous  for  the  further  reason  that  in 
case  of  accidental  ignition  no  one  feels  interested  in  their 
preservation,  and  neither  firemen  nor  citizens  will  exert  them- 
selves to  save  them. 

At  a  recent  convention  of  the  Chief  Engineers  of  Fire  Depart- 
ments the  chief  of  a  Western  city  actually  argued  that  the 
burning  of  sncb  structures  was  a  good  tiling  for  the  town  in 
which  they  were  located,  inasmuch  as  they  would  be  removed 
as  nuisances  and  the  cost  of  the  destruction  would  fall  upon  the 
insurance  companies.  This  remarkable  utterance  can  be  found 
in  the  printed  report  of  the  proceedings  of  the  convention.  He 
was  honest  enough  in  his  statement,  because  he  believed  it;  but 
if  firemen  take  this  view  of  such  structures,  it  behooves  under- 
writers to  leave  the  cost  of  replacing  them  to  the  enterprising 
citizens  who  desire  better  buildings. 

The  following  utterances  may  be  found  in  the  report  of  the 
Twenty-fifth  Annual  Convention  of  Fire  Engineers,  and  were 
applauded : 

"We  do  not  waut  these  things  to  last  forever.  Chicago,  the  second  city,  if 
not  the  first  in  many  respects,  upon  the  earth,  is  made  so  on  account  of  heing 
destroyed  hy  a  fire.  There  is  no  question  about  it,  and  no  man  lost  a  dollar 
(tremendous  applause),  not  a  dollar!" 

An  editorial  of  the  New  York  Times  of  May  8,  1901,  com- 
menting on  the  destruction  of  Jacksonville,  Florida,  contained 
the  following : 

"Any  American  town  that  has  'tumbled  up'  to  be  a  winter  resort,  or  a 
summer  resort,  is  always  in  need  of  reconstruction,  to  fit  it  for  its  new  function; 
it  ought  to  be  at  a  certain  period  burned  out;  then  it  can  be  reconstructed  in 
the  light  of  experience  on  a  better  system  and  at  the  expense  of  the  stock- 
holders of  the  insurance  companies. "(! ) 

To  correct  such  views  may  not  be  possible,  but  loyal  insurance 
agents  should  see  to  it  that  their  companies  are  not  saddled  with 
the  expense  of  replacing  objectionable  structures  with  buildings 
more  acceptable  to  civic  pride.  When  a  building  becomes 
objectionable  it  should  be  torn  down,  and  not  burned  up ;  and 
■'f  uninsured,  it  will  be  torn  down. 

Surely,  a  campaign  of  education  is  needed  to  teach  a  certain 


VACANT  OR  UNOCCUPIED  PROPERTY 


59 


portion  of  the  public  the  important  fact  that  when  buildings  are 
removed  by  fire  the  public  pay  for  them,  and  it  will  be  less  ex- 
pensive for  that  public  to  tear  them  down  than  to  burn  up  a 
dozen  good  buildings,  or  a  whole  city,  by  the  burning  of  a  single 
structure,  as  in  the  case  of  Jacksonville. 

The1  insurance  loss  in  tins  ease,  while  over  $5,000,000,  was 
only  about  one-third  of  the  property  loss.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  reconcile  those  citizens  of  Jacksonville  who  were  uninsured, 
or  only  partially  insured,  to  the  theory  of  the  New  York  Times 
that  the  destruction  of  their  town,  which  had  ''tumbled  up"  as 
a  winter  resort,  was  a  desirable  thing  from  their  own  or  any 
other  viewpoint. 

Avoid  buildings  which  are  shortly  to  be  removed  or  pulled  down,  or 
those  standing  on  leased  ground,  the  lease  of  which  is  about  to  expire. 
If  the  terms  of  the  lease  are  such  that  the  building  is  to  revert 
to  the  owner  of  the  ground  at  the  expiration  of  the  lease,  such 
buildings  are.  of  course,  worth  no  more  to  the  lessee  than  for 
the  use  of  them  for  the  time  the  lease  has  to  run — say  what 
would  remain  after  deducting  from  a  fair  rental  taxes,  cost  of 
repairs,  &c.  &c. 

Vacant  buildings,  unoccupied  dwellings.  &c.  Unoccupied  build- 
ings and  notably  vacant  dwellings  have  been  unprofitable  risks 
to  insurance  companies.  They  become  the  sleeping  places  of 
tramps  and  vagrants,  who  are  careless  and  indifferent  as  to  fires, 
sometimes  maliciously  setting  them  purposely  on  fire.  A  moral 
hazard  attaches  to  all  unproductive  propeiiy.  In  the  case  of 
dwellings,  10  cents  a  month  per  $100  should  be  the  minimum 
charge  for  vacancy,  and  some  careful  person  should  have  charge 
of  the  building.  The  fact  that  it  is  looked  after,  every  day  is 
of  importance.  If  located  at  a  distance  from  other  buildings, 
in  isolated  localities,  all  companies  prefer  to  decline  them.  Be 
verj'  sure  that  the  vacancy  is  not  a  chronic  case  and  where  there 
is  any  doubt  give  the  company  the  benefit  of  it  and  decline  to 
insure. 

Where  dwellings  are  unoccupied  on  account  of  unhealthy 
locations,  in  malaria  or  fever  and  ague  districts,  they  should  be 
regarded  as  uninsurable.  A  good  dwelling  in  a  fever  and  ague 
district  may  be  a  worse  risk  than  a  steam  planing  mill. 

With  few  exceptions,  special  hazards  or  manufactories  should 
pay  the  same  rates  vacant  as  when  running,  for  they  are  poor 


60 


lak<;e,  expensive  dwellings. 


risks  unless  productive  and  must  not  be  insured  without  the 
consent  of  the  com /xi u  ij  first  ohtai tied. 

Unless  permission  for  vacancy  is  endorsed  in  writing  on  an 
insurance  policy,  it  is  void.  In  all  cases  the  time  of  vacancy 
must  be  limited. 

Too  much  caution  cannot  be  used  in  accepting  risks  declined  by 
other  companies.  Always  refer  such  cases  to  the  company. 
There  will  usually  be  found  some  good  reason  for  such  decli- 
nation, in  ignorance  of  which  it  is  not  safe  to  insure.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  companies  declining  risks  because  of  moral 
hazard  are  not  disposed  to  give  all  their  reasons  for  such  action 
and  it  is,  therefore,  not  easy  to  ascertain  the  facts. 

Large  and  expensive  dwellings  exceeding  in  value  the  average 
structures  of  the  neighborhood,  erected  by  individuals  of  ex- 
ceptional  wealth  or  folly,  may  be  actually  unsalable  in  case  of 
the  death  or  failure  of  the  owner,  and  a  moral  hazard  may  grow 
out  of  the  inability  of  the  heirs  of  an  estate  to  realize  their  share 
of  such  structures,  in  which  case  the  temptation  to  sell  them  to 
the  insurance  companies  is  great.  Where  a  dwelling  exceeds  in 
value,  by  more  than  50$,  the  average  of  those  in  its  vicinity  it 
would  be  difficult  to  find  a  purchaser  in  case  the  owner  should 
w  ish  to  sell,  or  in  case  he  should  die  and  his  estate  should  have 
to  be  divided. 

Large  so  called  '  "palatial  residences''  sometimes  approach  the 
physical  hazard  of  summer  hotels,  and  fires  have  been  discovered 
burning  br.'skly  in  one  portion  of  the  building  while  the  inmates 
in  another  portion  were  entirely  ignorant  of  the  fact.  Losses 
are  generally  total.*  In  "boom"  towns  expensive  dwellings  are 
often  erected  for  speculative  purposes,  to  add  to  the  value  of 
surrounding  property  for  sale,  and  are  poor  risks.  Refer  all 
dwellings  in  cities,  exceeding  $50,000  in  value,  to  the  company, 
and,  also,  country  or  suburban  dwellings  exceeding  820.000  in 
value,  before  binding  a  line  on  them. 

Season  dwellings — Summer  or  Winter.  A  moral  hazard  is  fre- 
quently involved  in  these,  especially  on  a  yielding  sea-shore, 
where  the  cost  of  bulkheads  for  protection  from  storms  is  some- 

*A  five  year  fire  record  of  the  class  within  a  radius  of  2~>  miles  of  the  City 
of  New  York,  made  by  me,  showed  losses  of  $1,000,000,  or  $200,000,  per  annum. 
This  would  have  required  a  yearly  premium  of  §360,000  for  a  55%  loss  ratio. 
The  class  did  not  yield  one-half  that  sum  at  the  prevailing  rates,  which  proved 
inadequate. 


(  AMP  MEETING  GROUND  DWELLINGS.  61 

times  an  onerous  burden.  Mutual  exposure,  also,  is  an  impor- 
tant factor,  where  they  are  near  together. 

Camp-Meeting  ground  dwellings.  These  have  not  been  profitable. 
They  should  be  referred  to  the  company  before  the  insurance  is 
made  binding-.  They  should  pay  at  least  two  per  cent,  annually. 
Their  mutual  exposure  is  serious,  owing*  to  proximity,  and  the 
question  of  line  is  an  important  matter,  as  well  as  the  question 
of  rate.  For  the  reason  that  they  are  seldom  looked  after  with 
sufficient  care  to  prevent  their  ignition  from  forest  and  grass 
fires  in  the  vicinity,  and  that  they  offer  opportunities  for  whole- 
sale destruction  by  mischievous  or  malicious  incendiaries,  ex- 
perience shows  that  they  generally  all  burn  together. 

The  question  of  line  on  unoccupied  risks  of  this  character, 
mutually  exposing  each  other,  should  be  carefully  considered. 
Underwriters  are  apt  to  regard  the  question  of  line  as  dependent 
entirely  for  its  solution  on  the  distance  between  various  risks 
insured.  Where  these  risks  are  vacant,  however,  they  may 
practically  become  one  hazard  if  a  designing  incendiary  should 
determine  to  set  fire  to  all  of  them,  no  matter  how  far  separated. 
Therefore,  the  incendiary  hazard  should  never  be  lost  sight  of 
in  considering  mutual  exposures,  especially  of  vacant  property. 


PHYSICAL  HAZARD. 


Having  dwelt  at  such  length  upon  the  moral  hazard,  we  will 
now  proceed  to  consider  the  physical  hazard  and  those  dangers 
which  are  to  he  found  in  all  risks,  even  where  the  owner  is 
honest  and  careful,  and  first  as  to 

Exposures.  All  buildings  exposing  the  risk  should  be  carefully 
inspected,  remembering  that  where  an  uninsurable  hazard  ex- 
poses a  risk  so  that  the  chances  are  in  favor  of  both  burning  to- 
gether it  is  wise  to  decline  both.  A  building  not  exposed  by 
any  other  within  100  feet,  with  a  good  fire  department,  or  not 
within  120  feet  where  there  is  no  fire  department,  is  usually 
regarded  as  "detached,"  and  agents  are  expected  to  show  all 
risks  within  that  distance  on  their  diagrams ;  much  greater  dis- 
tances, however,  have  been  found  insufficient  to  ensure  safety  in 
dry  seasons  and  with  high  winds.  It  will  often  be  found,  more- 
over, that  an  <  ibjectinnable  special  hazard  or  manufacturing  risk, 
though  not  within  hundreds  of  feet  of  a  risk,  still  exposes  it  by 
reason  of  intervening  buildings,  lumber  piles,  etc.  Where  this 
is  the  case  the  diagram  should  correctly  show  the  intervening 
buildings  and  the  lumber  piles,  with  their  size  and  height;  and 
an  honest  agent  will  not  content  himself  with  merely  answering 
the  questions  in  surveys  and  daily  reports  as  to  risks  within  100 
feet.  The  experience  of  companies  shows  that  too  much  atten- 
tion cannot  be  paid  to  outlying  exposures,  and  to  the  direction 
and  force  of  the  prevailing  winds  of  a  locality.  Lumber  yards 
are  bad  exposures,  for,  in  a  high  wind,  burning  boards  and 
shingles  are  often  carried  to  great  distances. 

The  inexcusable  shortsightedness  of  some  municipal  author- 
ities as  to  the  danger  of  outlying  exposures  costs  the  country, 
every  year,  millions  of  dollars.  It  was  a  lamentable  reflection 
upon  the  intelligence  of  a  great  city  that  a  vicious  cow,  in  a 
frame  shanty,  with  a  single  kick,  could  inflict  a  loss  of  over  one 
hundred  millions  of  dollars  upon  the  citizens  of  Chicago,  and, 


FOREST  FIRES,  FRAME  ROWS,  ETC 


63 


through  the  distributing  medium  of  insurance,  upon  the  whole 
country. 

As  I  write,  news  conies  of  the  destruction  of  Jacksonville. 
Florida.  (May  3,  1901)  and  a  loss  of  fifteen  millions  of  dollars, 
in  substantial  warehouses,  costly  dwellings,  handsome  churches 
and  other  property,  due  to  a  fire  starting  in  a  factory  for  drying 
the  Southern  vegetable  moss  for  upholstering  cheap  furniture. 
Fire  had  started  repeatedly  in  this  structure,  and  the  employees 
were  in  the  habit  of  extinguishing  it  day  by  day.  At  last,  it  got 
beyond  control,  catching  from  a  single  spark  at  noonday.  The 
result  was  the  destruction  of  a  city.  But  how  lamentable  that 
this  peril  had  existed  so  long  and  had  been  ignored  by  municipal 
authorities,  citizens  and  underwriters! 

Similar  situations  of  cheap,  dangerous  outlying  exposures 
can  be  found  in  scores  of  cities,  but  will  probably  not  be  dis- 
covered until  life  and  property  have  been  sacrificed.  Are  not 
the  underwriters  of  a  city  under  obligation  to  their  fellow- 
citizens  of  other  callings  to  study  the  fire  hazards  of  their  city, 
so  as  to  point  out  its  dangers,  in  compliance  with  that  law  of 
community  which  makes  it  the  duty  of  each  individual  to  give 
his  fellows  of  other  callings  the  benefit  of  what  he  has  learned 
in  the  pursuit  of  bis  particular  business? 

Buildings  with  shingle  roofs,  barns  and  stacks  of  hay  and  straw 
near  railroads  are  poor  risks,  owing  to  the  danger  from  flying 
sparks,  either  from  locomotives  or  from  steam  vessels  on  water 
fronts. 

Forests  and  prairies  are  sometimes  serious  exposures  to  build- 
ings near  them,  on  account  of  sweeping  fires  to  which  they  are 
liable.  Barns  and  hay  stacks  exposed  to  prairie  fires  are  not 
profitable  risks,  and  few  companies  will  accept  insurance  on 
prairie  hay  in  stacks,  unless  removed  to  the  barn-yard.  It  is 
seldom  of  much  value,  and  when  stacked  where  cut  is  liable  to 
prairie  fires. 

Frame  rows  and  ranges.  These  are  subject  to  the  dangers  of 
the  worst  building  in  the  row.  whether  the  hazard  be  moral  or 
physical,  and  the  agent  should  not  content  himself  with  examin- 
ing the  particular  building  in  which  he  proposes  to  take  in- 
surance. Buildings,  of  course,  are  less  desirable  than  grade 
floor  stocks,  which  can  be  saved  by  removal,  although  a  rate 


(54 


BRICK  BUILDINGS  IN  FRAME  ROW'S. 


measuring  the  difference  between  the  building  and  the  stock 
could  easily  be  computed.  It  should  be  remembered,  too,  that 
although  a  grade  stock  may  be  removed,  it  is  often,  where  the 
rate  is  high,  insured  for  so  small  a  percentage  of  value  that, 
unless  there  is  an  80$  co-insurance  clause  in  the  policy,  what- 
ever salvage  is  secured  by  carrying  out  goods  will  be  found  to 
belong  to  the  owner  and  not  to  the  insurance  company. 

Buildings  in  frame  rows  are  liable  to  deteriorate  rapidly  and 
to  become,  in  time,  occupied  by  second  and  third  rate  tenants, 
for  which  reason,  also,  buildings  are  always  worth  more  than 
the  stocks. 

The  stocks  in  end  buildings  of  frame  rows  are  the  most  desi- 
rable, for  obvious  reasons. 

Brick  buildings  in  frame  rows,  unless  almost  fireproof,  with 
blank  fire  walls  at  least  18  inches  thick  extending  beyond  the 
rear  and  front  of  the  frames,  with  metal  cornice  and  roof,  and 
no  woodwork  exposed,  are  unprofitable  risks  at  the  rates  usually 
obtained  for  them.  They  are  more  than  likely  to  burn  with  the 
frames,  especially  if  the  latter  are  over  one-story  high,  and 
should  not  be  insured  at  a  much  lower  rate,  whereas  the  most 
inexcusable  and  ridiculous  discrimination  in  favor  of  such  build- 
ings is  usually  made.  In  fact,  a  brick  building,  with  a  shingle 
roof,  wood  cornice,  or  windows  in  side  walls  unprotected  by  fire 
shutters,  is  little,  if  any,  better  than  the  frames  on  either  side, 
and,  at  the  usual  difference  in  rate,  an  intelligent  insurance 
company  would  prefer  a  smaller  amount  in  the  frames,  the 
moral  hazard  being  the  same. 

Omnibus  blocks,  subdivided  only  by  lath  and  plaster  stud  parti- 
tions, with  numerous  tenants,  seldom  pay  adequate  rates,  and 
should  be  regarded  as  one  risk,  liable  to  be  totally  destroyed 
if  a  fire  should  start  in  any  section.  The  line  for  the  whole  block 
should  not  exceed  one-half  that  of  a  first-class  single  occupancy 
building,  because  the  chances  of  fire  starting  are  greater  and  the 
probabilities  of  extinguishment  less.  Indeed,  few  classes  of 
risks  are  more  undesirable  at  current  and  obtainable  rates. 
They  are  very  apt  to  have  one  or  more  vacant  rooms  or  stores, 
which  are  sometimes  hired  for  short  periods  by  objectionable 
tenants,  such  as  itinerant  vendors  of  patent  rights  for  explosive 
kerosene  oils,  gasolene  gas  machines,  vapor  lamps,  &c,  &c, 


WOODEN  CORNICES,  ETC. 


65 


which  are  on  exhibition  by  day  and  night.  The  upper  floors 
will  ho  found  to  have  tenants  careless  as  to  ashes.  Kerosene 
lamps  on  brackets  in  hallways  are  apt  to  be  neglected ;  and  a 
proper  charge  for  the  number  of  tenants  alone,  if  all  were  safe 
and  desirable  parties,  would  result  in  a  rate  double  that  usually 
obtained. 

The  mutual  exposure  of  brick  or  stone  buildings  situated  in  contact 
but  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  even  though  separated  by  a  fire 
wall  extending  through  the  roof,  is  sometimes  very  serious  by 
reason  of  the  windows  in  the  angle  or  corner,  and  is  much 
greater  than  where  buildings  are  constructed  in  a  continuous 
straight  line.  Such  mutually  exposed  windows  should  be  pre- 
lected with  fire  shutters.  In  many  cases  a  group  of  buildings 
so  constructed,  as  in  the  case  of  mills  or  other  manufactories, 
built  in  the  form  of  a  hollow  square,  though  otherwise  divided 
and  intended  to  he  separate  risks,  become  virtually  one 
hazard,  and  lines  and  rates  should  be  regulated  accordingly. 

Narrow  streets  and  streams  of  water  are  often  erroneously  re- 
garded by  inexperienced  agents  as  cutting  off  all  danger  from 
exposures  beyond  them. 

Petroleum  yards,  refineries,  warehouses  and  petroleum  piers, 
from  which  petroleum  is  loaded  on  vessels  or  cars,  are  very 
dangerous  exposures,  and  no  ordinary  exposure  distance  is  the 
measure  of  safety.  A  fire  occurred  at  the  harbor  of  New  York, 
caused  by  a  careless  sailor  striking  a  match  in  the  cabin  of  a 
schooner,  laden  with  oil,  in  which,  contrary  to  regulation,  the 
cabin  and  forecastle  were  below  deck.  The  cabin  was  filled 
with  vapor  from  the  oil,  and  the  ensuing  fire  destroyed  the 
warehouse,  four  or  five  vessels,  and  many  thousand  barrels  of 
oil;  and  the  burning  oil,  floating  on  the  /rata-,  set  fire  from 
below  to  (ipier  which  tens  filled  with  tobacco,  cotton  and 
other  valuable  nierchaudi.se,  more  than  400  feet  distant  from 
the  one  first  burned. 

Wooden  cornices.  Hollow,  wooden  cornices  sometimes  serve 
to  connect  an  entire  block  of  brick  or  stone  buildings  which 
would  otherwise  be  separate  risks,  so  as  to  make  them  virtually 
one  hazard.  In  case  of  fire  in  one  of  such  a  row  of  buildings, 
they  conceal  the  creeping  of  flame  to  the  roof  timbers  of  those 
adjoining.    In  this  way  the  entire  structure  of  a  roof  may  be- 


66         EMPTY  BOXES,  RUBBISH,  ETC.,   IN  REAR  YARDS. 


come  hopelessly  on  fire  before  the  fact  can  be  discovered  by  fire- 
men in  the  street  below,  the  flame  being  out  of  sight  and  out  of 
reach  of  water  from  the  engines. 

It  may  be  questioned  if  massive,  hollow,  wooden  cornices  are 
not  more  objectionable  than  shingle  roofs,  since  the  latter  do  not 
conceal  the  fire  which  ignites  them  externally.  Indeed,  a  brick 
block  may  become  as  dangerous  as  a  frame  row  by  reason  of 
wooden  cornices.  Such  faulty  architecture  is  to  be  deprecated. 
It  certainly  is  not  ornamental,  and  violates  the  rules  of  good 
taste  not  less  than  those  of  safety.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of  Ameri- 
can architecture  to  be  corrected  only  by  the  united  efforts  of 
underwriters,  builders  and  architects.  Where  new  buildings 
are  being  erected  in  a  town,  the  local  board  of  underwriters 
should  protest  against  such  serious  faults  of  construction,  and 
the  system  of  rating  should  fix  a  penal  charge  large  enough  to 
he  deterrent.  It  frequently  happens  that  an  owner  is  ignorant 
of  the  objection  to  them,  and  when  informed  that  he  will  have 
to  pay  a  penalty  in  higher  rates,  each  year  for  the  entire  life  of 
the  structure,  he  will  dispense  with  them.  They  should  never 
he  lost  sight  of  in  estimating  the  hazard  of  an  exposure  or  in 
considering  the  important  question  of  line. 

Empty  boxes,  barrels,  old  lumber  and  rubbish  in  the  rear  yards  of 
buildings.  The  accumulation  of  piles  of  empty  boxes,  rubbish, 
hay,  straw,  and  other  packing  material,  in  the  rear  yards  of 
buildings,  often  in  contact  with  the  buildings  themselves,  tends 
to  the  spread  of  conflagrations  in  cities  and  towns.  Such  c<  >11<  sc- 
tions  offer  ready  fuel  to  falling  sparks  and  burning  shingles, 
and  buildings  of  substantial  construction,  with  metal  roofs, 
which  might  reasonably  be  considered  fireproof  externally,  suc- 
cumb to  these  ''attacks  in  the  rear." 

At  a  large  fire  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  in  May,  1875,  Hurlbert's 
granite-fronted  building,  and  other  first-class  brick  buildings 
blocks  away  from  the  scene  of  the  fire,  were  ignited  and  de- 
stroyed in  this  manner.  A  sweeping  fire  in  the  city  of  Fargo. 
Dakota,  was  due  to  this  fault,  and  cost  the  Continental  In- 
surance Company  nearly  forty  thousand  dollars,  other  com- 
panies suffering  in  proportion. 

If  fires  from  these  causes  had  been  eliminated  from  the  profit 
and  loss  account  of  insurance  companies  there  is  little  doubt 


EXPOSURES  ()K  INKLAMMABLE  CONTENTS. 


thai  they  would  have  made  a  profit  on  their  business  as  a  result 
of  the  correction  of  lliis  fault  alone.  Legislation,  municipal  and 
State,  should  be  directed  to  the  evil ;  and  any  system  of  rating 
which  does  not  impose  a  penal  charge  for  it  is  grossly  defective. 
The  "Universal  Schedule*'  makes  a  charge  for  this  fault  under 
its  "Faults  of  Management,"  as  well  as  for  the  accumulation  of 
rubbish  in  cellars  and  other  portions  of  the  building. 

Receptacles  for  waste,  rubbish,  etc.  These  should  always  be  of 
metal — never  of  wood — and  they  should  be  emptied  every  night 
and  never  left  in  the  building.  An  old-fashioned  cast-iron 
kettle,  with  legs  and  a  metal  cover,  is  a  safe  receptacle  for  oily 
waste  or  rubbish,  which  is  liable  to  ignite  spontaneously.  All 
rubbish  should  be  treated  as  dangerous. 

Large  accumulations  of  empty  kerosene  and  naphtha  barrels, 
especially,  are  serious  exposures,  but  are  frequently  overlooked 
as  such  by  underwriters  in  inspecting  risks. 

The  system  of  charging  for  exposures  in  the  Universal  Mer- 
cantile Schedule  will  be  found  to  take  into  account  all  of  those 
considerations  which  any  intelligent  underwriter  would  weigh 
carefully  in  making  his  rate.  Agents  sometimes  overlook  the 
danger  to  stone  fronts  of  buildings,  especially  of  cut  stone  or 
ornamental  carving,  which  may  be  severely,  if  not  irreparably, 
damaged  by  the  heat  of  a  fire  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  street. 

The  damage  of  $70,000  to  the  ornamental  marble  front  of  the 
Home  Life  "fireproof"  building  by  the  fire  of  December  4.  1898, 
in  New  York,  is  a  forceful  illustration  of  this  feature. 

Livery  stables  are  frequently  serious  exposures  to  mercantile 
buildings  in  towns,  especially  if  over  one-story  high,  and  if  hay 
or  straw  in  any  large  quantity  is  kept.  They  will  not  infre- 
quently be  found  extending  behind  and  exposing  the  rear  of 
an  entire  brick  block. 

Buildings  containing  stocks  of  agricultural  implements, 
wooden-ware,  lumber,  veneers,  high-wines,  oils,  and  othei 
combustible  and  ignitible  materials,  offering  substantial  fuel 
to  flame  should  be  regarded  as  more  serious  exposures  than 
those  containing  less  inflammable  merchandise.  Of  the  special 
hazards  or  manufacturing  risks,  woodworkers  are  of  course, 
serious  exposures,  not  only  because  of  the  frequency  of  their 
burning,  but  on  account  of  the  intensity  of  their  fires. 


EXPOSURE  DISTANCES,   DIAGRAMS,  ETC 


The  exposure  caused  by  a  frame  building  to  one  of  brick  <>r 
stone  adjoining  it  is  inure  serious  if  the  fnune  extends  beyond 
the  line  of  its  rear  wall.  It  is  difficult  fur  firemen  under  such 
circumstances  to  prevenl  a  fire  in  the  frame  from  working  its 
way  through  the  rear  w  indows  of  the  brick  building,  unless 
such  windows  are  protected  by  fire  shutters.  No  woodwork 
should  be  exposed  on  the  rear  walls  of  brick  buildings  in  such 
eases. 

Wholesale  drug  stores  are  very  objectionable  exposures, 
owing  not  only  to  their  liability  to  take  fire  but  also  to  the  ex- 
plosive character  of  many  of  the  substances  kept.  It  is  question- 
able as  to  what  thickness  of  wall  is  sufficient  to  confine  a  fire 
in  such  a  stock. 

It  is,  probably,  unnecessary  to  mention  other  objectionable 
risks,  as  the  agent  will  find  them  treated  of  specifically  else- 
where,  1113"  purpose  in  this  connection  being  to  call  attention 
only  to  those  most  commonly  overlooked. 

The  problem  of  estimating  the  danger  of  fire  from  the  ex- 
posure of  other  buildings  in  the  vicinity  is  one  requiring  careful 
thought  and  study  and  knowledge  of  the  experience  of  com- 
panies. The  freaks  of  wind  currents,  while  quite  often  operat- 
ing to  save  structures  of  the  flimsiest  character  when  more 
substantial  buildings  are  totally  destroyed,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
great  Chicago,  Boston  and  Troy  fires,  result  sometimes  in  the 
burning  of  buildings  owing  to  fires  in  small  structures  whose 
proximity  is  not  regarded  as  a  menace.  The  following  dia- 
grams, which  the  writer  has  collected  and  preserved  show  the 
course  of  conflagrations  and  will  be  found  interesting  and  in- 
structive: Probably  no  underwriter  would  have  given  much 
for  the  chances  of  the  frame  building  at  Keokuk,  Iowa,  which 
escaped  destruction  by  the  burning  of  the  brick  and  frame  block 
twenty  feet  distant;  nor  would  anyone  have  supposed  that  the 
awnings,  in  the  case  of  the  Willow,  Cal.,  block,  would  have 
caused  the  destruction  of  so  many  brick  buildings.  This  in- 
stance fully  justifies  the  charge  for  awnings  in  the  Universal 
Mercantile  Schedule.  An  entire  one-story  brick  block  was  de- 
stroyed in  Pensacola,  Florida,  some  years  ago,  from  this  same 
cause.  The  Continental  lost  818,000,  and  other  companies  in 
proportion. 


FRESNO 


MARIPOSA 


FresaoCoJ. 

Fir*  Ju/y  /8«9 


Breujstens.  A/.Y 


Car/in  vil/e.  I//s. 


i. 


/  Hand  ^nairje, 

I  Hocyc    L  odder*  T/t . 

MCH.Z'  1880. 
t  A.M. 


PUBLIC  sq. 


+ 


USafcr- 
aootl 


I /l ties  noh 


I  Steam  Snqine. 


a 


J  Hon  J  Srjoi/jm 
u/tjrcJf  tu+f  out-  of 


SECOND 


fTeo/vhfc  Iowa . 

Fife  /TiayejejS  £Jo  MAK. 

WATER.  '•OOO. 


VP 


C/3 
e 

The  diagram  of  Macon.  Ga.,  above  affords  an  illustration  of  the^ 
importance  of  calculating  exposure  charges,  and  the  objections  to  mansard^ 
roofs.    It  is  taken  from  ihe  Insurance  Map,  and  shows  a  large  brick  hotel,-'- 
which  was  destroyed  by  a  fire  starting  in  a  small  one-story  frame  barber 
shop,  notwithstanding  that  Macon  had  five  steam  (ire  engines  in  its  depart- 
ment at  the  time.    The  fire  occurred  April  lb.  1878.    Probably  few  agents 
or  special  agents  of  those  who  inspected  the  hotel  building  ever  regarded 
the  small  one  story  trame  barber  shop  as  an  exposure  to  It. 


" 8  2*  Sullivan.  Ind.*- 


SAL. 


 ,    FURN.  8,  CARPETS. 


D.  G 


.  a  clo. 

1 

HIllllliN 

SYCAMORE  ST. 


FIRE  SHUTTERS,  WIRE  GLASS,  ETC 


The  destruction  of  the  buildings  buraed  at  Fresno,  Cal.,  illus- 
trates the  danger  of  brick  and  frame  buildings  intermingled, 
hut  ought  not  to  excite  surprise,  since  the  arrangement  of 
wooden  buildings  among  the  brick  dors  not  differ  from  that 
usually  employed  for  kindling  a  stove  tire. 

Fire  shutters.  These  while  admirable  for  protecting  a  build- 
ing against  tire  in  another  building,  may  be  a  positive  dis- 
advantage in  the  light  of  observed  records. to  the  extent  that 
they  conceal  a  fire  from  outside  observation.  They  should,  in 
fact,  never  be  employed  unless  there  is  an  exposure.  The  usual 
method  of  treating  them  in  some  rating  schedules,  by  charging 
for  their  absence,  is  radically  incorrect.  They  are  actually  a 
disadvantage  where  there  is  no  exposure,  and  their  desirability 
from  an  underwriter's  viewpoint  should  be  determined  entirely 
by  the  character  of  the  exposure  to  which  they  interpose  an 
obstruction.  And  yet  not  a  few  of  the  tariffs  of  the  country 
charge  for  absence  of  fire  shutters  a  round  figure  of  live  cents, 
which  would  imply  that  a  building  flouting  on  a  street  with  a 
park  opposite  would  be  charged  a,  material  figure  for  a  feature 
which  would  be  a  positive  disadvantage  and  which  should  really 
be  treated  as  a  fault  of  management. 

"Within  stone"s  throw  of  the  place  where  T  am  writing  is  the 
block  of  New  York  buildings  facing  on  Broadway,  between 
Wall  and  Pine  Streets,  with  Trinity  Church-yard  opposite.  A 
greater  number  of  persons  probably  pass  this  block  every  twenty- 
four  hours  than  any  other  point  in  the  United  States,  In  view 
of  the  facts,  how  ridiculous  would  it  be  to  insist  upon  iron 
shutters  to  the  plate  glass  windows,  which  would,  otherwise, 
insure  almost  instantaneous  discovery  of  a  fire  starting  inside 
the  structures!  And  yet  many  schedules  throughout  the 
country  would  impose  a  penalty  of  a  five-cent  charge  for  their 
omission. 

To  the  argument  that  the  iron  shutter  is  a  protection  against 
burglars,  it  would  be  sufficient  to  say  that  a  burglar  likes  noth- 
ing better  than  an  iron  shutter  to  darken  the  room  in  which  he 
is  operating.  It  does  not  prevent  his  getting  in,  and  it  secures 
him  from  observation  after  he  is  in. 

Wire  glass  is  an  admirable  protection  against  an  exposure  fire, 
even  a  few  feet  distant,  especially  when  the  mullions  and  sash 


To 


EXPOSURES. 


frames  are  incombustible  and  when  the  glass  is  arranged  double, 
with  ;m  air  space  between.  It  is  claimed  that  heavy  plate  glass 
in  small  panes,  with  metal  sash,  will  also  resist  fire  for  ;t  much 
lunger  time  than  is  sometimes  necessary  to  protect  a  building 
from  an  exposing  fire.  Thin  wire  glass,  however,  even  when 
double,  is  not  equal  to  the  "Underwriters"  tin-covered  fire 
shutter,  when  exposed  directly  to  the  full  force  of  fiame. 
W  rite  for  National  Board  Specifications  as  to  wire  glass. 

Safe  exposure  distances  are  generally  underestimated.  Burn- 
ing planks  and  shingles  have  been  carried  across  wide  rivers 
and  over  intervening  spaces  of  half  a  mile.  Such  distances, 
however,  ought  not  to  be  regarded  as  other  than  exceptional, 
and  it  would  he  impracticable  to  have  rates  graded  for  them; 
hut  in  the  case  of  large  buildings  filled  with  combustible  con- 
tents, like  oils,  furniture,  &c.,  ordinary  exposure  distances  of 
a  hundred  feet,  even  with  a  good  fire  department,  are  not  suf- 
ficient to  insure  safety.  At  the  great  fire  in  New  York  April 
19,  1889,  from  59th  Street  to  65th  Street  and  North  River, 
which  destroyed  several  piers,  a  large  lard  oil  refinery,  storage 
stores,  and  elevators  A  and  B  of  the  New  York  Central  Rail- 
road Company,  the  heat  from  the  burning  oil,  warehouse  and 
storage  store  ignited  and  burned  the  elevators  175  feet  distant. 
'This  fire,  also,  demonstrated  the  danger  of  burning  oil  while 
floating  on  harbor  water,  for  it  ignited  piers  from  beneath.  It 
also  demonstrated  the  inefficiency  of  fire  doors,  already  referred 
to,  for  preventing  oil  fires  passing  from  one  building  to  an- 
other. The  fire  loss  in  this  ease  was  nearly  three  millions  of 
dollars,  and  some  companies  had  exceptionally  large  lines, 
having  overlooked  the  hazards  referred  to. 

It  is  generally  and  erroneously  supposed  that  the  greatest 
danger  of  sweeping  fires  is  in  the  winter,  when  intense  cold 
makes  it  difficult  to  handle  apparatus;  but  such  is  not  the  case, 
if  experience  is  to  be  relied  upon.  No  large,  sweeping  con- 
flagration ever  occurred  in  intensely  cold  weather,  with  the 
single  exception  of  the  great  New  York  fire  of  December  Hi, 
1S45,  where  exploding  saltpetre  extended  the  area  of  combust- 
ion. Such  fires  are  most  dangerous  after  a  hot  summer,  when 
everything  is  dry,  in  September,  October  or  November,  and 
when  the  heat  of  a  fire  would  affect  surrounding  buildings  just 
as  it  would  individuals.    One  can  stand  nearer  a  hot  fire  on  an- 


CHARGES  FOR  EXPOSURES. 


;  1 


intensely  cold  winter  day  than  in  midsummer,  and  so  can  a 
building.  Moreover,  the  water  thrown  by  engines  to  protect 
surrounding  buildings  is  apt  to  freeze  on  their  fronts  and  offers 
a  valuable  fire  screen.  Fires  in  single  buildings,  however,  are 
apt  to  be  destructive,  because  of  want  of  water  and  inability 
to  handle  them  where  intense  cold  interferes  with  the  efforts 
of  firemen  ;  and  tor  this  reason  single  fires  in  winter,  confined  to 
the  buildings  themselves,  often  result  in  larger  percentage 
damage  to  the  structures  themselves  and  their  contents. 

This  view  of  wilder  fires  did  not  occur  to  me  until  suggested 
by  my  old  friend,  Mr.  C.  B.  Whiting,  President  of  the  Orient 
Insurance  Company,  witli  whom  I  was,  one  day,  discussing 
the  conflagration  hazard. 

What  seem  to  me  erroneous  methods  of  estimating  the  hazard 
of  exposures  have  prevailed  in  various  sections  of  the  country. 
One  is  to  charge  for  a  brick  risk  of  minimum  hazard  exposed 
by  one  of  maximum  hazard,  at  a-  distance  of  ten  feet  or  less, 
the  full  rate  of  the  maximum  hazard.  This  is  manifestly  in- 
correct, especially  if  the  two  risks  are  under  the  protection  of  a 
fire  department,  for  it  ignores  the  fact,  already  elsewhere  stated, 
that,  under  the  protection  of  a  good  city  fire  department,  15% 
of  the  fires  in  brick  buildings  are  under  $100,  and  the  minor 
hazard  would  clearly  escape  all  the  partial  fires  of  this  character, 
so  that  this  fact  alone  would  warrant  a  lower  rate. 

Moreover,  study  of  the  exposure  diagrams  which  are  else- 
where exhibited  in  this  book,  indicates  that,  with  varying  con- 
ditions of  wind,  or  perhaps  by  the  operation  of  what  might 
be  called  luck,  even  frame  buildings,  like  that  at  Keokuk,  la., 
sometimes  escape  when  brick  buildings  are  totally  destroyed. 
In  the  case  of  the  great  Chicago  fire,  and  in  the  case  of  the 
great  Troy,  N.  Y. ,  fire,  frame  buildings  stood  intact,  in  the 
midst  of  surrounding  desolation  where  the  heat  had  been 
sufficient  to  draw  the  pitch  from  knots  in  their  weatherboard- 
ing.  If  frame  buildings  escape  in  this  incomprehensible  man- 
ner, owing  to  eddies  and  air  currents  which  save  them  from 
the  heat  and  ignition,  brick  buildings  are  more  likely  to  be 
saved. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  many  systems  for  rating  exposures  a 
uniform  percentage  of  the  exposure  rate,  whatever  it  may  be. 


72 


CHARGES  FOR  EXPOSURES. 


is  added  to  that  of  the  risk  exposed.  This  is  approximate^ 
correct  only  in  the  case  of  exposures  of  nearly  the  same  rate  as 
the  exposed  risk.  Where,  however,  the  rate  of  the  exposure 
indicates  a  greal  degree  of  what  is  called  the  " ignitibility " 
and  "combustibility"  hazard,  the  pro-rata  percentage  addition 
is  not  sufheient . 

For  example,  in  the  Exposure  Schedule  which  I  computed 
to  be  used  in  connection  w  ith  the  Iniversal  Schedule,  the  ex- 
posure of  a  Y/c  risk  to  a  K  risk  at  ten  feet  distant,  with  open- 
ings in  both  buildings,  is  is  cents,  or  L8#  of  the  exposing 
hazard.  But  the  exposure  to  a  K  risk  by  a  7$  risk,  at  the 
same  distance,  would  be  not  1.26  (18$  of  7?«),  but  3.42,  which 
added  to  the  r.  of  the  risk  to  be  rated  would  make  the  two 
risks  respectively  4.42  and  7.18.*  This  result  is  reached  by 
treating  each  100  cents  of  excess  in  rate  a?  a  separate  K  ex- 
posure witli  cumulative  effect,  each  \',  representing  a  layer  of 
extra  hazard  (see  explanation  in  the  Schedule).  At  these  two 
figures,  viz.,  4.42  and  .  IS.  it  would  be  a  matter  of  indifference 
to  an  experienced  underwriter  as  to  which  risk  he  should  take, 
whereas  if  only  i  s-;  pro-rata  of  the  W  risk  (the  same  percentage 
as  is  taken  for  the  1',  exposure),  or  1 .2U,  should  be  added  to  the 
1$  risk,  the  resulting  rate  would  be  2.26  for  the  exposed  risk 
against  7$  for  the  exposure.  At  this  difference,  an  experienced 
underwriter  would  take  a  small  line  on  the  7%  risk  and  decline 
the  2.26  risk. 

Again,  a  7%  risk  exposing  a  7$  risk,  by  the  same  table,  would 
add  only  1.26,  which  would  be  the  mutual  exposure  of  the  two 
risks  to  each  other,  and  each  would  be  s.->r,,  at  ten  feet  distant, 
with  openings. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  a  7%  risk  exposes  a  Ifc  risk  by  a 
greater  amount  than  would  be  added  to  a  1  %  risk ;  and  the  ex- 
planation is  obvious  and  simple.  It  is  this:  An  approximate 
test  of  the  sufficiency  of  an  exposure  charge  of  two  buildings, 
with  a  ten-foot  separation  and  openings  in  both  exposed  walls, 
would  be  to  compute  the  rate  of  the  two  buildings  as  if  they 
were  one  risk,  with  the  combined  areas,  additional  tenants, 
additional  staircases,  &c,  &c.  This  would  imply,  of  course, 
that  the  l^area  and  cubic  contents  of  the  if  building  should  be 
brought  to  tlie  hazard  of  the  7%  building. 

*7%  -\-  18  cents  for  the  K  exposure. 


EXPOSURES  TO  FIREPROOF  BUILDINGS. 


Let  us  lake,  for  example,  two  buildings  of  5,000  square  feel 
of  area,  (50  x  LOO) ;  it'  they  should  adjoin,  with  doors  cut  through 
on  every  door,  any  experienced  underwriter  would  bring  the  1  ■ 
building  up  to  the  rate  of  the  7$  building.  This  would  require 
a  greater  addition  to  the  l'<  rate  than  the  pro-rata  of  the  7% 
hazard.  In  tin- case  just  cited,  it  would  be  'i.4'.';  whereas  if 
both  were  "l'<\  the  area  of  the  exposed  building  ten  feet  distant 
being  already  rated  at  the  proper  figure  to  measure  its  igniti- 
bility  and  combustibility,  there  would  need  to  be  added  only 
the  charge  for  increased  area,  (10,000  square  feet)  additional 
staircases,  elevators,  tenants,  &C,  &C. 

I  think  this  demonstration  of  the  matter  would  satisfy  any- 
one as  to  the  correctness  of  the  principle  on  which  the  exposure 
tables  have  been  computed. 

The  system  of  charging  for  exposures  in  another  portion  of 
this  work  (for  which  see  "('barge  for  Exposures"  in  index)  has 
been  carefully  computed  and  will,  it  is  believed,  correctly 
measure  the  danger  to  buildings  of  ordinary  construction  The 
table  for  computing  exposures  has  not  yet  been  arranged  for 
fireproof  structures. 

Exposures  to  Fireproof  Buildings.  Probably  no  class  of  risks 
is  more  inadequately  treated  in  the  matter  of  computing  the 
danger  from  exposures  than  fireproof  buildings,  because  rating 
bureaus  so  frequently  overlook  the  obvious  fact  that  plate  glass 
and  wooden  window  frames  and  sash  are  not  fireproof,  and  that 
a  so-called  fireproof  building  offering  nothing  more  substantial 
to  an  outside  fire  than  plate  glass  has  no  greater  fire-resisting 
propei'ties  than  an  ordinary  show-case  would  present.  More 
than  75$  of  the  "fireproof"  structures  of  the  country  have  win- 
dow openings  to  the  extent  of  from  -KK  to  of  the  superficial 
area  of  each  enclosing  wall  without  fireproof  shutters.  Heat 
from  a  burning  building  across  a  wide  street  finds  ready  en- 
trance through  such  openings,  and  the  various  fireproof  floors 
serve  only  to  hold,  like  a  great  gridiron,  ignitible  merchandise  in 
the  most  favorable  form  of  distribution  for  ignition  and  combus- 
tion, to  the  full  force  of  an  outside  fire.  If  fire  once  secures 
entrance  to  a  fireproof  building  through  the  windows  of  any 
story,  the  contents  of  such  story,  especially  if  at  a  great  height 
from  the  ground,  are  almost  certain  to  be  destroyed ;  and  the 


FIREPROOF  BUILDINOS  AS  EXPOSURES. 


danger  of  ignition  is  greater  where  the  fireproof  structure  is 
liigher  than  the  one  which  is  burning.  If  any  underwriter 
were  estimating  the  proper  charge  for  the  danger  to  a  frame 
building  lie  would  not  overlook  the  fad  in  fixing  bis  rate;  and 
yet  the  plate  glass  windows  and  wooden  frames  and  sash  of  a 
fireproof  building  do  not  interpose  any  better  protection  than 
wooden  clapboards  or  shingles.  Nearly  all  the  serious  losses 
in  fireproof  buildings  to  date  have  been  caused,  not  by  interior 
fires,  but  by  exposure  tires;  notably  the  Home  Building,  in 
Pittsburg,  burned  by  the  destruction  of  the  Jenkins  grocery: 
the  Home  Life  Building,  in  New  York,  burned  December  A. 
L898,  by  the  ad  joining  mercantile  building;  (see  pages  121,  L22) 
the  Manhattan  Savings  Bank  Building,  burned  November  4. 
1885,  by  a  fire  across  the  street;  (see  page  12:3)  the  Temple 
Court  Building,  New  York,  suffering  serious  damage  by  fire 
entering  the  windows  of  one  story  from  those  below  through 
the  court,  &c,  &c. 

Fireproof  Buildings  as  exposures.  A  fireproof  building,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  not  a  serious  exposal  "  to  others,  because  the  heat 
of  its  burning  contents  would  not  escape  from  openings  of  the 
size  of  windows  with  sufficient  intensity  or  volume  to  damage 
a  structure  a  few  feet  away,  on  the  principle  that  a  stove,  even 
at  white  beat,  does  not  permit  sufficient  heat  to  escape  from  its 
open  door  to  endanger  substances  a  few  feet  away.  The  maxi- 
mum danger  point  of  a  burning  building  is  when  its  walls  and 
floors  collapse  and  allow  the  escape  of  enormous  heat  suddenly 
released  with  an  intensity  sufficient  to  shrivel  up  surrounding 
structures,  unless  of  unusual  fire-resisting  construction. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BUILDINGS. 


This,  it  is  unnecessary  to  say,  is  an  important  subject,  in- 
volving- questions  of  resistance  to  fire,  as  well  as  weight-carry- 
ing capacity,  and,  therefore,  problems  of  engineering,  as  well  as 
of  architecture. 

The  best  fire-resisting  material  for  walls,  it  may  safely  be 
asserted,  is  hard-burned  brick.  It  is  also  the  best  material  for 
the  floor  arches  between  the  iron  beams  of  fireproof  buildings. 
It  is  incomparably  better  than  stone,  because  stone  is  utterly 
unreliable  for  resisting  fire,  especially  the  lime  stones,  granites, 
marbles,  &c.  In  fact,  stone  is  a  dangerous  material  wherever 
it  is  subjected  to  fire  and  water  and  carries  a  heavy,  super- 
imposed weight.  After  the  great  Boston  fire,  granite  piers  and 
columns  were  shoveled  up  like  so  much  sand.  Notwithstanding 
these  facts,  stone  enters  into  most  ordinary  structures  to  the 
extent  of  being  incorporated  as  important  members  of  piers  and 
walls.  In  some  cases  piers  or  columns  are  built  entirely  of  stone. 
Such  architecture  is  almost  certain  to  result  in  disaster,  espec- 
ially where  stone  is  a  weight-carrier  and  is  located  in  the  interior 
of  a  building  and  subjected  to  the  combustion  of  surrounding 
merchandise.  In  the  outer  walls  of  a,  building  it  is  not  so 
dangerous,  although  almost  certain  to  be  defaced  in  a  facade  to 
the  extent  of  requiring  replacement.  In  interior  construction, 
even  where  bond  stones  and  cap  stones  are  used  only  in  brick 
piers,  it  may  wreck  the  building. 

The  illustrations  from  photograph  reproductions  of  brick  piers 
in  the  Cammeyer  Building,  New  York,  almost  ruined  by  afire, 
show  this  danger.  The  cap  stones  and  the  bond  stones  were 
of  granite  and  nearly  two  feet  in  thickness.  They  were  cracked 
by  the  intense  heat  and  the  application  of  water  and  then  failed 
to  answer  their  purpose,  which,  of  course,  Avas  to  distribute 
their  load  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  pier.    The  result  was 


CAMMEYER  BUILDING,  NEW  YORK. 

FIRE,  JANUARY   18,  1899. 

DAMAGED  BRICK  PIER  SHOWING  EFFECT  OF  FIRE  ON  STONE  CAP  AND  BOND  STONES- 
INTEGRITY  OF  PIER  LOST. 


77 


CONSTRUCTION. 


that  the  weight  of  the  girder  and  its  load  fell  upon  a  smaller 
section  of  the  brickwork,  the  latter  yielded,  as  shown  by  the 
(  racks,  and  but  for  the  admirable  work  of  the  New  York  Fire 
Department,  and  also  for  the  fact  that  the  basement,  fortu- 
nately, was  not  tilled  with  more  combustible  merchandise  than 
boots  and  shoes  in  cases,  the  central  girder  would  have  come 
down,  with  its  entire  load,  wrecking  the  building. 

The  combustion  in  this  case  was  not  of  sufficient  intensity 
even  to  destroy  all  of  the  wooden  cases  nor  all  of  the  merchan- 
dise. In  the  same  room  with  these  piers  were  naked  six-inch 
cast-iron  columns,  which  carried  their  loads  without  yielding. 
It  seems  to  me  it  would  he  hard  to  find  a  better  illustration  of 
the  danger  of  using  stone  for  either  bonds  or  caps  in  important 
weight  carrying  piers  than  this  fire  affords. 

One  "f  the  most  convincing  evidences  of  the  utter  unreli- 
ablity  of  stone,  especially  granite  or  marble,  for  building  pur- 
poses, was  observed  in  Washington  at  the  time  of  the  inaugu- 
ration ceremonies  of  March,  1901.  A  large  granite  post,  four 
feet  square,  at  the  entrance  to  the  grounds  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment was  ruined  by  the  burning  of  a  light  wooden  stand  erected 
tor  observing  the  procession.  When  the  small  amount  of  fuel 
is  taken  into  consideration,  and  the  fact  that  this  stone  column 
stood  out  of  doors,  with  a  free  circulation  of  air.  where  the  fire 
department  could  work  to  the  best  advantage,  with  the  result 
that  it  dissolved  like  so  much  loaf  sugar,  one  can  readily  im- 
agine what  would  be  the  consequences  of  relying  on  just  such  a 
sturdy  column  located  in  a  cellar,  surrounded  with  inflammable 
material  on  fire,  and  carrying  the  weight  of  a  building. 

The  apathy  of  building  departments,  of  architects,  masons 
and  legislators  and  of  some  underwriters,  in  this  matter  of  the 
danger  of  stone  as  a  building  material,  is  utterly  incomprehen- 
sible to  me.  If  columns  in  a  building  were  constructed  of 
glass  or  of  porcelain  there  would  be  an  immediate  outcry;  and 
yet  well  annealed  glass,  terra  cotta  or  porcelain  would  actually 
stand  the  effect  of  fire  and  water  for  a  longer  time,  probabh*, 
than  granite  or  mai'ble  columns. 

Some  day,  a  terrible  loss  of  life,  due  to  this  strange  dis- 
regard of  the  laws  of  safety,  will  educate  the  community  to 
the  danger  to  which  I  have  called  attention,  unless,  indeed,  the 


STONK  KoNDS  AND  CAPS. 


79 


fire  should  destroy  all  evidence  of  its  cause,  as  has  been  the 
case  undoubtedly  too  often  in  the  past.  The  Cammeyer  Build- 
in  j?,  whose  granite  bonds  and  caps  came  so  nearly  wrecking  the 
structure  (Chief  Bonner  thinks  the  piers  would  not  have  lasted 
more  than  half  an  hour  longer),  would,  in  its  collapse,  have 
destroyed  the  evidence  of  its  undoing  as  surely  as  the  falling 
temple  of  Gaza  destroyed  the  Sampson  who  pulled  its  pillars 
from  beneath  their  superimposed  load. 

The  writer  found  in  the  basement  of  a  large,  otherwise  well 
constructed  building,  in  St.  Louis,  a  fore  and  aft  girder,  on 
which  the  floor  joists  impinged,  supported  throughout  its  entire 
length  by  stone  columns — rough  monoliths,  just  as  they  came 
from  the  quarry.  These  would  unquestionably  have  yielded  to 
any  ordinary  fire  and  let  down  the  structure.  The  owner  was 
surprised  when  informed  that  underwriters  would  prefer  12- 
inch  wooden  columns.  A  better  construction,  however,  would 
be  cast-iron  columns,  covered  with  not  less  than  four  inches  of 
incombustible  material,  like  brick  or  porous  terra-cotta. 

As  already  stated,  all  ironwork  should  be  protected  by  in- 
combustible material,  and  inasmuch  as  wrought  iron  is  certain 
to  rust  unless  kept  well  painted  and  oiled,  and,  therefore,  would 
rust  out  of  sight  if  covered  up,  while  cast-iron  will  rust  only  to 
the  thickness  of  a  knife  blade,  the  latter  is  a  better  material 
for  columns,  especially  where  it  is  to  be  covered  up  by  fire- 
proofing. 

Even  so  eminent  an  authority  as  Mr.  Edward  Atkinson,  who 
has  contributed  so  much  to  knowledge  of  construction,  in  the 
treatise  on  standard  mill  construction  of  June,  1899,  recom- 
mends boiler  iron  for  bonds  in  piers.  I  would  advise  using 
cast-iron  in  all  cases,  as  wrought  iron  would  rust  to  the  point 
of  destruction  and  injure  the  integrity  of  the  pier.  Cast-iron, 
also,  should  alone  be  used  for  wall  plates  or  templates. 

There  may  be  said  to  be  four  systems  of  construction:  "Fire- 
proof"; "Slow  Burning",  or  so-called  "Mill  Construction"; 
ordinary  "Brick,  joisted  construction",  and  "Frame".  I  shall 
endeavor  to  treat  of  each  of  these,  paying  due  attention  to  the 
experience  of  underwriters  as  to  losses  and  to  the  most  reliable 
opinions  I  have  succeeded  in  getting  from  engineers,  architects 
and  other  practical  experts. 


80 


CONSTRUCTION. 


Tt  may  be  well  before  treating  of  these  in  turn,  however,  to 
dwell  upon  proper  rules  of  masonry  which  would  apply  to  all; 
and.  first,  as  to  materials. 

Bricks.  All  bricks  should  be  good.  hard,  well  burned  bricks. 
This  may  be  determined  by  breaking  a  Wrick,  to  see  thai  the 
inside  is  thoroughly  burned  and  hard.  In  every  kiln  there  is  a 
certain  amount  of  what  is  known  as  "pale"  or  unburned  brick. 
It  is  unfit  for  construction.  Some  bricks,  also,  have  rough 
surfaces,  boils,  swells,  etc.,  and  do  not  make  a  good  wall.  They 
should  be  discarded. 

Sand.  The  sand  used  for  mortar  in  all  buildings  should  be 
clean,  sharp,  grit  sand,  free  from  loam  or  dirt.  This  may  be 
tested  by  rubbing  it  between  the  fingers  and  holding  it  to  the 
ear,  to  detect  the  gritting  sound  indicative  of  sharp  sand ;  or 
may  be  determined  by  examining  the  grains  through  a  small 
magnifying  glass  to  see  that  they  have  sharp  edges,  or  by 
rubbing  it  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  to  see  that  it  does  not  dis- 
color, which  would  be  an  evidence  of  loam.  It  is  very  import- 
ant to  have  good  sand,  else  the  mortar  will  not  be  reliable.  As 
a  rule,  river  sand  is  bad,  too  smooth  from  attrition  and  should 
not  be  used. 

■•Lime  mortar"  is  made  of  one  part  of  lime  to  not  more  than 
four  parts  of  sand.    The  lime  should  be  thoroughly  burned,  of 

g  I  quality  and  properly  slaked  before  it  is  mixed  with  the 

sand.  It  should  be  slaked  in  a  box  made  of  boards,  or  planks, 
with  plank  bottom,  1'2  inches  deep,  and  water-tight.  The  lime 
should  be  introduced  one  cask  at  a  time,  to  which  two  barrels 
of  water  should  be  applied;  the  whole  covered  up  until  the 
result  is  a  smooth  uniform  paste.  Lime  should  not  be  slaked 
on  the  bare  ground,  and  yet  this  is  the  common  practice;  and 
the  water  should  be  added  in  volume,  by  upsetting  a  barrel  as 
quickly  as  possible. 

The  lime  should  be  properly  stirred  while  slaking,  and  when 
made  in  this  way  may  stand  for  weeks,  unless  cement  is  added, 
in  which  case  it  must  be  used  at  once. 

It  is  probable  that  no  feature  of  construction  is  so  neglected 
as  this  simple  but  vitally  important  matter  of  making  mortar. 
It  is  usually  entrusted  to  an  ignorant  laborer  who  knows  noth- 
ing whatever  about  the  matter  and  cares  less.    Good  mortar 


MORTAR,  CONCRETE,  ETC 


SI 


is  a  chemical  reaction  of  silica  and  lime,  resulting  in  "silicate 
of  lime,"  and  is  not  a  mere  mechanical  mixture,  such  as  must 
persons  suppose  it  to  be.  It  is  vitally  important  that  good  lump 
lime  and  "sharp"  sand  should  he  used  (air  slaked  lime  should 
not  he  used.)  Properly  mixed,  it  will  last  for  years,  and  is 
better  for  use  after  being  kept  awhile.  Probably  the  great 
tenacity  of  the  ancient  Roman  mortar  observable  to-day  in 
structures  still  existing  was  due  to  observation  of  these  import- 
ant precautions. 

-Lime  and  Cement  Mortar."  Lime  and  cement  mortar  should 
he  mixed  one  pari  cement,  three  parts  sand,  and  one  part  lime. 

"Cement  Mortar."  Cement  mortar  should  be  mixed  one  part 
of  cement  and  three  parts  sand.  It  is  stronger  if  mixed  one  to 
two.  Where  Portland  cement  is  used  the  test  is  that  it  should 
sustain  a,  tensile  strain  of  120  pounds  per  square  inch  after 
being  one  day  in  air;  and  300  pounds  per  square  inch  after  one 
day  in  air  and  six  days  in  water.  If  other  than  Portland 
cement  mortar  is  used,  it  should  stand  60  pounds  per  square 
inch  after  one  day  in  air,  and  120  pounds  per  square  inch  after 
one  day  in  air  and  six  days  in  water. 

Concrete.  Concrete  for  foundations  or  for  covering  cellar 
floors  should  be  mixed  one  part  cement,  two  parts  of  sand,  and 
five  parts  of  washed  gravel,  or  clean,  broken  stone  of  such  a 
size  as  to  pass,  in  any  way,  through  a  two-inch  ring.  It  should 
be  measured  accurately,  thoroughly  mixed  dry,  before  water  is 
added,  and  should  be,  when  ready  for  use,  capable  of  standing 
on  a  reasonably  steep  slope  without  the  water  running  from  it. 
It  should  then  he  rammed  carefully  in  place,  until  the  surface 
is  moist,  and  should  be  protected  from  disturbance,  by  walking 
or  otherwise,  for  at  least  twelve  hours. 

Although  the  underwriter  is  not  supposed  to  keep  track  of 
such  matters,  he  can  if  he  will,  while  watching  the  processes, 
do  much  to  secure  good  masonry  and  he  of  practical  assistance 
to  his  customer,  who  may  he  ignorant  of  such  subjects,  and  so 
save  him  from  having  a  poor  building,  in  case  his  architect  is 
not  careful  or  bis  contractor  not  honest. 

BRICK  WALLS. 

Airbricks  in  walls  should  he  laid  carefully,  every  sixth  course 


82 


CONSTRUCTION. 


being  a  "header"  course ;  that  is,  the  bricks  of  each  sixth  course 
should  be  laid  with  the  small  end  showing  in  the  face  of  the 
wall,  crossing  the  course  below  of  the  "stretchers,"  or  bricks 
laid  lengthwise  with  the  wall.  This  ensures  a  proper  "bond". 
Under  no  circumstances  should  a  Avail  consist  entirely  of 
"stretchers".  If.  however,  "face  bricks,"  enameled  or  other- 
wise, are  employed,  a  row  of  headers  would  be  objectionable. 
In  such  cases  the  bond  can  be  secured  by  clipping  off  the  cor- 
ners of  the  stretchers  and  laying  the  headers  in  the  angle  so 
that  they  bond  the  course  below. 

Where  beams  or  girders  rest  on  the  bearing  walls  there  should 
be  templates  of  cast-iron,  to  distribute  the  weight,  so  that  the 
entire  weight  may  not  rest  on  a  single  brick  but  be  distributed 
over  a  considerable  surface.  This  is  very  important,  especially 
in  the  case  of  iron  or  steel  beams.  Stone  is  not  good  for  tem- 
plates, although  generally  used. 

A  wall  should  not  have  a  greater  percentage  than  twenty- 
five  per  cciil  of  its  superficial  area  in  openings,  windows,  doors, 
thin  portions,  recesses  for  alcoves,  chases  or  channels  for  water, 
gas  or  other  pipes,  unless  strengthened  with  piers  to  make  up 
the  difference ;  and  no  chase  or  channel  should  be  constructed 
in  any  pier,  nor  should  a  chase  be  constructed  in  any  wall  for 
more  than  one-tlu rd  of  its  thickness;  and  then;  should  be  no! 
less  than  eight  inches  of  solid  brickwork  back  of  any  recess. 
This  is  important. 

That  portion  of  a  wall  which  is  below  the  ground,  and  thai 
portion  which  extends  above  the  roof  should  be  laid  in  cement 
mortal',  but  no  cement  or  plaster  of  Paris,  which  when  used  in 
mortar  is  known  as  "gauged  mortar,"  should  be  used  around 
the  ends  of  "wooden  floor  beams  or  girders.  Lime  mortar  does 
not  rot  wood  nor  rust  iron ;  the  lime  seems  to  be  a  preventive  of 
rust  as  well  as  of  decay;  but  cement  or  plaster  of  Paris  is 
almost  certain  to  rust  iron  and  rot  wood.  Dry  rot  may  soon 
eat  off  the  bearing  section  of  a  beam  or  girder.  A  building 
which  is  being  taken  down  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  street 
from  the  building  in  which  I  am  now  writing  has  been  con- 
structed in  this  way,  and  the  ends  of  the  floor  joists  or  beams 
are  thoroughly  decayed.  It  is  a  grave  question  how  much 
longer  they  would  have  lasted,  or  whether  they  would  have 


THICKNESS  OF  WALLS. 


83 


carried  the  weights  incident  to  stores  or  warehouses.  The 
building  has  been  occupied  for  offices. 

In  one  instance  coming  to  my  attention,  where  the  cracks 
around  the  floor  joists  in  the  wall  of  a  church  had  been  pointed 
up  with  plaster  of  Paris,  the  joists  rotted  to  the  point  of  yield- 
ing under  the  weight,  so  that  the  floor  fell. 

The  requisite  thickness  of  ;i  wall,  especially  of  a  hearing 
wall — i.  e.,  that  which  carries  the  floor  joists  or  girders,  usually 
the  side  walls — depends  on  its  height  and  length.  The  Uni- 
versal Schedule  standard  wall  is  1  2  inches  for  the  thinnest  por- 
tion, at  the  top,  increasing  four  inches  with  each  story  to  the 
bottom;  so  that  a  four-story  building  would  have  for  its  fourth 
story  VI  inches;  third  story,  Hi  inches;  second  story,  20  inches, 
and  first  story  24  inches — an  average  of  is  inches.  A  charge 
is  made  for  variations  from  this  standard,  determined  by  adding 
the  thickness  of  the  various  stories  of  a  building  to  he  rated  and 
dividing  by  the  number. 

Party  walls  should  be  four  inches  thicker  than  independent 
walls. 

The  New  York  Building  Law  rcqiures  in  a  building  60  to  75 
feet  in  height,  for  warehouse  or  mercantile  occupancy,  walls  20 
inches  in  thickness  above  the  foundation  walls  to  the  height  of 
25  feet,  or  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height,  and  thence  not 
less  than  10  inches  to  the  top.  This  would  be  a  good  wall,  but 
the  advantage  of  the  wall  recommended  as  standard  by  the 
Universal  Schedule,  is  that  it  would  present,  at  each  story,  a 
ledge  for  carrying  the  floor  joists  and  make  unnecessary  their 
insertion  for  too  great  a  distance  in  the  brickwork ;  and,  more- 
over, would  present  a  greater  thickness,  especially  at  the  bottom, 
in  case  of  lire  in  an  adjoining  building — a  very  important  matter, 
which  architects  and  builders  too  frequently  overlook.  It  should 
bs  borne  in  mind  that  the  thickness  of  walls  recommended  by  the 
Universal  Schedule  is  not  intended  merely  for  carrying  capacity 
as  bearing  walls,  (a  thinner  wall  would  answer  for  that  purpose) 
but  is  intended  to  exclude  the  heat  generated  by  a  fire  in  an 
adjoining  building,  and  should  be  required  in  the  compact  por- 
tions of  all  cities,  where  every  man  should  be  compelled  to  build 
with  reference  to  the  safety  of  his  neighbors.  Architects  and 
builders  generally  seem  to  have  in  mind  only  the  carrying 


S4 


CONSTRUCTION. 


capacity  of  walls,  and  to  lose  sight  of  this  important  fact.  As 
the  contents  of  buildings  burn  they  sink  to  the  bottom,  where 
enormously  high  temperatures  arc  sometimes  reached,  not  uu- 
likc  those  of  an  iron  forge  or  smelting  furnace.  It  is  for  this 
reason  thai  walls  should  increase  in  thickness  as  they  approach 
the  bottom,  on  the  same  principle  that  smelting  furnace  walls  are 
thicker  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top.  It  is  the  generally 
accepted  opinion  that  a  L2-inch  brick  wall  will  prevent  the  pass- 
age  of  fire,  but  a  much  thicker  wall  may  fail  to  confine  the  heat 
of  a  burning  building  sufficiently  to  prevent  the  ignition  of  com- 
bustible merchandise  or  other  material  in  an  adjoining  building. 

Several  years  ago  a  wooden  post  partially  built  into  the  brick- 
work of  a  boiler  setting  in  Mill  N  o.  1  of  the  Cocheco  Woolen 
Company,  at  Rochester,  N.  H.,  was  ignited,  although  twenty 
inches  of  brickwork  separated  the  wood  from  the  inside  of  the 
boiler  setting.  The  heat  of  a  burning  building  would  be  much 
greater  than  that  generated  in  this  case,  and  the  instance  cited 
substantiates  my  claim. 

In  an  isolated  location  an  owner  might  well  be  permitted  to 
construct  his  walls  with  reference  only  to  their  carrying  capacity, 
but  where  he  builds  in  the  compact  pari  of  a  city,  storing  com- 
bustible materials  from  cellar  to  roof,  he  should  be  required  so 
to  build  that  a  fire  in  his  premises  will  not  necessarily  destr<  >y  a 
neighbor's  property.  He  may,  with  propriety  and  without  in- 
justice, be  compelled  to  observe  a  law  which  will,  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  the  buildings  of  his  neighbors  outnumber  his  own  a 
thousand  to  one,  insure  that  he  will  be,  in  that  proportion,  the 
gainer  by  rules  which  secure  the  safety  of  all  though  imposing 
burthens  on  himself. 

If  an  architect  were  required  to  draw  specifications  for  a 
building  adjoining  others,  with  the  knowledge  beforehand  that 
its  entire  contents,  from  cellar  to  roof,  were  to  be  totally  con- 
sumed, and  he  were  under  a  bond  to  pay  for  damages  to  sur- 
rounding properties,  he  would  not  be  more  severe  in  his  exactions 
than  should  a  building  law  designed  to  protect  neighborhood 
rights  in  the  enjoyment  of  property.  A  mercantile  or  man- 
ufacturing building  in  combustion  sometimes  generates  a  greater 
heat  than  a  smelting  furnace. 

In  some  of  our  Western  cities  the  practice  is  growing  of  using 


Till  \  TILE  WALLS,  STONE  WALLS. 


85 


hollow  tiling-,  8  inches  thick,  bonded  like  ordinary  brickwork, 
for  enclosing  walls,  the  weight  being  carried  by  iron  columns 
riveted  to  the  beams  and  girders,  making  a  strong  cage-like 
structure.  A  tire  in  such  a  building  would  result  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  thin,  8-inch  tilework  and  would  leave  the  various 
stories  exposed,  like  that  of  the  Leonard  Building,  in  Detroit, 
destroyed  in  <  >ctober,  L897,  which  was  an  example  of  the  great 
danger  of  tins  style  of  construction.  It  was  ten  stories  high, 
and  as  fast  as  the  columns  or  wall  girders  were  warped  by  the 
heat  the  tiling  dropped  out  like  loose  bricks,  leaving  the  entire 
structure,  after  the  fire,  a  ragged  cage-work  of  iron,  with  very 
little  of  the  tiling  on  the  enclosing  Avails  and  few  of  the  floors 
intact.    The  contents  were,  of  course,  totally  destroyed. 

Another  instance  of  the  destruction  of  this  class  of  building 
may  he  found  on  page  108. 

If  buildings  should  be  constructed  on  the  lines  herein  laid 
down  the  conflagration  hazard  of  cities  would  be  so  materially 
reduced  that  current  rates  would  afford  underwriters  a  fail- 
profit . 

Parapet  Walls.  The  walls  of  a  building  adjoining  another 
should  be  carried  through  and  above  the  roof  to  the  height  of 
one  foot  (three  feet  in  the  case  of  warehouses,)  so  as  to  cut  off 
the  roof  beams  and  prevent  fire  passing  from  one  building  to 
another.  The  great  Boston  fire  owed  its  dimensions  largely  to 
the  fact  that  whole  blocks  had  been  constructed  without  refer- 
ence to  this  important  feature.  In  some  cases  it  was  possible  to 
walk  from  one  building  to  another  through  common  attics 
throughout  an  entire  block. 

STONE  WALLS. 

Stone  walls  should  not  he  less  than  IS  inches  thick  in  any 
section,  even  if  the  wall  is  built  of  coursed  stone,  with  dressed 
level  beds  and  vertical  joints.  Stone  walls  should  have  "head- 
ers" at  least  12  inches  in  width  and  8  inches  in  thickness  every 
three  feet  in  height  of  the  wall,  extending  clear  through  it. 
No  stones  should  be  used  for  "stretchers'"  that  do  not  bond  or 
extend  into  the  wall  at  least  six  inches,  and  no  stone  should  be 
laid  in  a  wall  in  any  other  position  than  on  its  natural  bed. 
The  stone  should  be  firmly  bedded  in  cement  mortar  and  all 


<  ONSTRUCTION. 


spaces  and  joints  thoroughly  filled.  It  requires  a  much  better 
workman  to  lay  a  stone  wall  than  to  lay  a  brick  wall,  and  for 
tliis  reason  and  fur  the  further  and  more  important  reason  that 
stone,  as  already  explained,  yields  readily  to  lire  and  water, 
hriek  walls  are  better  than  stone  for  fire-resisting  purposes. 

FLOOR  BEAMS  AND  JOISTS. 

These  should  never  be  less  than  :>"  x  10",  spaced  16  inches  on 
centres  (which  would  bring  them  1:5  inches  apart),  "cross- 
bridged"  by  "herring-bone''  bridging  2"  x  3"  every  five  feet. 
This  makes  a  rigid  floor.  3"x  1  2"  joists  are  preferable  to  ?>"  x  10" 
and  are  cheaper  in  the  long  run.  The  size  of  the  beams,  bow- 
ever,  should  be  determined  by  the  clear  span  and  the  character 
of  the  load.  For  10-foot  spans,  not  less  than  ■>"  x  L2"  should  be 
used  in  any  case. 


CROSS  BRIDGING  OR  STRUTS  BETWEEN  FLOOR  BEAMS. 

All  wooden  story  posts,  pillars  or  columns  should  be  not  less 
than  1 2  inches  in  diameter.  Fire  seldom  invades  a  post  of  this 
size  to  a  greater  depth  than  two  inches,  which  would  leave 
sufficient  weight-carrying  capacity  to  support  the  superimposed 
load. 

For  mill  construction  the  floor  beams,  also,  should  be  12"  x  12". 

A  mistake  frequently  made  in  erecting  buildings  is  to  rest 
floor  beams  and  girders  at  one  end  on  a  brick  or  stone  wall, 
which  when  the  masonry  is  set  becomes  immovable,  and  the 
other  end  on  a  wooden  partition,  which  will  yield  as  it  becomes 
di  ver,  from  shrinkage,  thus  disturbing  the  levels  and,  in  the 
case  of  furnace  flues  or  chimney  flues,  resulting  in  cracks  which 
may  be  dangerous,  to  say  nothing  of  injury  to  plaster.  It  is 
true  that  wood  shrinks  very  little  lengthwise,  but  there  is  nearly 
always,  at  the  top  or  bottom  of  a  partition,  wood  in  a  horizontal 
position,  where  the  weight  is  at  right  angles  with  the  grain  or 
fiber  of  the  wood,  and  shrinkage  will  inevitably  have  the  effect 
described.    An  insurance  agent  will  prove  a  good  friend  to  his 


EIRE  PLACES,  TRIMMER  ARCHES. 


customer  erecting  a  building  if  he  watches  for  and  points  out 
such  faults. 

The  ends  of  all  wooden  floor  and  roof  beams  where  they  rest 
in  brick  walls  should  be  cut  to  a  bevel  of  three  inches  of  their 
depth.  This  would  permit  of  their  falling-,  in  ease  of  being- 
burned  through  in  the  middle,  without  prying  out  the  wall;  in 
other  words,  it  would  make  them  "self-releasing."' 

In  no  ease  should  the  end  of  a  floor  or  roof  beam  be  supported 
on  stud  partitions,  except  in  frame  buildings. 

• 


TRIMMER  BEAM 


TAILBEAM 


TAILBEAM 


< 

Ld 
I 


Ld 
O 
<t 
—I 
Q. 
Ld 
CC 


BRICK 


TRIMMER 


TAILBEAM 


TAILBEAM  J 


FIRE.  PLACE  SHOWING  HEADER,  TRIMMER  AND  TAIL  BEAMS. 

All  wooden  beams  should  be  "trimmed"  away  from  Hues  ia 
chimneys,  whether  the  same  be  smoke  or  hot  air.  The  "trim- 
mer" beam — i.  e.  the  one  that  runs  parallel  with  the  side  of  the 
chimney — should  be  not  less  than  ten  inches  from  the  inside 
face  of  the  flue  and  not  less  than  two  inches  from  the  outside  of 
the  chimney  breast,  and  the  header  beam  not  less  than  twenty 
inches  from  the  outside  face  of  the  brick  or  stone  work  of  the 
chimney.    If  the  flue  is  intended  for  boilers  or  furnaces  the 


CONSTRUCTION. 


trimmer  beam  should  never  be  less  than  10  inches  from  the 
inside  of  the  flue.  The  "header"  beam,  in  front  of  a  fireplace, 
which  supports  the  trimmer  arch  and  which  carries  the  "tail" 
beams  of  the  floor,  or  those  beams  which  arc  mortised  into  it. 
should  be  u<>t  less  than  20  inches  from  the  chimney  breast — 24 
inches  would  be  better. 

Illustration,  page  89,  shows  the  proper  construction  of  a  flue 
and  the  trimmer  arch  for  the  hearth. 

The  agent  should  keep  supervision  of  a  building-  in  process  of 
construction,  especially  as  to  Hues. 

The  wooden  centres  Tinder  the  trimmer  arches  of  hearths 
should  be  removed  before  the  plastering  on  the  underside  of  the 
ceiling  below  is  finished. 

Each  tier  of  beams  should  be  anchored  to  the  side,  front,  rear 
or  party  walls  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  six  feet  apart,  with 
good,  strong,  wrought-iron,  self-releasing  anchors  not  less  than 
I  %  inches  by  %  inch  in  size,  well  fastened  to  the  side  of  the 
beam  by  two  or  more  nails  made  of  wrought-iron  at  least  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

Strength  of  beams.*  The  safe  carrying  capacity  of  wooden 
beams  for  uniformly  distributed  loads  is  determined  by  multi- 
plying the  area  in  square  inches  by  the  depth  in  inches  and 
dividing  the  product  by  the  span  of  the  beam  in  feet.  This 
result  is  multiplied  by 

70  for  hemlock, 

90  for  spruce  and  white  pine, 

120  for  oak, 

140  for  yellow  pine. 

In  computing  stresses,  allowance  should  always  be  made  for  the 
greater  weight  of  merchandise  when  soaked  with  water  thrown 
by  a  fire  department,  as  already  explained — an  important  matter 
too  frequently  overlooked  by  inspectors. 

Arrangement  of  merchandise  as  to  overloading.  &c.  An  intelli- 
gent inspector  will  examine  carefully  with  regard  to  the  loading 
of  floors.  Sometimes  the  stresses  are  increased  to  a  point  where 
even  sound  timber,  not  invaded  by  fire,  is  in  danger  and,  there- 
fore, to  a  point  where  the  floor  would  give  way  if  the  beams  or 
girders  should  be  even  slightly  charred.    For  heavy  machinery, 


*For  illustration,  see  page  605. 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  CHIMNEY. 


SECTIONS  OF  CHIMNEY  SHOWING  TRIMMER  ARCH  UNDER  HEARTH. 
PROPER  CONSTRUCTION  OF  FIRE  PLACE,  FLUE  AND 
FLUE  LINING,  ASH  CHUTE.  ETC. 


90  CONSTRUCTION. 

a  building  should  bo  specially  constructed,  and  the  strength  of 
materials  should  resist  ;i  load  of  from  three  hundred  to  five 
hundred  pounds  per  square  superficial  foot. 

In  places  of  public  assembly,  the  loading  should  be  for  not 
less  than  L20  pounds  per  square  foot,  especially  in  buildings 
where  dancing  or  other  rhythmic  movements,  or  tin;  steady 
drilling  of  troops,  would  place  an  unusual  and  systematic  press- 
ure' or  strain  on  the  floors,  like  the  effect  of  concussion.  It  is  a 
known  fact  that  troops  are  always  required  to  break  step  when 
crossing  bridges.  The  difference  in  strain  is  practically  that 
of  the  difference  between  the  pressure  of  a  weight  resting 
quietly  on  a  surface  and  the  strain  of  the  same  weight  dropped 
from  a  height  of  a  foot  or  two. 

Aisles  from  Windows.  It  is  important  thai  merchandise  should 
be  so  arranged  on  floors  that  aisles  be  left  in  front  of  windows, 
so  that  a  fire  starting  in  the  interior  may  be  observed  from  the 
outside.  Where  buildings  are  located  on  traveled  thorough- 
fares, an  important  advantage  is  lost  if  a  fire  cannot  be  detected 
by  pedestrians  at  any  hour  of  the  day  or  night.  A  few  years 
ago  the  store  of  Messrs.  Balderson  &  Daggett,  on  a  crowded 
thoroughfare  in  Boston,  was  not  discovered  at  noonday  to  be  on 
fire  until  after  it  had  been  burning  for  a  considerable  time  in 
the  interior  of  the  stock.  The  goods  had  been  so  piled  as  to 
obscure  the  windows,  and  a  loss  of  three  hundred  thousand 
dollars  resulted. 

Fibre  Storage.  It  is  also  very  important  that  in  fibre  stores 
and  warehouses  containing  cotton,  hemp,  jute,  &c,  space 
should  be  left  between  the  fibre  and  the  side  walls  to  allow  for 
swelling  or  expansion  when  the  material  becomes  wet  with 
water  thrown  by  the  fire  department.  The  expansion  of  fibre 
where  it  is  packed  close  is  sufficient  to  push  out  the  side  walls 
of  a  building  and  to  cause  a  total  loss. 

Floors  should  be  double.  So-called  "mill  construction"  or 
"slow  burning"  construction  would  require  not  less  than  three 
inches  of  solid  spruce  or  other  plank,  tongued  and  grooved,  a 
layer  of  waterproof  paper  and  a  floor  surface  board  %  inch 
thick — in  all  about  four  inches  of  solid  flooring. 

Tin  or  sheet-iron  dipped  in  red  lead  inserted  between  the  floors 
would  make  an  admirable  fire-resistant. 


STAIRCASE  TREADS,    KIRK  STOPS,  ETC 


01 


"Chases"  or  "channels"'  for  pipes,  electric-light  wires,  &c, 
should  be  fire-stopped  at  each  story,  as  already  explained  under 
the  head  of  Inspection.  In  short,  for  warehouse  and  mercantile 
purposes,  there  is  no  reason  why  every  floor  should  not  be 
thoroughly  cut  off  from  the  other  floors;  the  stairways,  ele- 
vators, &c,  being  in  a  hallway  separated  by  a  brick  partition, 
with  door  openings  protected  by  self-closing  fire  doors. 

Metallic  lathing  is  infinitely  preferable  to  wooden  lathing,  not 
only  because  it  is  a  better  fire-resistant,  but  because  it  insures 
good  work  on  the  part  of  the  plasterer,  who,  to  get  a  sufficient 
"key",  must  use  a  proper  amount  of  plaster.  It  will  also  stand 
a  greater  amount  of  fire  and  a  greater  amount  of  water  without 
damage  than  wooden  lathing.     It  is  also  good  for  partitions. 

Staircase  treads  should  never  be  of  stone,  unless  a  web  of 
iron  is  underneath  the  stone,  of  sufficient  strength  to  afford  a 
footing  for  firemen  and  tenants  in  case  of  fire.  Stone  will  yield 
to  fire,  and  a  staircase  with  such  treads  would  become  impass- 
able early  in  the  fight.  In  fireproof  buildings  it  is  quite  com- 
mon to  see  staircases  with  marble  or  slate  treads,  let  into  iron 
rabbets  in  an  iron  frame.  They  are  exceedingly  dangerous, 
unless  cut  off  in  a  fireproof  hall,  and  even  then  should  be  rein- 
forced with  iron  treads  underneath  the  stone,  as  already  sug- 
gested. 

Stair  treads  might  be  constructed  with  iron  frames  and  a  fire- 
proof composition  tread,  like  Lignolith — a  composition  which 
can  be  laid  like  cement  in  a  plastic  state,  and  sets  hard  in  about 
twelve  hours.  It  is  claimed  to  be  a  good  filling  for  fire  doors, 
between  two  metal  sheets;  but  at  this  writing  I  have  not  learned 
of  any  severe  test  of  it  in  this  form. 

Fire  Stops.  An  important  requisite  in  all  construction  is  to 
provide  fire  stops,  especially  in  hollow  spaces  between  studs 
from  one  story  to  another,  so  as  to  prevent  drafts.  Solid  con- 
struction is  an  enemy  of  fire;  hollow  construction,  affording 
drafts,  its  best  friend.  Staircases,  elevators,  well-holes,  chutes, 
dumb-waiter  shafts  and  channels  for  gas,  steam  or  other  pipes 
should  be  cut  off  at  each  story,  so  that  they  may  not  prove  con- 
veyors of  flame  from  one  floor  to  another.  In  the  case  of  well- 
holes,  this  is,  of  course,  impossible,  and  the  result  is  nearly 
always  the  destruction  of  the  building  and  its  contents,  as  was 


92 


CONSTRUCTION. 


the  case  in  the  two  fires  in  the  Home  building  at  Pittsburg,  as 
a  well-hole  simply  converts  the  whole  structure  into  one  com- 
partment, like  a  cylinder  stove. 

The  great  secret  of  fire-resisting  construction,  as  heretofore 
explained,  is  to  avoid  drafts  and  hollow  places  especially  in  side 
walls  or  partitions.  Solid,  substantial  finish  is  necessary  to  pro- 
duce a  standard  structure.  Hollow  spaces  are  apt  to  conceal 
nests  of  rats  and  mice,  which  carry  to  them  oily  waste  or  other 
dangerous  material  (even  friction  matches)  to  he  used  in  the 
construction  of  their  nests,  which,  almost  invariably,  are  placed 
in  the  warmest  places,  sometimes  in  contact  with  steam  pipes, 
where  spontaneous  combustion  may  result. 

At  one  of  the  earliest  meetings  of  the  Universal  Schedule 
Committee.  Mr.  K.  C  Richards  reminded  the  Committee  that 
the  vertical  openings  of  buildings  of  this  character  had  been 
important  factors  in  the  fire  loss,  fires  seldom  passing  through 
floors  even  of  the  ordinary  character  with  plastered  ceilings 
below,  with  such  rapidity  as  to  prevent  holding  the  fire  until  the 
city  fire  department  can  arrive  on  the  ground.  1  was  impressed, 
at  the  time,  with  the  importance  of  his  suggestion,  and  have 
never  had  reason  to  regret  the  method  in  which  the  Universal 
Schedule  charges  in  its  rate  for  these  openings  from  story  to 
story,  in  items  I'm  to  "i  5  inclusive. 

There  is  really  no  reason  why  all  warehouses  should  not  be 
so  constructed  as  to  make  each  floor  a  separate  fire  risk  for  at 
least  the  initial  twenty  minutes  of  combustion.  This  would 
give  the  fire  department  time  to  locate  the  fire  and  get  streams 
upon  it,  with  the  chances  largely  in  favor  of  extinction.  If  one- 
half  of  the  annual  fires  in  warehouses  could  be  confined  to  the 
floors  on  which  they  start,  the  insurance  companies  would  secure 
a  profit  and  the  loss  record  of  the  country  would  be  materially 
reduced.  Of  course,  this  is  possible  in  fireproof  construction  and 
in  slow-burning  construction;  but  even  in  ordinary  brick  build- 
ings it  would  be  possible,  at  slight  additional  expense,  to  secure 
construction  which  would  hold  a  fire,  for  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes,  to  the  floor  on  which  it  starts.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
suggest  that  every  minute  gained  at  the  inception  of  a  fire  is 
important. 

Elevators  and  staircases,  as  already  suggested,  may  be  cut  off 


WATER  PROOF  CELLARS.   DYNAMO  ROOM,  ETC 


93 


in  a  hallway  separated  by  a  brick  wall,  communicating  with 
the  rooms  by  fire  doors.  This  construction,  however,  is  seldom 
found  outside  of  warehouses. 

Dumb-waiter  shafts  should  be  of  incombustible  material,  and 
should  have  fireproof  doors  at  each  story. 

Cellar  Floors.  These  should  be  covered  with  three  inches  of 
good  concrete,  finished  with  one  inch  of  Portland  Cement  and 
sand  in  the  proportion  of  one  of  cement  to  two  of  sand. 

Concrete  cellar  floors  and  foundation  walls  laid  in  cement  are 
necessary  not  merely  to  insure  dryness  of  the  floor  and  as  a 
precaution  against  dampness,  but  as  an  important  protection 
from  a  fire  viewpoint.  In  case  of  fires  in  neighboring  buildings, 
especially  in  locations  where  the  soil  is  sandy,  stocks  in  cellars 
may  be  seriously  damaged  by  water.  At  the  great  fire  in 
Worth  Street,  New  York,  January  17,  1879,  the  companies  had 
to  pay  heavy  losses  by  reason  of  leaking  walls.  Goods  in  cellars, 
hundreds  of  feet  from  burned  buildings,  were  damaged  by  the 
water  thrown  by  the  fire  department,  which  percolated  through 
the  cellar  floors  and  the  foundation  walls.  For  this  reason 
cellars  should  be  water-proof.  The  outside  of  the  foundation 
wall  can  be  protected  with  a  heavy  course  of  strong  building 
paper,  well  smeared  with  liquid  asphalt,  in  addition  to  having 
the  wall  laid  in  cement. 

It  is  well  to  have  a  drain  to  the  sewer,  from  the  cellar, 
properly  trapped,  to  carry  off  surplus  water.  And  in  case  of  a 
steam  plant,  with  force  pump,  &c,  the  boiler-room  and  pump- 
room  should  be  so  arranged  that  water  thrown  by  the  depart- 
ment on  the  floors  above  may  be  carried  off  without  forcing  the 
engineer  to  leave  his  post  at  an  early  stage.  In  order  that  he 
may  be  encouraged  to  remain  to  the  last,  he  should  have  ready 
access  provided  for  his  escape  to  the  street,  without  making  it 
necessar}'  for  him  to  go  through  the  building. 

Grouting.  Grouting  is  liquid  cement  poured  in  to  fill  up  the 
interstices  in  walls  while  being  laid.  It  improves  brick  walls, 
but  is  objectionable  in  stone  walls  and  should  not  be  permitted 
in  them. 

Private  Electric  Plant.  Dynamo-Room.  &c.  This  should  be  in  a 
dry  location,  and  no  water  or  sprinkler  pipes  should  be  allowed 
to  pass  over  the  switchboard.    The  plan  now  is  to  have  a  water- 


04 


CONSTRUCTION. 


proof  hood  over  the  switchboard.  A  good  Hour  for  a  dynamo- 
room  is  one  made  of  %  inch  deck  glass,  covered  with  rubber 
matting,  to  prevent  the  man  in  charge  from  slipping.  He  is 
thus,  with  glass  and  rublx  r,  constantly  insulated  while  working 
about  the  dynamo,  and  the  arrangement  is  preferable  to  a 
wooden  floor  not  only  for  this  important  reason  but,  also,  because 
a  wooden  floor  is  apt  to  become  oil  soaked,  while  a  glass  floor 
can  easily  be  kept  clean. 

Vertical  Pipes  for  fire-extinguishing  purposes  should  be  from 
four  to  six  inches  in  diameter,  according  to  the  height  of  the 
building,  with  Siamese  connection  at  the  street  for  the  use  of 
the  city  fire  department.  They  save  the  time  of  carrying  hose 
up  stairs  in  case  of  fire.  One  six  inch  riser  pipe  may  be  made 
to  do  duty  for  two  adjoining  buildings  or  compartments  by 
erecting  it  in  the  dividing  wall  with  hose  outlets  on  each  side  of 
the  wall.  The  pipe  should  always  be  near  stair  landings,  how- 
ever, so  that  a  play  pipe  can  be  held  to  the  last  moment. 

Water  Tanks  for  supplying  sprinklers  or  vertical  pipes  should 
be  supported  by  brick  Avails  and  iron  beams,  so  arranged  that 
they  will  hold  their  places  to  the  last.  They  usually  rest  upon 
the  corner  of  the  building.  If  wedges  are  used  they  should  be 
of  iron.  This  is  a  very  important  matter.  In  the  case  of  the 
"fireproof"  Home  Building,  in  Pittsburg,  the  tank  gave  way 
owing  to  an  improper  disposition  of  the  beams  carrying  it. 
Tanks  supported  on  wooden  beams  are  extremely  dangerous. 
In  case  of  their  giving  way  the  enormous  weight  of  the  water 
and  tank  is  liable  to  wreck  the  building  and  endanger  the  lives 
of  firemen. 

Iron  Fronts.  Buildings  with  iron  fronts  are  objectionable 
when  in  blocks,  because  of  the  usual  neglect  of  builders  to  fill 
in  the  back  of  the  iron  with  brickwork,  as  required  by  most 
building  laws,  so  as  thoroughly  to  cut  off  all  connection  between 
the  two,  especially  where  two  buildings  adjoin  each  other,  and 
more  particularly  in  the  case  of  sloping  or  mansard  roofs.  At 
the  time  of  the  great  dry-goods  fire  in  New  York,  on  the  night 
of  January  IT,  1879,  which  destroyed  nearly  three  millions  of 
dollars  in  value,  the  writer,  standing  on  the  opposite  side  of 
Worth  Street,  could  not  understand  the  passage  of  fire  from 
one  store  building  to  another,  of  structures  supposed  to  be  sepa- 


STANDARD  HI  TEDING  OF  UNIVERSAL  SCHEDULE. 


95 


rated  by  fire  walls.  It  was  afterwards  explained  by  the  dis- 
covery of  the  fault  referred  to.  At  the  eaves,  in  the  most 
dangerous  sections  of  the  dividing  walls,  there  was  practically 
nothing  to  prevent  the  passage  of  fire  from  one  building  to 
another ;  and  before  the  firemen  on  the  street,  ignorant  of  the 
faulty  construction,  could  understand  the  matter,  the  fire  had 
gained  headway  throughout  the  block,  with  disastrous  results. 

These  general  specifications  for  fire-resisting  construction 
will  probably  not  need  greater  elaboration  for  the  intelligent 
agent,  as  he  can  easily  acquaint  himself,  if  he  desires,  with  the 
minor  details  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  ordinary  text-books 
for  the  use  of  architects  and  builders,  though  frequently  inter- 
mingled with  other  matters  of  picturesque,  artistic  effects,  &c, 
tending  to  conceal  their  practical  importance.  More  attention 
is  usually  devoted  in  architectural  books  to  such  matters  as 
finials,  gargoyles,  cornices,  &c,  &c,  than  to  the  all-important 
subject  of  protection  from  fire. 

Having  dwelt  upon  the  more  important  portions  of  a  building, 
it  may  be  well  to  specify  the  requirements  of  a  standard  build- 
ing, and  I  cannot  accomplish  this  better  than  by  taking  the 
standards  of  the  Universal  Schedule,  as  follows : 

"A  standard  non-fireproof  building  is  one  having  walls  of  brick 
or  stone  (brick  preferred) ;  not  less  than  12  inches  thick  at  top 
story  (18  inches  if  stone),  extending  through  and  30  inches  above 
roof  in  parapet  and  coped,  and  increasing  four  inches  in  thick- 
ness for  each  story  below  the  ground — the  increased  thickness 
of  each  story  to  be  used  for  beam-bearing  ledges ;  ground  floor 
area  not  over  2,500  square  feet  (or  25  x  100) ;  height  not  over 
four  stories,  or  50  feet ;  floors  of  two-inch  plank  (mill  construc- 
tion requires  three  inches),  covered  by  %  or  one-inch  flooring, 
crossing  diagonally,  with  waterproof  paper  or  other  approved 
waterproof  and  fire-resisting  material  between ;  wooden  beams, 
girders,  and  wooden  story  posts  or  pillars  twelve  inches  thick, 
(or  protected  iron  columns) ;  elevators,  stairways,  etc. ,  cut  off  by 
brick  walls  or  by  plaster  on  metallic  studs  and  lathing ;  com- 
munications at  each  floor  protected  with  approved  tin-covered 
doors  and  fireproof  sills ;  windows  and  doors  on  exposed  sides 
protected  by  approved  tin-covered  doors  and  shutters ;  walls  of 
flues  not  less  than  eight  inches  in  thickness,  lined  with  firebrick, 


96 


CONSTRUCTION. 


well-burned  clay  or  cast-iron,  and  throat  capacity  8"  x  12",  or 
96  square  inches;  all  floor  beams  to  be  trimmed  at  least  four 
inches  from  the  outside  of  flue;  heated  by  steam ;  lighted  by 
gas ;  cornices  of  incombustible  material;  roof  of  metal  or  tile, 
and  fire-stops  in  all  partitions  and  in  furred  walls,  if  any,  at  each 
floor." 

In  the  case  of  iron  beams,  not  fireproofed,  allowance  must  be 
made  at  each  end  for  expansion. 

The  law  of  the  City  of  New  York  requires  that  "all  iron 
beams,  girders,  lintels  or  columns,  before  the  same  are  used  in 
any  building,  shall  have  the  maximum  weight  which  they  will 
safely  sustain  stamped,  cast  or  properly  marked  in  a  conspicuous 
place  thereon  by  the  founder  or  manufacturer  of  same." 

Skylights  and  glass  windows  on  exposed  sides  which  cannot 
be  protected  with  metal  may  well  be  constructed  of  wire  glass, 
which  is  ;in  admirable  resistant  of  fire  and  almost  equal  to  fire- 
proof shutters. 

Brick  hot  air  furnaces.  The  following  are  the  requirements  of 
the  Building  Law  of  the  City  of  New  York,  and  also  of  the 
New  York  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  as  to  Furnaces: 

HEATING  FURNACES  AND  BOILERS. 

"A  brick-set  boiler  shall  not  be  placed  on  any  wood  or  combustible  floor  or 
beams. 

"Wood  or  combustible  floors  and  beams  under  and  not  less  than  three  feet  in 
front  and  one  foot  on  the  sides  of  all  portable  boilers  shall  be  protected  by  a 
suitable  brick  foundation  of  not  less  than  two  courses  of  brick  well  laid  in 
mortar  on  sheet  iron;  the  said  sheet  iron  shall  extend  at  least  twenty-four 
inches  outside  of  the  foundation  at  the  sides  and  front.  Bearing  lines  of 
bricks,  laid  on  the  flat,  with  air  spaces  between  them,  shall  be  placed  on  the 
foundation  to  support  a  cast  iron  ash  pan  of  suitable  thickness,  on  which  the 
base  of  the  boiler  shall  be  placed,  and  shall  have  a  flange,  turned  up  in  the 
front  and  on  the  sides,  four  inches  high,  said  pan  shall  be  in  width  not  less 
than  the  base  of  the  boiler  and  shall  extend  at  least  two  feet  in  front  of  it.  If 
a  boiler  is  supported  on  a  cast  iron  base  with  a  bottom  of  the  required  thick- 
ness for  an  ash  pan,  and  is  placed  on  bearing  lines  of  brick  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  specified  for  an  ash  pan,  then  an  ash  pan  shall  be  placed  in  front  of  the 
said  base  and  shall  not  be  required  to  extend  under  it. 

"All  lath  and  plaster  and  wood  ceilings  and  beams  over  and  to  a  distance  of 
not  less  than  four  feet  in  front  of  all  boilers  shall  be  shielded  with  metal.*  The 

*The  sheathing  should  not  touch  the  wood  but  must  have  an  air  space  of  at 
least  %  inch.    It  is  easy  to  nail  the  tin  leaving  such  a  space. 


HOT  A  IK  FUKNACES. 


distance  from  the  top  of  the  boiler  to  said  shield  shall  be  not  less  than  twelve- 
inches. 

"No  combustible  partition  shall  be  within  four  feet  of  the  sides  and  back 
or  within  six  feet  of  the  front  of  any  boiler,  unless  said  partition  shall  be  covered 
with  metal  to  the  height  of  at  least  three  feet  above  the  floor,  and  shall  extend 
from  the  end  or  back  of  the  boiler  to  at  least  five  feet  in  front  of  it;  then  the 
distance  shall  be  not  less  than  two  feet  from  the  sides  and  five  feet  from  the 
front  of  the  boiler. 

"All  brick  hot-air  furnaces  shall  have  two  covers,  with  an  air  space  of  at 
least  four  inches  between  them;  the  inner  cov<  r  of  the  hot-air  chamber  shall 
be  either  a  brick  arch  or  two  courses  of  brick  laid  on  galvanized  iron  or  tin, 
supported  on  iron  bars;  the  outside  cover,  which  is  the  top  of  the  furnace, 
shall  be  made  of  brick  or  metal  supported  on  iron  bars,  and  so  constructed  as 
to  be  perfectly  tight,  and  shall  be  not  less  than  four  inches  below  any  com- 
bustible ceiling  or  floor  beams. 

"The  walls  of  the  furnace  shall  be  built  hollow  in  the  following  manner: 
One  inner  and  one  outer  wall,  each  four  inches  in  thickness,  properly  bonded 
together  witli  an  air  space  of  not  less  than  three  inches  between  them. 

"Furnaces  must  be  built  at  least  four  inches  from  all  woodwork. 

"The  cold  air  boxes  of  all  hot  air  furnaces  shall  be  made  of  metal,  brick  or 
other  incombustible  material,  for  a  distance  of  at  least  ten  feet  from  the 
furnace. 

In  this  matter  the  law  does  not  go  far  enough ;  I  endeavored 
to  have  it  changed,  but  was  unsuccessful.  The  entire  cold  air 
box  should  he  of  metal ;  it  costs  but  little  more  than  a  wooden 
box;  galvanized  iron  with  soldered  joints  is  the  best.  Not  only 
is  this  advisable  on  account  of  the  danger  from  hre,  but  also  to 
insure  that  the  poisonous  air  of  the  cellar,  from  wet  coal,  de- 
caying vegetables,  etc.,  is  not  pumped  through  the  living-rooms 
of  the  house,  as  it  will  be  if  a  wooden  cold  air  box  is  used. 
Wood  as  it  shrinks  with  seasoning,  changes  of  temperature, 
etc.,  opens  seams  or  cracks. 

"All  portable  hot  air  furnaces  shall  be  placed  at  least  two  feet  from  any  wood 
or  combustible  partition  or  ceiling,  unless  the  partitions  and  ceilings  are 
properly  protected  by  a  metal  shield,  when  the  distance  shall  be  not  less  than 
one  foot. 

""Wood  floors  under  all  portable  furnaces  shall  be  protected  by  two  courses 
of  brickwork  well  laid  in  mortar  on  sheet  iron.  Said  brickwork  shall  extend 
at  least  two  feet  beyond  the  furnace  in  front  of  the  ash  pan." 

Smoke-Pipes.  No  smoke-pipe  for  a  furnace  should  pass  un- 
protected through  the  floors  of  a  building,  but  should  enter  a 
good  brick  flue  at  least  12  inches  from  any  woodwork.  The 
underside  of  any  beams  or  woodwork  above  the  smoke-pipe 


98 


CONSTRUCTION. 


should  be  protected  with  sheet  tin;  and  where  tin  is  used  in  this 
way  as  a  guard  it  should  never  be  in  close  contact  with  the 
wood,  as  tin  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat,  but  should  be  so 
fastened  as  to  leave  an  air  space  between  it  and  the  wood. 
Bright  tin  is  better  than  sheet  iron,  as  it  reflects  the  heat. 
Where  any  metal  shield  is  in  close  contact  with  woodwork  it 
serves  only  to  conceal  charring,  without  preventing  it. — an  im- 
portant point  to  be  remembered — so  important  that  I  trust  1 
shall  be  justified  in  frequently  referring  to  it  under  different 
subjects  to  which  it  is  pertinent. 

REGISTERS. 

"Registers  located  over  a  brick  furnace  shall  be  supported  by  a  brick  shaft 
built  up  from  the  cover  of  the  hot-air  chamber;  said  shaft  shall  be  lined  with 
a  metal  pipe,  and  all  wood  beams  shall  1»'  trimmed  away  not  less  than  four 
inches  from  it. 

"Where  a  register  is  placed  on  any  woodwork  in  connection  with  a  metal 
pipe  or  duct,  the  end  of  the  said  pipe  or  duct  shall  be  flanged  over  on  the 
woodwork  under  it 

"All  registers  for  hot-air  furnaces  placed  in  any  woodwork  or  combustible 
floors  shall  have  stone  or  iron  borders  firmly  set  in  plaster  of  pans  or  gauged 
mortar. 

"All  register  boxes  shall  be  made  of  tin  plate  or  galvanized  iron  with  a  flange- 
on  the  top  to  fit  the  groove  in  the  frame,  the  register  to  rest  upon  the  same; 
there  shall  be  an  open  space  of  two  inches  on  all  sides  of  the  register  box,  ex- 
tending from  the  under  side  of  the  border  to  and  through  the  ceiling  below. 
The  said  opening  shall  be  fitted  with  a  tight  tin  or  galvanized  iron  casing,  the 
upper  end  of  which  shall  be  turned  under  the  frame. 

'  'When  a  register  box  is  placed  in  the  floor  over  a  portable  furnace,  the  open 
space  on  all  sides  of  the  register  box  shall  be  not  less  than  three  inches. 

"When  only  one  register  is  connected  with  a  furnace  said  register  shall  have 
no  valve." 

hot  air  pipes  or  flues.  Probably  the  best  method  of 
carrying  metal  hot  air  flues  or  pipes  through  stud  and  plaster 
partitions  from  floor  to  floor,  in  buildings  where  they  cannot  be 
carried  up  in  brick  walls,  is  to  have  the  pipe  double,  with  an 
air  space  between  the  inner  and  outer  pipe  of  at  least  half  an 
inch,  and  then  to  pour  gauged  mortar  (as  already  explained, 
this  is  mortar  mixed  with  plaster  of  Paris)  around  the  pipe,  so 
as  to  fill  up  the  space  between  the  wooden  lath  and  the  wooden 
studs  and  the  pipe  itself.  It  is  customary  to  tin  the  studs,  and 
the  advantage  of  this  protection  is  largely  lost  if  the  tin  is  nailed 


HOT  AIR  PIPES,   RANGES,  ETC. 


99 


tightly  to  the  stud  instead  of  leaving  an  air  space  behind  it. 
Where  the  tin  is  nailed  to  the  stud  without  an}T  air  space,  and 
the  hot  air  flue  touches  it,  the  only  advantage  gained  is  in  a 
greater  thickness  of  tin.  Where  the  tin  pipe  is  not  double,  and 
where  gauged  mortar  cannot  be  used,  it  can  be  made  more  safe 
by  wrapping  it  with  asbestos  board. 

The  following  is  the  New  York  law  as  to  hot  air  pipes. 

HOT  AIR  PIPES  IN  STUD  PARTITIONS. 

"Woodwork  near  hot-air  pipes  shall  be  guarded  in  the  following  manner: 
A  hot  air  pipe  shall  be  placed  inside  another  pipe,  one  inch  larger  in  diameter 
or  a  metal  shield  shall  be  placed  not  less  than  one-half  inch  from  the  hot  air 
pipe;  the  outside  pipe  or  the  metal  shield  shall  remain  one-and-a-half  inches 
away  from  the  woodwork  and  the  latter  must  be  tin  lined,  or  in  lieu  of  the 
above  protection,  four  inches  of  brickwork  may  be  placed  between  the  hot  air 
pipe  and  the  woodwork.  This  shall  not  prevent  the  placing  of  metal  lath  and 
plaster  directly  on  the  face  of  hot  air  pipes  or  the  placing  of  woodwork  on 
such  metal  lath  or  plaster,  provided  the  distance  is  not  less  than  seven-eights 
of  an  inch. 

"No  vertical  hot  air  pipe  shall  be  placed  in  a  stud  partition,  or  in  a  wood  in 
closure,  unless  it  be  at  least  eight  feet  distant  in  a  horizontal  direction  from  the 
furnace. 

HOT  AIR  PIPES  IN  CLOSETS. 

"Hot  air  pipes  in  closets  shall  be  double,  with  a  space  of  one  inch  between 
them. 

HORIZONTAL  HOT  AIR  PIPES. 

"Horizontal  hot  air  pipes  shall  be  placed  six  inches  below  the  floor  beams  or 
ceiling;  if  the  floor  beams  or  ceiling  are  plastered  and  protected  by  a  metal 
shield,  then  the  distance  shall  be  not  less  than  three  inches." 

RANGES  AND  STOVES. 

"Where  a  kitchen  range  is  placed  from  twelve  to  six  inches  from  a  wood 
stud  partition,  the  said  partition  shall  be  shielded  with  metal  from  the  floor  to 
the  height  of  not  less  than  three  feet  higher  than  the  range;  if  the  range  is 
within  six  inches  of  the  partition,  then  the  studs  shall  be  cut  away  and  framed 
three  feet  higher  and  one  foot  wider  than  the  range,  and  filled  in  to  the  face  of 
the  said  stud  partition  with  brick  or  fireproof  blocks,  and  plastered  thereon. 

"All  ranges  on  wood  or  combustible  floors  and  beams  that  are  not  supported 
on  legs  and  have  ash  pans  three  inches  or  more  above  their  base,  shall  be  set 
on  suitable  brick  foundations,  consisting  of  not  less  than  two  courses  of  brick 
well  laid  in  mortar  on  sheet  iron,  except  small  ranges  such  as  are  used  in  apart- 
ment houses,  that  have  ash  pans  three  inches  or  more  above  their  base,  which 
shall  be  placed  on  at  least  one  course  of  brickwork  on  sheet  iron  or  cement. 

"No  range  shall  be  placed  against  a  furred  wall. 


1(111 


CONSTRUCTION. 


"All  lath  and  plaster  or  wood  ceilings  over  all  large  ranges  and  ranges  in 
hotels  and  restaurants,  shall  be  guarded  by  metal  hoods  placed  at  least  nine 
inches  below  the  ceiling. 

"A  ventilating  pipe  connected  with  a  hood  over  a  range  shall  be  at  least 
nine  inches  from  all  lath  and  plaster  or  woodwork,  and  shielded.  If  the  pipe 
is  less  than  nine  inches  from  lath  and  plaster  and  woodwork,  then  the  pipe 
shall  be  covered  with  one  inch  of  asbestos  plaster  on  wire  mesh. 

"No  ventilating  pipe  connected  with  a  hood  over  a  range  shall  pass  through 
any  floor. 

"Laundry  stoves  on  wood  or  combustible  floors  shall  have  a  course  of  bricks, 
laid  on  metal,  on  the  floor  under  and  extended  t\vent  \  four  inches  on  all  sides 
of  them. 

"All  stoves  for  heating  purposes  shall  be  properly  supported  on  iron  legs 
resting  on  the  floor  three  feet  from  all  lath  and  plaster  or  woodwork;  if  the 
lath  and  plaster  or  woodwork  is  properly  protected  by  a  metal  shield,  then 
i  he  distance  shall  be  not  less  than  eighteen  inches. 

"A  metal  shield  shall  be  placed  under  and  t  welve  inches  in  front  of  the  ash 
pan  of  all  stoves  that  are  placed  on  wood  floors. 

"All  low  gas  stoves  shall  be  placed  on  iron  stands,  or  the  burners  shall  be  at 
least  six  inches  above  the  base  of  the  stoves,  and  metal  guard  plates  placed 
four  inches  below  the  burners,  and  all  woodwork  under  them  shall  be  covered 
with  metal." 

HONEST  BUILDERS  AND  CONTRACTORS. 

While  there  are  numerous  "jerry-builders"  engaged  in  erect- 
ing buildings  to  be  sold  to  ignorant  purchasers,  there  are  com- 
mendable exceptions,  who  do  good  work  even  in  the  absence  of 
building  laws  and  their  honesty  generally  proves  to  be  the  best 
policy. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  FRAME  BUILDINGS. 

It  is  doubtful  if  there  is  any  subject  of  which  greater  miscon- 
ceptions exist,  on  the  part  of  property-owners,  than  this  of  the 
fire-resisting  qualities  of  frame  buildings.  As  usually  con- 
structed, they  are,  of  course,  quickly  destroyed;  but  if  built 
properly,  with  the  spaces  between  studs  filled  in  with  brick  or 
other  fire-resisting  material,  with  all  drafts  cut  off,  with  sub- 
stantial timber  for  posts,  and  beams,  and  with  wire  lathing, 
buildings  may  be  constructed  of  frame  so  that  they  will  actually 
resist  fire  longer  than  improperly  constructed  brick  buildings. 
In  fact,  a  large  proportion  of  brick  buildings  are  really  wooden 
structures  of  the  most  flimsy  character  surrounded  by  enclosing 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  FRAME  BUILDINGS. 


10] 


walls  of  brick  which,  while  affording  a  greater  resistance  to 
outside  fires  than  frame  enclosing  walls,  do  not,  in  any  way, 
retard  the  destruction  of  their  own  contents  and  framework  in 
case  fire  is  once  started  inside  the  structure.  In  frame  build- 
ings, as  in  brick  buildings,  the  great  secret  of  safety  is  to  avoid 
concealed  spaces,  especially  in  partitions,  which  form  upright 
flues  to  increase  drafts. 

In  isolated  locations,  as  in  the  case  of  country  houses,  a  frame 
dwelling  house  with  a  metal  or  slate  roof,  offering  resistance  to 
chimney  sparks,  with  well  constructed  flues,  might  be  a  better 
risk  than  a  brick  dwelling  house  with  a  shingle  roof. 

An  underwriter  should  thoroughly  understand  the  proper 
construction  of  buildings,  both  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting 
them  and  of  determining  their  value  for  purposes  of  insurance, 
and  for  adjusting  losses. 

The  illustration  page  102,  will  show  the  names  of  the  various 
timbers — braces,  girts,  rafters,  &c. — and  enable  any  one,  with 
a  little  study,  to  understand  so-called  "Balloon  Frame"  and 
"Braced  Frame"  construction.  In  the  braced  frame  the  "girts" 
or  beams  for  carrying  the  floor  beams  of  the  floors  above  the 
first  are  framed  into  the  corner  posts,  which  should  extend  to 
the  wall  plate,  those  supporting  the  ends  of  beams  being  dropped 
to  secure  a  level  with  the  side  girts  (for  this  reason  called  "drop 
girts".)  On  these  girts  the  studs  of  the  outer  walls  or  partitions 
are  framed,  so  that  each  story  has  a  separate  set  of  studs.  At 
all  angles,  also,  there  are  "angle-braces"  tending  to  strengthen 
the  structure.  Joints  are  secured  usually  by  wooden  pins. 
When  a  house  is  to  be  erected,  the  first  story  beams  should  be 
sized  and  leveled  upon  the  sill  and  upon  the  foundation  wall, 
and  their  tops  made  level.  They  should  be  well  spiked  to  the 
sill.  The  beams  of  the  upper  floors  should  be  notched  down  on 
the  girts  and  sized  upon  the  partition  caps,  spiked  strongly  to 
form  ties  across  the  building.  All  the  sills,  girts  and  posts 
should  be  securely  framed  into  each  other,  mortised  and  fast- 
ened with  hard  wood  puis  or  '  'treenails''  and  angle-braces. 

Balloon  Frame.  In  the  balloon  frame  the  studs  as  well  as 
the  corner  posts  are  carried  from  the  sill  (i.  e.,  the  flat  timber 
which  lies  along  the  top  of  the  foundation  wall)  continuously  to 
the  wall  plate  (usually  called  the  "plate")  at  the  top  of  the  wall. 


102 


BRACED  FRAME  SHOWING  NAMES  OF  TIMBERS,  SHEATHING. 
TRUSSED  WINDOW,  ETC. 


FRAME  CONSTRUCTION. 


and  the  floor  beams  of  the  second  and  third  stories  are  carried 
by  2"  x  6"  pieces  called  "ribbons"  spiked  securely  to  the  studs. 
These  ribbons  should  be  let  into  the  posts  and  studs  so  as  to 
rest  upon  the  shoulder  formed  and  not  depend  alone  upon  the 
nails  or  wooden  pins. 

The  balloon  frame  costs  somewhat  less  than  the  braced  frame, 
but  if  well  braced  with  long  struts  and  interties,  is  strong  enough 
for  all  practical  purposes.  Indeed,  many  builders  regard  a 
balloon  frame  structure  as  stronger  than  the  braced  frame,  and 
better  calculated  to  resist  tornadoes  or  severe  wind  stresses. 

In  both  the  balloon  and  braced  frame  the  outer  or  enclosing 
studding  is  sheathed  with  sheathing  boards  for  the  reception  of 
the  shingles  or  clapboards  (whichever  be  used),  and  if  this  sheath- 
ing is  put  on  properly  it  is  an  additional  element  of  strength. 
In  the  case  of  the  balloon  frame,  the  vertical  or  upright  timbers, 
as  already  stated,  are  in  single,  unbroken  lengths  from  the  sill 
to  the  wall  plate.  If  it  is  necessary  to  splice  two  of  these  joists 
together  the  splicing  should  be  done  by  "fish-plates"  so  called, 
or  splices  of  inch  board,  three  feet  in  length,  nailed,  like  splints 
for  a  broken  limb,  securely  on  both  sides  of  the  splice.  If  the 
bearing  is  true  and  square  a  spliced  stud  is  strong  enough,  but 
there  should  not  be  more  than  two  or  three  of  these  in  any  side 
wall  or  partition. 

Where  it  is  necessary  for  any  partition  to  foot  or  rest  upon  a 
tier  of  floor  beams  it  should  pass  between  the  beams  and  rest 
upon  a  "sole",  or  strip  of  yellow  pine,  not  less  than  one  inch 
thick,  of  the  full  width  of  the  studs,  the  studs  of  upper  floors 
being  so  arranged  that  each  will  come  directly  over  the  lower 
stud.  There  should  be  as  little  horizontal  timber  between  the 
uprights  of  a  structure  as  possible,  as  timber  shrinks  horizon- 
tally, and  not  vertically. 

Each  tier  of  floor  beams  should  be  cross-bridged  at  intervals 
of  five  to  seven  feet  in  the  length,  as  already  explained  page  86. 
The  cross-bridging  should  be  cut  on  a  bevel  so  as  to  make  a 
secure  brace,  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

As  already  explained,  careless  builders  sometimes  simply  nail 
short  boards  between  beams,  which  do  not  act  as  braces  and 
only  add  to  the  weight. 

An  important  point  to  be  regarded  in  all  structures,  even  from 


104 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  FRAME  BUILDINGS. 


the  underwriter's  point  of  view,  (already  referred  to  in  Brick 
joisted  construction  and  properly  referred  to  here)  is  to  have  the 
shrinkable  timber  balanced ;  that  is,  as  much  in  one  of  two 
parallel  walls  as  in  the  other,  so  that  as  the  building  settles, 
when  the  wood  shrinks,  it  will  settle  evenly.  Wherever  this 
rule  is  not  observed,  or  wherever  one  wall  is  of  brick  or  stone 
and  the  other  of  wood,  there  will  be  uneven  settling,  tending  to 
make  chimneys  dangerous,  especially  those  which  rest  on  floor 
beams  or  those  incorporated  with  the  wooden  framework,  as 
where  beams  or  joists  are  fastened  into  the  brickwork  of  the 
chimney. 

The  names  of  the  various  members  of  a  structure  may  be 
found  by  reference  to  the  diagram  page  102.  A  truss  is  a  me- 
chanical contrivance  like  that  shown  over  the  window  and  has 
enough  weight  carrying  capacity  to  relieve  the  strain  on  the 
frame.  The  construction  shown  by  the  king  post,  collar  beam 
and  queen  post  in  the  roof,  repeated  with  every  rafter,  or  with 
alternate  rafters,  tends  greatly  to  strengthen  a  roof ,  and  at  very 
slight  expense.  In  the  illustration  it  will  be  seen  that  the  effect 
is  a  truss  roof,  and  it  may  be  secured  by  simply  nailing  cheap 
spruce  strips,  cut  out  of  two-inch  plank,  four  inches  wide,  to 
the  rafters,  resting  on  queen  posts  running  to  tbe  plate  and  to 
the  ceiling  beams  of  the  floor  below.  Such  a  roof  would  resist 
more  than  an  ordinary  weight  of  snow  and,  in  the  case  of  an 
average  building,  would  not  cost  more  than  twenty  or  twenty- 
five  dollars.  The  owner  of  any  building  would  probably  ap- 
preciate the  suggestion  made  to  him  in  time,  for  it  is  a  cheap 
precaution  frequently  overlooked  by  builders  and  architects. 

That  portion  of  the  wall  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  be- 
tween the  foundation  and  the  building  is  usually  called  the 
"underpinning." 

Rafters.  Main  rafters  should  not  be  less  than  2"  x  8",  set  1(3" 
on  centres.  If  they  are  unsupported  for  a  greater  span  than 
1 8  feet  they  should  be  larger. 

"Plates"  in  an  ordinary  dwelling  should  be  not  less  than 
4"  x  6";  "posts"  not  less  than  4"  x  8";  sills  not  less  than  4"  x  8"; 
attic  ceiling  joists  not  less  than  3"  x  8";  braces  not  less  than 
4"  x  6" ;  floor  joists  or  beams  not  less  than  3"  x  10" — better  3"  x  12". 

Roof.    An  ordinary  shingle  roof  is  liable  to  leak  in  every  rain 


LEAKING  ROOFS. 


1 1 15 


following  a  drouth,  owing  to  the  shrinkage  of  the  shingles  and 
until  they  swell  with  the  moisture.  An  inexpensive  precaution 
which  would  protect  the  plastering  and  the  paper  of  the  house 
from  annoying  leaks  is  that  of  fastening  heavy  water-proof, 
tarred  building  paper  under  the  rafters  for  the  full  size  of  the 
roof,  commencing  at  the  peak  and  lapping  each  successive  sheet 
of  paper  three  inches  over  the  lower  edge  of  the  one  above  it, 
providing  for  any  leak  of  the  shingles  above  to  run  off  at  the 
eaves  outside  of  the  building  and  clear  of  the  plate.  In  ex- 
pensive buildings,  sheets  of  copper  might  well  be  used.  Zinc 
would  be  less  expensive,  but  would  not  last  so  long  as  the  cop- 
per; but  probably  a  heavy  quality  of  good,  sized  building  paper 
would  answer  every  purpose.  Such  a  roof  would  be  cooler  in 
summer  and  warmer  in  winter. 

(Note.  For  full  specifications  for  the  construction  of  a  build- 
ing, woodwork,  mason  work,  plumbing,  etc.,  etc.,  see  index.) 


FIREPROOF  CONSTRUCTION. 


It  is  probable  that  few  subjects  connected  with  construction 
are  more  generally  misunderstood  than  this  of  fireproof  building. 
The  average  individual  regards  iron  and  stone  as  fireproof.  He, 
at  the  same  time,  overlooks  the  fact,  strangely  enough,  that 
glass  windows  are  not  fire-resisting.  Even  underwriters,  in 
estimating  rates  on  fireproof  buildings  and  their  contents,  often 
overlook  the  fact  that  a  building  intended  to  be  fireproof,  but 
offering  nothing  more  substantial  as  a  fire  shield  against  an  out- 
side fire  than  ordinary  plate  glass  in  a  wooden  sash  and  frame, 
is  even  more  likely  to  have  its  contents  thoroughly  destroyed  by 
an  exposure  fire  than  an  ordinary  building  of  wooden  joisted 
construction ;  for  the  fireproof  structure,  as  already  stated,  holds 
its  merchandise  and  other  contents  suspended  where  they  will 
be  the  more  effectually  destroyed.  The  wooden  joisted  building, 
on  the  other  hand,  would  probably  collapse,  and  no  small  salvage 
might  be  realized  out  of  heaps  of  merchandise  in  the  cellar  so 
covered  up  that  combustion  would  be  retarded  for  want  of  air, 
on  the  same  principle  that  a  pile  of  wood  shavings  is  seldom 
invaded  by  fire  to  a  greater  depth  than  ten  or  twelve  inches. 

A  further  reason  why  the  contents  of  fireproof  buildings  are 
so  thoroughly  destroyed  when  once  ignited  is  that  the  fireproof 
construction,  like  a  reverberating  furnace  or  oven,  confines  the 
heat  until  extremely  high  temperatures  are  reached.  Indeed, 
firemen  who  have  had  experience  in  fighting  fires  in  fireproof 
buildings  claim  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  remain  on  a  floor 
where  merchandise  is  on  fire,  so  intense  is  the  combustion ;  every- 
thing ignitible  is  shriveled  up.  The  principal  advantage,  there- 
fore, after  all,  of  a  fireproof  building  is  the  separation  of  the 
various  stories  from  each  other ;  and  this  may  be  largely,  if  not 
entirely,  lost  if  the  building  has  well-holes,  like  the  Horne  build- 
ing, or  if  staircases  and  elevators  are  not  cut  off  in  fireproof 


PROTECTION  OF  IRON  MEMBERS. 


10: 


hallways.  Architects  usually  overlook  the  fact  that  stone  is 
one  of  the  most  dangerous  materials,  as  already  explained,  when 
attacked  alternately  by  fire  and  water,  and  that  iron  may  so 
expand  under  heat  as  to  thrust  out  the  side  walls  of  a  building ; 
if,  indeed,  iron  columns  do  not  collapse  under  their  weakened 
capacity  to  resist  strains  due  to  high  temperatures.  It  is  a  fact 
that  wooden  columns,  especially  of  oak,  twelve  inches  square, 
would  stand  an  enormously  high  temperature  without  having 
their  carrying  capacity  interfered  with,  fire  burning  only  to  the 
depth  of  say  two  inches. 

Indeed,  it  is  important  that  iron  should  be  protected  by  fire- 
proof material  wherever  used,  and  that  stone  should  not  be  used 
in  vital  portions  of  the  structure,  especially  in  treads  for  stair- 
cases, as  it  would  yield  early  in  the  fire.  Such  treads,  whether 
of  marble  or  slate,  should  be  supported  by  iron  webs,  of  sufficient 
strength  and  endurance  to  form  a  footing  in  case  the  stone  yields. 
This  is  a  precaution  almost  universally  overlooked,  as  already 
explained. 

The  accompanying  illustration  of  the  Post  &  Mc  Cord  Ma- 
chine-Shop, in  Brooklyn,  in  1900,  constructed  of  angle-iron,  with 
curtain  walls  of  terra  cotta  tile,  shows  how  dangerous  may  be  a 
construction  intended  to  be  fireproof,  but  consisting  only  of  thin 
incombustible  curtain  walls  and  unprotected  ironwork.  The 
underwriter  should  never  lose  sight  of  the  fact,  to  which  I  have 
so  frequently  called  attention  in  these  pages,  that  iron,  owing  to 
its  tendency  to  expand  when  heated,  is  one  of  the  most  danger- 
ous materials  that  can  be  used  in  a  building,  unless  guarded 
against  direct  contact  with  fire. 

Cast-iron,  on  the  other  hand,  as  heretofore  explained,  is  not 
liable  to  rust  to  the  danger  point,  and  for  this  reason  is  prefer- 
able for  story  posts  or  pillars  when  covered  up  where  it  cannot 
be  examined.  Indeed,  cast-iron  is  better  than  wrought-iron  or 
steel  for  resisting  fire,  not  withstanding  that  its  fusing  point  is 
lower  than  that  of  wrought  iron  or  steel. 

An  ideal  fireproof  building  would  be  one  consisting  of  sub- 
stantial walls  of  brick,  well  burned  brick  being  a  better  fire 
resistant  than  any  other  material ;  with  all  ironwork  protected 
by  fireproof  material ;  with  all  floors  properly  cut  off  from  each 
other ;  the  staircases  and  elevators  in  hallways ;  and  all  passages 


1  OS 


"FIREPROOF"  MACHINE  SHOP  OF  POST  &  McCORD,  BROOKLYN,  N.  Y. 

BURNED  APRIL  9,  1900. 

SHOWING  EFFECT  OF  FIRE  ON  UNPROTECTED  IRON  AND  THIN  TILE  WALLS. 


FIRKI'KOOF  C<  (NSTKIH'TK  >.N. 


109 


from  one  floor  to  another,  whether  in  the  shape  of  channels  for 
plumbing,  gas  or  other  pipes,  electric  wiring,  or  shafts  for  dumb- 
waiters, so  cut  off  at  each  story  that  a  fire  could  not  go  from  one 
story  to  another;  the  floors  themselves  being  fireproof,  without 
floor  boards,  the  surface  being  of  concrete  or  asphalt,  and  in- 
clined, with  scuppers  through  the  side  walls  so  arranged  as  to 
drain  off  any  water  which  might  be  thrown  by  a  fire  department, 
and  protect  the  floors  or  merchandise  beneath  the  one  on  fire. 

The  construction  of  a  fireproof  building  of  the  modern  style 
involves  knowledge  of  engineering  as  well  as  of  architecture,  but 
I  have  touched  upon  the  more  important  points  to  be  kept  in 
mind  by  an  underwriter,  for  purposes  of  insurance. 

The  roof  should  be  fireproof,  with  flat,  well  burned  tile  laid  in 
cement,  with  copper  for  flashings,  gutters  and  leaders.  Slate 
roofs  are  objectionable,  especially  on  high  buildings.  Roofs 
should  be  inclined  from  the  street  front  back,  to  prevent  drip- 
ping of  water  and  formation  of  icicles  dangerous  to  pedestrains 
on  the  street  below. 

A  fireproof  building  should  be  provided  with  a  standpipe  six 
inches  in  diameter,  with  Siamese  connection  at  the  street  and 
outlets  for  hose  on  each  floor ;  the  couplings  to  be  of  the  same 
size  and  number  of  threads  to  the  inch  of  the  fire  department  of 
the  town  or  city  in  which  the  building  is  located.  This  saves 
the  carrying  of  more  than  a  single  length  of  hose  up  the  stairs 
— a  difficult  matter  in  the  case  of  a  high  building.  A  50-foot 
section  of  ordinary  2%  inch  hose,  with  couplings,  weighs  60 
pounds,  and  it  is  a  heavy  load  for  a  man  who  has  to  climb  a 
steep  stairway. 

There  should  be  at  all  times — nights  and  holidays — a  watch- 
man in  every  high  building  understanding  the  machinery  of 
elevators,  fire  appliances,  &c. ,  and  steam  should  always  be  kept 
up  on  holidays  and  at  night,  so  that  the  firemen  can  carry  hose 
up  to  the  upper  floors,  to  save  the  delay  if  stairs  have  to  be 
climbed. 

All  the  interior  partitions  of  a  fireproof  building  should  be  of 
fireproof  material,  either  of  brick  or  of  terra  cotta.  They  should 
be  constructed  of  4-inch  angle  and  tee-iron  frame,  the  uprights 
spaced  30  inches  apart,  filled  in  between  with  4-inch  terra-cotta 
blocks  and  plastered  on  both  sides.    They  should  pass  through 


1  10 


FI  HK PROOF  rONSTRFOTION. 


the  wooden  floor  boards  and  rest  directly  on  the  concrete  be- 
neath the  floor  boards.  As  already  stated,  however,  wooden 
floors  are  objectionable  and  should  be  prohibited,  especially  at 
greater  heights  than  one  hundred  feet  above  the  grade. 

Iron  tie-rods  should  be  employed  between  the  iron  floor  beams, 
to  secure  rigidity.  They  are  especially  necessary  during  con- 
struction and  when  derricks  are  used  on  beams  to  hoist  materials. 

The  best  material  for  fireproof  arches  between  the  floor  beams, 
as  already  stated,  is  old-fashioned  brick  in  a  bonded  arch.  Next 
to  this  in  safety  stands  the  porous  terra  cotta,  with  end  con- 
struction, /.  <  ..  the  blocks  or  separate  pieces  placed  end  to  end. 
instead  of  side  to  side  in  what  is  known  as  "side  construction." 
There  are  many  admirable  patent  floors,  however,  made  of  con- 
crete with  Portland  cement  in  the  usual  manner,  already  ex- 
plained ;  but  it  is,  of  course,  vitally  important  that  this  concrete 
should  be  properly  mixed,  of  good  materials  and  laid  in  non- 
freezing  weather. 

Well-Holes.  These  should  be  avoided,  if  the  building  is  to  be 
regarded  as  fireproof.  The  Home  Building,  in  Pittsburg,  had 
one  48'  x  22'.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  control  a  fire  starting 
in  the  lower  floors,  where  a  well-hole  opens  through  those  above. 

As  I  write  (April  11,  1900)  the  news  comes  of  the  second 
burning  of  the  Horne  Building,  with  a  loss  of  00  fe  of  the  value 
of  the  stock  contained  in  it,  illustrating,  a  second  time,  the  point 
already  emphasized  that  stocks  in  fireproof  buildings  are  even 
more  liable  to  be  totally  destroyed  than  in  ordinary  non-fireproof 
buildings,  unless  the  stories  are  cut  off. 

Wire  Glass.  Where  shutters  cannot  be  provided  for  want  of 
opening  room,  as  already  stated,  wire  glass  is  an  excellent  fire 
resistant;  but  the  tests  so  far  made  of  it  do  not  warrant  the 
opinion  that  larger  panes  than  three  feet  square  can  be  relied 
upon.  The  smaller  the  pane  the  more  reliable  the  glass  as  a 
fire  resistant.  This  is  true,  also,  of  ordinary  plate  glass,  which 
in  small  sections  or  panes  will  stand  quite  high  temperatures 
before  yielding.  Small  panes  of  plate  glass,  about  three  inches 
square,  securely  set  in  metal  frames,  will  stand  a  high  temper- 
ature, and  in  most  cases  would  prove  a  sufficient  barrier  against 
a  severe  fire.  Even  after  water  is  thrown  upon  it,  it  cracks  but 
does  not  fall  out. 


COMMUNICATIONS  BETWEEN  BUILDINGS. 


1  I  1 


Boiler  Room.    See  index. 
Dynamo  Room.    See  page  93. 

Communications  Between  Adjoining  Buildings.  It  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  have  communications  between  adjoining  buildings 
by  doors  in  the  fire  walls,  and  it  is  not  always  convenient,  when 
transferring  merchandise  from  one  room  to  another  during  work- 
ing hours,  to  have  closed  fireproof  doors.  It  is,  however,  possi- 
ble to  have  the  fireproof  doors  run  upon  trolleys  on  an  inclined 
track  so  as  to  close  automatically  by  the  force  of  gravity  if  held 
open  by  fusible  metal  latches  or  links  which  would  release  them 
when  melted  by  the  rising  temperature  of  a  fire.  It  has  occurred 
to  me  that  this  difficulty  may,  also,  be  met  by  erecting  between 
two  adjoining  buildings  a  separating  fireproof  hallway  of  brick, 
which  can  be  utilized  for  staircases  and  elevators  and  for  sup- 
porting the  water  tanks  of  automatic  sprinklers.  The  doors 
which  open  into  this  hallway  should  not  be  opposite  each 
other,  but  arranged,  one  at  each  end,  so  that  fire  in  either  of 
the  buildings  passing  through  the  door  would  meet  a  blank  wall 
opposite.  Even  if  the  fireproof  doors  to  these  openings  should 
happen  to  be  open  at  the  time  of  a  fire  in  one  of  the  two  buildings, 
it  is  improbable  that  it  would  gain  access  to  the  other. 

The  floors  of  this  hallway  should  be  both  fire  and  water-proof, 
slightly  lower  than  the  main  floor  of  the  two  separated  buildings, 
and  with  water  vents  or  "scuppers"  for  carrying  off  water 
thrown  by  a  fire  department.  Indeed,  it  is  well  to  have  "scup- 
pers" to  all  the  floors  of  a  building. 

The  walls  of  this  separating  hallway  or  vestibule  should  rise 
four  feet  higher  than  the  roofs  of  the  two  buildings  and,  if  there 
are  window  or  door  openings  near  it,  its  walls  should  project 
beyond  the  line  of  enclosing  walls  at  least  one  foot. 

It  ought  to  be  unnecessary  to  state  that  to  insure  safety  there 
should  be  no  combustible  material  whatever  allowed  in  this 
separating  hallway,  and  that  the  staircase,  elevators,  etc.,  should 
be  of  metal  and  fireproof. 

Separation  of  Wooden  Buildings.  Indeed,  such  a  hallway  as  this 
could  be  relied  upon  to  separate  wooden  buildings.  It  should, 
however,  for  that  purpose,  be  at  least  ten  feet  higher  than  the 
peak  of  their  roofs  and  should  extend  four  feet  beyond  their 
front  and  rear  lines. 


112 


SEPARATING  FIRE-STOP  HALLWAY,  GROUND  PLAN 
Scale  I  inch  to  foot. 


SEPARATING  FIRE-STOP  HALLAV  AY— ELEVATION  OF 
UPPER  STORY  AND  ROOF  WITH  WATER  TANK. 
Scale  J  inch  to  foot. 


1 1 1 


FIREPROOF  C<  INSTRUCTION  . 


The  accompanying  diagrams  fully  illustrate  the  idea. 

Outside  Staircases.  Where  it  is  not  necessary  to  transfer  mer- 
chandise from  one  building  1<>  another,  hut  only  requisite  to 
have  a  passageway  for  employees,  this  may  he  arranged  hy  an 
iron  balcony,  like  a  fire  escape,  the  window  being  cut  down  on 
each  side  of  the  separating  wall  for  a  door,  so  that  communi- 
cation r;m  he  had  hy  the  hnlcony.  The  openings  should  have 
fireproof  doors.  This  would  be  practically  safe.  It  might,  with 
iron  ladders,  be  utilized  as  a  fire  escape,  and  so  prove  of  great 
advantage  to  firemen  in  fighting  a  fire,  who  could  hold  a  hose 
nozzle  at  the  different  windows  with  perfect  safety  to  the  last 
moment.  It  is  practicable,  indeed,  to  have  iron  stairways  with 
roofed  balconies  entirely  outside  of  storage  stores  so  that  the 
floors  do  not  communicate.  There  is  a  number  of  these  in 
Philadelphia. 

The  following  recapitulation  of  important  features  in  a  fire- 
proof building  will  be  of  use: 

RECAPITULATION. 

In  order  to  save  anyone  who  contemplates  erecting  a  fireproof 
building  the  trouble  of  revising  the  preceding  pages,  I  have  pre- 
pared the  following  recapitulation  of  important  points  to  be 
observed,  so  that  he  can  check  off  his  plans  and  specifications 
and  see  that  all  important  features  have  been  duly  attended  to. 

Enclosing  Walls.  Should  be  not  less  than  16  inches  thick  for 
the  top  story,  increasing  four  inches  in  thickness  for  every  25 
feet  to  the  bottom.  Should  be  built  of  hard-burned  brick,  the 
lower  stories  (if  not  all)  laid  in  cement  mortar. 

All  weight  carrying  walls  should  be  separated  by  air  spaces 
from  furnace  walls. 

All  templates  should  be  of  cast-iron,  especially  for  beams 
which  support  tanks.    Stone  templates  should  not  be  used. 

Iron  Members.  All  ironwork  should  be  fireproofed,  i.  e.,  pro- 
tected by  not  less  than  4  inches  of  fireproof  material.  Brick  is 
best,  well-burned  terra  cotta  second,  plaster  on  metallic  lathing 
third.  If  plaster  on  metal  lath  be  relied  on,  first  wrap  the 
column  with  asbestos  quarter  inch  thick,  bound  with  wire.  If 
mercantile  or  manufacturing  building,  protect  the  fireproofing 
material  of  the  lower  four  feet  of  columns  with  a  metal  lagging 


FIREPROOF  CONSTRUCTION. 


rover,  to  prevent  its  being  knocked  off  by  roller  trucks  for 
moving  merchandise.  Heavy  hardwood  cleats  may  secure  this 
but  if  employed  there  must  be  the  plaster  protection  next  the 
iron  column  and  behind  the  lagging. 

Columns  should  be  cast-iron,  the  beam  bearing  corbel  brackets 
being  cast  in  one  piece  with  the  column.  Columns  should  be 
cylindrical  (not  square)  to  secure  more  perfect  castings.  See 
that  top  and  bottom  bearings  are  planed  smooth  and  true;  no 
wedges  or  "'shims"  allowed. 

Allow  for  expansion  in  long  systems  of  beams  or  girders. 
Avoid  steel  rivets;  all  rivet-work  dangerous  on  account  of  rust. 
Beams  should  be  bolted  to  lugs  on  cast-iron  columns. 

All  ironwork  should  be  well  painted  with  good  linseed  oil 
paint,  the  iron  being  first  thoroughly  cleaned.  Avoid  turpentine, 
dryers,  &c.  Do  not  run  steam  or  water  pipes  near  columns 
to  cause  rust.  This  very  important.  See  that  fireproof ing 
is  applied  so  that  columns  may  be  stripped  and  examined  from 
time  to  time. 

Beams  should  not  be  spaced  wider  apart  than  five  feet  on 
centres. 

Bond  Stones.    Avoid  in  piers. 

Stone  Columns.  Avoid. 

Tie  Rods.    Do  not  omit  them. 

Floor  Arches.  Best,  old-fashioned  brick  arch;  next  best,  terra 
cotta  segmental  arches,  end  construction.  If  concrete  arches 
used,  be  careful  to  see  that  good  quality  of  cement  is  employed 
and  the  stone  or  gravel  thoroughl}'  washed.  Arches  should  not 
be  laid  in  freezing  weather.  Only  cement  mortar  should  be 
used  and  every  square  foot  carefully  watched  in  process. 

Cover  top  of  arch  with  cement  concrete  to  insure  water-proof 
floors.  Leave  scuppers  or  water  vents  at  each  floor  to  carry  off 
water  thrown  by  fire  department. 

Do  not  leave  hollow  spaces  below  wooden  floor  boards. 

Stairways,  Elevators,  Dumbwaiters,  Etc.  Should  be  cut  off  in  all 
buildings  by  a  brick  partition  between  the  hallways  and  main 
rooms,  with  fireproof  doors  (for  which  see  Underwriters'  specifi- 
cations. )    It  is  best  to  have  all  stairways  enclosed  in  brick  walls. 

Avoid  stone  treads,  slate  or  marble,  unless  web  support  of 


1  t6 


FIREPRool''  CONSTRl  i  TION. 


iron  beneath.  It  is  claimed  wrought-iron  support  is  better  tlian 
cast-iron  open  work  unless  cast-iron  tread  is  ;!  (  inch  thick. 

Thoroughly  fire  stop  all  openings  for  gas,  steam  pipes  or 
electric  wires,  to  prevent  fire  traveling  from  story  to  story. 
These  should  be  in  staircase  tower. 

Glass  Windows.  If  on  exposed  sides  protect  with  fireproof 
shutters,  Underwriters'  specifications.  Set  eyebolts  for  hinges 
when  building  walls.  If  wire  glass  be  used,  it  should  be  glazed 
in  metal  frames,  and  if  on  exposed  side,  should  have  douhle 
sheets  with  one  inch  space  between  them. 

Dynamo  Room.  Avoid  water  or  steam  pipes  over  switchboard. 
Have  glass  Moor. 

Fire  Extinguishing  Appliances.  Have  6-inch  standpipes  with 
outlets  for  hose  at  each  story  for  use  of  firemen,  Siamese  con- 
nection at  street.  Arrange  signals  to  street  and  hose  on  each 
floor  to  reach  most  remote  point. 

Have  pressure  tanks  in  basement  and  support  all  roof  tanks 
on  iron  beams  (fireproof)  resting  on  cast-iron  templates  on  brick- 
walls  where  they  cannot  in  falling  endangei  staircases. 

Vertical  pipes  for  hose  should  he  in  staircase  tower. 

Roof.  Avoid  all  woodwork  in  roof,  even  outriggers  for  cor- 
nice. Avoid  slates  on  slanting  roofs,  as  in  falling  they  woidd 
injure  firemen.    Best  roof  is  flat  brick  or  tile. 

Partitions  must  not  rest  on  wooden  sills  or  bases  or  floor  boards. 

Night  Watchman.  Have  some  one  on  premises  at  night  and  on 
holidays  understanding  elevator,  force  pumps,  etc.  Have 
enough  steam  up,  at  all  times,  to  run  one  elevator. 

Skylights.  Protect  with  wire  netting  above  and  below  and 
arrange  so  as  to  be  opened  by  firemen  for  letting  out  smoke  and 
gas.  If  wire  glass  is  used  then  no  ovemetting  or  undernetting 
will  be  required. 

Cut-offs  at  Street  for  Gas  and  Electric  installations  should  be 
provided  where  firemen  can  find  and  use  them  in  case  of  fire. 
This  is  an  important  matter. 

Pump-Room.  It  will  be  found  that  owners  of  fireproof  buildings, 
and  some  underwriters,  overlook  the  fact  that  the  volume  of 
water  thrown  to  extinguish  a  fire  is  usually  sufficient  to  flood 
the  engine  and  pump  room,  put  out  the  fires,  expel  the  engineer 


SLOW- BURNING  CONSTRUCTION'. 


117 


and  stop  the  elevators.  If  possible  the  pump  and  engine  room 
should  be  so  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  building  that  it  would 
not  be  flooded,  no  matter  how  much  water  should  be  thrown  to 
extinguish  the  fire.  This  is  not  always  easy  nor  possible,  and 
where  it  is  not,  too  much  reliance  should  not  be  placed  upon  the 
independent  pump  system  of  the  plant.  Of  course,  the  outlet  to 
the  sewer  and  the  sewer  itself  on  a  lower  grade  should  be  of 
sufficient  capacity  to  carry  off  the  water  thrown  by  the  fire  de- 
partment— probably  as  much  as  4,000  gallons  per  minute,  if  say 
ten  steam  fire  engines  were  wTorking. 

The  staircases  and  elevators  of  a  fireproof  building  should  be 
enclosed  in  four  brick  walls,  with  fireproof  doors  protecting  the 
communications  with  the  main  structure.  Protect  outside  win- 
dows lest  burning  neighboring  buildings  should  project  enough 
heat  into  the  window  openings  to  prevent  the  egress  of  inmates 
or  the  ingress  of  the  firemen.  Wire  glass  would  be  desirable 
for  such  windows. 

Avoid  Well-Holes.  The  Home  Building,  in  Pittsburg,  which 
was  seriously  damaged  and  its  contents  destroyed  on  May  3, 
18U7,  the  loss  on  the  building  by  this  fire  being  $300,000,  and  on 
the  merchandise  $741,250,  illustrates  the  danger  of  well-hole 
openings  and  the  danger  of  opposing  nothing  more  than  plate 
glass  windows  to  exposure  fires  (It  was  burned  the  first  time  by 
the  Jenkins  Grocery  Building  shown  on  diagram  page  1  IS),  and 
also  justifies  the  statement  I  have  made  that  combustible  con- 
tents of  fireproof  buildings  will  bum  up  as  effectually  as  the  fuel 
in  a  stove. 

The  relative  damage  to  the  contents  and  building  was  again 
illustrated  in  the  second  fire,  April  8,  1900;  the  loss  on  building 
being  $153,010.13  (3 of  the  value),  and  the  loss  on  stock 
$697,030.13  (74$  of  the  value).  If  there  had  been  no  well-hole 
and  the  floors  had  been  cut  off  the  loss  would  probably  have 
been  confined  to  the  floor  of  origin. 


118 


N 


CONSUMED   

PARTIALLY  CONSUMED  M 
HORNE  BUILDING  (FIREPROOF)  AND  SURROUNDINGS,  PITTSBURG,  PA. 
GROUND  PLAN. 

(Published  by  consent  of  The  Engineering  Record.) 


lib 


120 


HOME  LIFE  "FIREPROOF"  BUILDING,  NEW  YORK. 

FIRE   DECEMBER  4,  1898. 

SHOWING  BUILDING  BEFORE  THE  FIRE. 


HOME  LIFE  "FIREPROOF"  BUILDING,  NEW  YORK. 

FIRE  DECEMBER  4,  1898. 

SHOWING  BUILDING  AFTER  THE  PIPE. 


123 


MANHATTAN  SAVINGS  BANK  BUILDING. 

FIRE  NOV.  4,  1836. 
LOSS  $225,000.  CONTINENTAL  INS    CO.    PAID  (20,365. 


SLOW-BURNING  STORE  CONSTRUCTION. 


The  chief  aim  of  the  architect,  from  a  fire-resisting  standpoint, 
should  he,  first,  to  avoid  conditions  which  would  favor  the  start- 
ing of  fires,  and,  second,  to  observe  precautions  which  would 
prevent  their  spread  and  facilitate  their  extinguishment. 

The  use  of  wood  for  beams,  girders  and  supporting  columns 
is  not  so  objectionable  from  the  fire  standpoint  as  is  generally 
supposed,  if  they  are  of  sufficient  size  to  carry  their  loads  after 
their  surf  ace  has  Ween  invaded  by  fire  to  the  extent  of  say  two 
inches.  Fii'e  seldom  gets  deeper  into  a  solid  12  inch  column  or 
beam,  with  a  good  fire  department.  In  slow-burning  construc- 
tion or  mill  construction,  so  called,  all  wooden  beams,  girders 
and  pillars  should  be  not  less  than  r>  inches  thick,  and  the  floor 
plank  should  be  not  less  than  three  inches  in  thickness,  tongued 
and  grooved,  or  connected  by  splines,  with  a  floor  board  one 
inch  thick  and  planed.  Sheet  iron  or  tin,  painted  on  both  sides 
with  a  good  oil  paint,  inserted  between  the  two  would  be  an 
admirable  precaution,  but  would  add  to  the  expense  beyond  the 
figure  which  most  property-owners  would  approve. 

Taking  the  building  from  the  foundation  to  the  roof,  therefore, 
in  the  order  in  which  it  is  constructed,  the  following  details  of 
construction  should  be  observed  to  secure  the  lowest  rate  of  fire 
insurance : 

Foundation.  This  is  largely  a  question  of  engineering,  but  it 
may  be  here  stated  that  the  most  competent  experts  in  engineer- 
ing, architecture  and  construction  pay  great  attention  now,  to 
securing  footings  and  substantial  foundations,  driving  piles  to 
a  solid  bearing  wherever  necessary. 

Stairways.  Elevators.  Dumb-Waiters.  channels  for  pipes,  etc., 
should  be  cut  off  at  each  floor  and  enclosed  with  fireproof  materi- 
als ;  the  stairways  and  elevators  especially  being  surrounded  by 
brick  walls  or  by  fireproof  terra  cotta,  securely  braced  with  angle 


IRON  PINTLES.   CAPS,  ETC. 


12.5 


iron.  Brick  walls  are  decidedly  preferable.  Doors  entering 
from  halls  to  the  various  rooms  should  be  self-closing  and  are 
improved  greatly  by  being  covered  with  tin. 

Floors.  These,  as  already  stated,  should  be  solid,  without  air 
spaces,  with  3-inch  plank,  splined  or  tongued  and  grooved,  and 
inch  thick  floorboards;  waterproof  paper,  asphalte  or  resin  sized, 
between.  Asbestos  is  not  so  good.  Tin  or  sheet  iron  painted 
both  sides  is  better. 

Story  Posts.  Beams.  Girders.  Etc.  These  should  be  not  less  than 
12  inches  in  diameter,  if  round,  or  12  inches  square.  The  floor 
beams  should  be  cut  on  a  bevel  of  three  inches  where  they  are 
inserted  into  the  enclosing  or  bearing  walls,  so  that,  in  case  of 
burning  through  in  the  middle,  they  would  release  themselves 
without  tearing  out  the  walls.  There  are  some  excellent  patent 
devices  for  anchoring  floor  beams,  consisting  of  cast-iron  boxes 
resting  in  the  wall  so  constructed  as  to  release  the  floor  beam 
without  damage  in  case  it  should  burn,  and  serving  also  to  pro- 
tect the  ends  of  the  beams  from  dry  rot  and  from  charring  in 
case  of  a  fire  in  an  adjoining  building.  Avoid  iron  stirrups  for 
earning  beams.  They  are  almost  certain  to  yield  to  heat.  I 
observe  that  the  Boston  Manufacturers'  Mutual  recommend  8- 
inch  columns  for  upper  stories.  While  these,  of  course,  would 
be  sufficiently  strong  for  weight-carrying  purposes,  they  would 
not  be  for  fire-resisting  purposes,  and  I  would  advise  12-inch 
columns  in  all  cases.  Some  authorities  recommend  spliced  or 
doubled  timbers  separated  for  ventilation  to  prevent  dry  rot. 
I  advise  single  sticks  for  fire-resisting  purposes.  There  is  no 
danger  of  dry  rot  if  the  wood  is  not  covered  with  plaster  or 
other  air-excluding  covering. 

Iron  Pintles.  Caps  and  Plates.  The  story  posts  or  columns  of  a 
building  should  not  foot  upon  wooden  beams  or  girders.  In  all 
cases  cast-iron  pintles,  caps  and  plates  should  be  employed,  not 
merely  to  distribute  the  weights  for  the  full  bearing  surface  of 
the  columns,  but  to  prevent  sagging  resulting  from  shrinkage  of 
the  timber  in  the  girders,  which  in  a  four-story -building  would 
be  considerable,  the  four  12-inch  girders  aggregating  four  feet 
of  shrinkable  timber.  As  heretofore  stated,  timber  shrinks  at 
right  angles  to  the  line  of  its  fiber ;  there  is  very  little  shrinkage 
longitudinally. 

The  iron  base,  pintle  and  cap  may  be  purchased  cast  in  one 


126 


SLOW-BURNING  CONSTRUCTION . 


piece,  and  should  be  bolted  to  the  timber  to  insure  rigid  con- 
struction. 

Flues.  These  should  be  surrounded  by  at  least  8  inches  of 
brickwork,  and  will  be  improved  still  further  by  having  fireproof 
tile  finings. 

Enclosing  Walls.  These  should  be  not  less  than  12  inches  thick 
for  the  top  story,  if  of  brick  (16  inches  would  be  better,)  and 
should  increase  in  thickness  four  inches  for  each  story  to  the 
bottom.  While  the  wall  here  recommended,  and  the  standard 
of  the  Universal  Mercantile  Schedule  already  quoted,  1  ■'.  inches 
thick  at  the  highest  point,  increasing  four  inches  for  each  story 
to  the  bottom,  utilizing  the  increased  thickness  at  each  story  as 
beam-bearing  ledges,  is  uncjiiestionably  the  only  Icind  that  should 
be  erected  for  fire-resisting  purposes,  it  is  customary  to  build  ac- 
cording to  the  New  York  Building  Law,  the  requirements  of 
which  are  as  follows: 

"The  walls  of  all  warehouses,  stores,  factories  and  stables,  twenty-five  feel 
or  less  in  width  between  walls — 

Shall  not  be  less  than  twelve  inches  thick  to  the  height  of  forty  feet. 

If  over  forty  feet  in  height,  and  not  over  sixty  feet  fa  height,  the  walls 
shall  not  be  less  than  sixteen  inches  thick  to  the  height  of  forty  feet,  or  to  the 
nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height,  and  from  thence  not  less  than  twelve 
inches  thick  to  the  top. 

If  over  sixty  feet  in  height,  and  not  over  seventy-five  feet  in  height,  the 
walls  shall  not  be  less  than  twenty  inches  thick  to  the  height  of  twenty-five 
feet  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height,  and  from  thence  not  less 
than  sixteen  inches  thick  to  the  top. 

If  over  seventy-five  feet  in  height,  and  not  over  eighty-five  feet  in  height, 
the  walls  shall  not  be  less  than  twenty-four  inches  thick  to  the  height  of  twenty 
feet,  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height;  thence  not  less  than  twenty 
inches  thick  to  the  height  of  sixty  feet,  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that 
height,  and  thence  not  less  than  sixteen  inches  thick  to  the  top. 

If  over  eighty -five  feet  in  height,  and  not  over  one  hundred  feet  in  height, 
the  walls  shall  not  be  less  than  twenty-eight  inches  thick  to  the  height  of 
twenty-five  feet,  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height;  thence  not  less 
than  twenty-four  inches  thick  to  the  height  of  fifty  feet  or  to  the  nearest  tier 
of  beams  to  that  height;  thence  not  less  than  twenty  inches  thick  to  the  height 
of  seventy-five  feet,  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height,  and  thence 
not  less  than  sixteen  inches  thick  to  the  top." 

In  the  case  of  pier  construction  of  enclosing  walls  with 
"relieving"  or  discharging  arches  and  panels  to  save  brick 
work,  the  panels  need  not  be  thicker  than  12  inches,  but  a 
thinner  panel  should  never  be  relied  upon,  as,  although  suffi- 


SLOW-BURNING  CONSTRUCTION. 


127 


cient  for  weight-carrying  purposes,  it  would  not  be  an  effectual 
barrier  against  the  heat  of  a  fire  in  an  adjoining  structure. 

No  building  for  the  storage  of  merchandise  should  be  higher 
than  60  feet  from  the  ground,  unless  fireproof  throughout,  and 
then  not  over  95  feet,  even  in  cities  with  good  fire  departments. 

Parapet  Walls.  The  enclosing  walls  of  a  building  should  be 
carried  above  the  roof  (and  coped  with  stone  as  a  protection  from 
the  weather),  to  a  height  of  at  least  12  inches,  to  protect  the 
building  from  fires  in  adjoining  structures. 

Bonds.  Caps.  Wall  Plates.  Templates,  &c.  These  should  in  all 
cases  be,  as  already  stated,  of  cast-iron.  Neither  wrought-iron 
nor  stone  should  be  used. 

Roof.    This  should  be  of  metal,  without  any  air  space. 

Water  Tank.  This  should  be  supported  upon  brick  walls,  so 
as  not  to  give  way  and  fall,  as  would  be  the  case  if  wooden  sup- 
ports were  employed  and  burned  through.  It  may  rest  upon 
railroad  iron  or  I-beams  carried  from  wall  to  wall.  Under  no 
circumstances  should  it  rest  above  the  staircase,  where  in  falling 
it  would  endanger  the  lives  of  firemen. 

Electric  Wiring.  This  should  be  installed  in  accordance  with 
the  rules  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  which 
may  be  obtained  without  charge  from  any  local  board  of  under- 
writers. 

Waterproof  Floors.  Great  damage  usually  results  to  stocks  of 
merchandise  from  the  water  thrown  by  fire  departments  to  ex- 
tinguish fires.  The  floors  should,  therefore,  be  waterproof  and 
should  be  so  inclined  to  the  side  or  rear  walls  that  the  water  will 
run  off  by  means  of  scuppers  or  metal  pipes  inserted  in  the  walls 
at  the  floor  level,  having  check  valves  or  movable  drop  caps 
which  would  prevent  the  ingress  of  cold  air  and  permit  the  egress 
of  water.    The  door-sills  should  be  one  inch  high. 

Closets.  There  should  be  no  closets,  especially  for  oils,  filling 
lamps  or  other  purposes,  under  the  staircases  or  elevators,  where 
a  fire  starting  would  quickly  reach  the  floors  above.  In  fact, 
closets  are  always  objectionable  in  mercantile  and  manufactur- 
ing buildings.  They  become  hiding  places  for  careless  em- 
ployees, for  greasy  overalls,  oily  waste  or  other  rubbish  often 
with  friction  matches.    Numerous  fires  start  in  such  places  and 


L28 


SLOVV-BUKNIXC  CONSTRUCTION. 


assume  dimensions  under  conditions  that  make  them  dangerous. 
Wherever  practicable,  concealed  places  of  all  kinds  should  be 
avoided. 

Heating.  If  by  steam  pipes,  they  should,  at  do  point,  come  in 
contact  with  wood,  hut  should  he  guarded  by  thimbles  where 
they  pass  through  floors.  If  by  furnace,  the  hot  air  pipes  should 
not  pass  between  the  floor  of  one  room  and  the  ceiling  holow,  or 
between  stud  and  lath  and  plaster  partitions.  Where  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  a  hot  air  pipe  pass  out  of  sight  it  should  be  double, 
with  an  inner  and  outer  pipe  and  a  space  of  half  an  inch  between 
the  two.  Steam  heating  pipes  should  for  safety  be  near  ceilings 
they  heat  rooms  more  evenly. 

Dry  Rot.  It  is  important  to  observe  precautions  to  insure 
against  dry  rot  in  buildings  with  wooden  floor  joists  or  wooden 
columns,  especially  if  they  are  covered  up  by  plaster  to  protect 
them  from  fire.  It  is  customary  to  cover  them  with  wire  lath- 
ing and  plaster  and,  in  such  cases,  small  perforations  about  34- 
inch  in  diameter  through  the  plaster  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  a 
pillar  or  column  would  probably  secure  sufficient  ventilation  to 
save  the  column,  which,  also,  should  be  centre-bored.  This  is 
true  also  of  floor  beams,  which  may  be  ventilated  at  each  end 
with  small  holes  in  some  ornamental  pattern.  It  is  not  generally 
known,  however,  that  unprotected  beams,  if  12  inches  in  diame- 
ter, as  already  stated,  are  rarely  consumed  to  the  point  of  break- 
ing, if  the  city  has  even  an  average  fire  department. 

Wooden  Ceiling  and  Sheathing  on  Side  Walls.  This  is  decidedly 
dangerous,  especially  where  pine  or  other  resinous  wood  is  lased. 
Fire  flashes  readily  over  the  entire  surface  and  quickly  gets 
under  such  headway  as  to  defy  the  efforts  of  the  fire  department. 
If  floor  joists  and  side  walls  are  not  to  be  left  exposed,  (the 
plastering,  if  any,  on  the  side  walls  without  wooden  laths,  fur- 
ring, etc.,  what  is  known  as  "open  finish,"')  the  old  fashioned 
plaster,  even  on  wooden  lathing,  is  infinitely  preferable  to 
wooden  sheathing  or  ceiling.  If  plaster  is  used  it  should  always 
be  upon  wire  lathing.  This  insures  a  good  key  or  clinch  to  the 
plaster  which  will  retain  the  plaster  when  saturated  with  water 
longer  than  wooden  laths.  It  forms  an  effective  fire-stop,  also, 
for  a  considerable  time  and  materially  aids  the  fire  department 
in  extinguishing  a  fire. 

Sky-Lights.   These  should  be  of  thick  glass,  with  metal  frames, 


BUILDERS  RINKS. 


129 


and  should  be  guarded  by  wire  netting  above,  to  protect  them 
from  falling  fire  brands  from  outside  fires,  and  by  wire  netting 
below,  to  prevent  broken  glass  falling  on  the  firemen  when  ex- 
tinguishing a  fire. 

It  will  be  observed  in  reading  the  foregoing  specifications 
that,  from  a  fire  standpoint,  the  aim  is  to  secure  substantial 
enclosing  walls;  substantial  floor  supports;  fireproof  enclosures 
for  elevators,  staircases,  dumb-waiters  and  all  communications 
from  story  to  story;  to  avoid  hollow  concealed  spaces;  and  to 
secure  a  fire-resisting  roof.  These  are  the  main  points  to  be 
kept  in  mind,  and  the  necessary  details  and  precautions  to  be 
observed  ought  naturally  to  occur  to  any  intelligent  and  con- 
scientious architect  or  builder. 

Perhaps  the  four  most  important  considerations  to  be  observed 
in  slow-burning  construction  are: 
Timbers  not  less  than  12  inches  thick; 

Floor  planking  double  and  four  inches  thick  and  waterproof; 
Openings  from  story  to  story  cut  off,  to  prevent  drafts,  and 
Entire  absence  of  concealed  spaces  which  would  afford  harbor- 
ing places  for  rats  and  mice  or  admit  of  a  fire  getting  be- 
yond control  before  discovery. 

BUILDERS'  RISK. 

Buildings  in  process  of  construction  are  not  profitable  risks 
at  the  rates  usually  prevailing.  They  are  to  be  sought,  how- 
ever, if  the  final  occupation  of  the  building  will  be  such  as  to 
make  it  a  desirable  risk  when  finished.  It  is,  therefore,  ad- 
visable to  secure  the  risks  of  enterprising  builders,  but,  as 
already  stated,  to  endeavor  to  have  policies  written  for  a  year, 
since  the  insurance  of  such  buildings  for  the  time  of  the  builder's 
risk  only  would  be  a  very  unprofitable  undertaking. 

It  is  during  construction  that  the  agent  may  be  of  the  great- 
est help  to  his  company  by  securing  safety  in  flues,  hot  air 
pipes,  &c,  &c,  and  at  the  same  time  of  great  assistance  to  his 
customer,  with  the  result,  further,  of  getting  his  own  commission 
on  the  insurance  of  a  long-lived  building,  instead  of  for  only  one 
or  two  years. 

Much  of  the  unsafe  building  of  the  present  day  is  due  to 
ignorance  of  the  principles  of  safety  on  the  part  of  builders  and 


130 


BUILDERS  RISKS. 


to  negligence  on  the  part  of  underwriters.  In  most  instances  if 
the  owner  of  a  building  in  process  of  construction  were  informed 
that  a  wooden  mansard  roof,  for  example,  would  not  only  en- 
danger his  building  but  cost  him  a  considerable  sum  in  extra 
premium  each  year,  he  would  probably  be  induced  to  correct  so 
serious  and  unnecessary  a  fault  in  his  plans. 

It  is  especially  important  that  shavings  and  other  rubbish 
should  be  removed  daily,  and  that  buildings  should  be  secured 
at  night  so  that  mischievous  boys  and  malicious  persons  may 
not  gain  access  to  them.  Where  the  building  is  a  valuable  one 
a  watchman  should  be  employed  by  the  builder.  Fires  in 
buildings  in  process  of  construction  are  due  largely  to  the  slak- 
ing of  lime  left  where  water  can  reach  it ;  to  careless  plumbers, 
gas-fitters  and  roofers,  especially  in  the  use  of  fire-pots,  and  to 
the  spontaneous  ignition  of  painters'  oily  overalls.  Millions  of 
dollars  worth  of  property  has  been  destroyed  by  fires  starting 
from  these  various  causes. 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


If  the  problem  of  reducing  the  unnecessary  fire  waste  of  the 
country,  now  amounting  to  more  than  one  hundred  and  sixty 
million  dollars  per  annum,  is  the  most  important  confronting 
the  citizen  as  well  as  the  underwriter,  then  a  study  of  the  causes 
of  fires,  with  a  view  to  eliminating  as  many  of  them  as  possible, 
is  one  of  the  most  important  studies  connected  with  insurance, 
and  one  which  should  engage  the  profound  thought  of  every 
conscientious  insurance  agent.  Inasmuch  as  no  one  can  tell 
where  any  fire  may  end  which  starts  in  the  compact  portion 
of  a  city,  the  importance  of  preventing  one  from  starting  need 
not  be  argued.  The  fire  which  destroyed  Chicago  started  in  a 
cow-shed ;  that  which  burned  Jacksonville,  Florida,  in  a  cheap 
manufactor}-,  which  ought  not  to  have  been  located  where  it 
was.    Fargo,  Dak.,  was  destroyed  by  rubbish  in  rear  yards. 

When  is  taken  into  account  that  more  than  sixty  per  cent  of 
all  the  fires  which  occur,  start  from  preventable  causes,  we 
may  well  give  this  important  subject  sufficient  space. 

There  is  another  reason,  too,  for  publishing  a  list  of  causes. 
The  insurance  agent  is  confronted  everywhere,  when  soliciting 
business,  with  the  statement,  honestly  made,  by  the  property- 
owner,  "there  is  no  way  for  a  fire  to  start  on  my  premises; 
there  are  no  fires  or  lights  in  the  building,  and  I  might  as  well 
carry  the  risk  myself."  It  is  well  for  such  an  one  to  have  pre- 
sented for  his  consideration  some  of  the  hundreds  of  ways  in 
which  a  fire  might  start  outside  of  human  agency,  not  over- 
looking the  danger  of  human  agency  in  the  shape  of  malicious 
personal  enemies,  insane  incendiaries — pyromaniacs,  so-called 
— or  that  class  who,  without  any  animosity  whatever,  have 
been  known  to  set  fires  merely  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  fire 
departments  extinguish  them. 

If  the  numerous  persons  who  go  without  insurance,  or  con- 


132 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


tent  themselves  with  short  insurance,  supposing  that  their  risks 
cannot  burn,  could  be  informed  as  to  the  hundreds  of  ways  in 
which  fires  start,  they  would  not,  at  prevailing  rates  of  in- 
surance, fail  to  take;  out  a  sufficient  amount  to  protect  them; 
and  a  shrewd  agent  would  need  only  to  enumerate  these  various 
causes  to  become  a  successful  solicitor. 

The  following  from  a  New  England  paper  shows  that  some 
citizens  are  as  well  posted  as  to  causes  of  fires  as  some  under- 
writers. 

"The  Causes  of  Fires.  The  means  of  preventing  fires  may  be  suggested  by 
a  glance  at  some  of  the  causes  from  which  tiny  originate.  Cotton  waste  01 
other  materials  for  spontaneous  combustion  thrown  into  a  by  corner;  ashes 
recklessly  knocked  from  a  pipe  or  cigar;  the  stump  of  a  burning  match  thrown 
into  combustible  materials;  a  stove  overheated;  a  lamp  carelessly  broken:  a  pot 
of  varnish  left  to  boil  over;  a  furnace  room  neglected;  a  plumber's  fire  uncan  d 
for;  matches  heedlessly  dropped  into  straw  or  shavings,  or  given  to  children 
or  left  for  rats  or  mice  to  drag  between  floor  and  ceiling  or  in  a  stable  where 
horse  feet  can  ignite  them;  clothes  left  near  a  stove  or  gas  jet;  a  wooden  ash 
receiver;  a  defective  flue;  a  broken  lantern — these  are  some  of  the  starting 
points  of  conflagrations  that  devour  whole  villages  and  eat  out  the  heart  of 
cities.  If  these  simple  causes  were  not  allowed  to  exist,  their  terrible  effects 
wrould  not  follow.  Colonel  Simonds,  proprietor  of  the  American  House  in 
( Jreenlield,  Mass.,  recently  related  an  incident  in  his  own  experience,  Which 
aptly  illustrates  this  point.  At  eleven  o'clock,  one  night,  he  swept  the  litter 
from  the  smoking-room  in  his  hotel  out  through  the  back  door  on  to  a  heap  of 
kindling  stuff  in  the  wood-room,  and  prepared  to  retire  for  the  night.  Five 
minutes  afterward  he  returned  to  the  spot  and  found  the  shavings  and  wood 
on  tire.  The  force  of  his  broom  had  lighted  a  match  that  had  been  dropped 
into  the  dirt  he  had  swept  out.  He  said  that  if  he  had  not  had  occasion  to 
return  to  his  wood-room,  the  hotel  would  have  been  burnt  and  he  should  have 
thought  it  the  work  of  an  incendiary,  as  there  was  no  fire  kept  in  that  part  of 
the  building,  and  he  saw  himself  that  it  was  just  right  before  retiring.  The 
Colonel  also  stated  that  he  one  day  threw  a  cigar  which  he  could  not  make 
burn,  and  believed  was  entirely  out,  among  some  papers;  and  half  an  hour 
afterwards  he  found  the  papers  in  a  roaring  blaze.  Thus  it  is  that  men  sow 
the  seeds  of  conflagrations  when  they  least  think  of  it.  All  should  be  more 
careful.  What  we  need  is  the  habit  of  keeping  matches,  and  all  other  possible 
sources  of  combustion,  where  they  cannot  be  the  means  of  destruction." 

The  writer  has  kept,  for  many  years,  and  on  a  more  accurate 
basis  for  the  last  ten,  a  careful  record  of  fires,  analyzed  accord- 
ing to  their  causes,  under  injunctions  to  adjusters,  already 
referred  to  (p.  14)  to  give  their  opinion,  after  careful  consider- 
ation of  all  the  facts  while  on  the  ground,  as  to  the  cause  of  any 
loss  adjusted  by  them. 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


133 


The  percentage  of  losses  attributed  to  unknown  causes,  on 
city,  town  and  village  risks,  went  down  under  the  injunction  to 
express  an  opinion,  from  40$  of  the  total  amount  of  losses  from 
all  causes,  in  188G,  to  20$  of  such  amount  for  the  last  five  years 
term.  The  percentage  of  farm  losses  from  unknown  causes  did 
not  show  so  much  variation,  being  about  14$  of  the  whole 
number  in  1886,  and  remaining  at  practically  the  same  figure 
for  later  years.  The  explanation  is  obvious.  The  cause  of  a 
farm  loss  is  usually  easily  ascertained  by  an  intelligent  adjuster, 
especially  in  the  case  of  partial  losses,  while  the  total  losses  are 
divided  almost  uniformly  among  incendiarism  internal  and  ex- 
ternal, carelessness,  defective  flues  (which  are  estimated  to 
cause  over  20  $  of  the  whole  amount  of  losses)  temporary  vacancy 
and  "unknown." 

Eight  per  cent  of  the  amount  of  farm  losses  were  due  to 
lightning  to  live  stock  and  a  like  percentage  to  lightning  to 
buildings,  showing  that  16$  of  all  the  losses  are  due  to  light- 
ning, and  that  about  23  $  of  all  the  premiums  (allowing  for  cost 
of  adjustment)  are  needed  to  pay  them — a  fact  generally  over- 
looked by  those  underwriters,  who  are  disposed  to  throw  in  the 
lightning  clause  for  nothing.  With  a  profit  ratio  of  5  $  (seldom 
secured),  to  give,  for  nothing,  indemnity  against  a  hazard  which 
causes  16$  of  the  losses  and,  therefore,  requires  23$  of  the 
premiums,  it  is  obvious  that  rates  need  to  be  more  carefully 
adjusted  than  at  present. 

Kerosene  lights  in  barns,  open  fireplaces,  burning  out  of  soot 
in  chimneys,  defective  stove-pipes,  stove-pipes  through  side 
walls,  &c,  have  each  caused  about  one  per  cent  of  all  losses  on 
farm  property. 

Other  causes  of  fires  on  this  class  (farm  property)  were  in- 
cendiarism internal,  about  4  $  of  the  total  amount ;  incendiarism 
external,  by  enemies,  tramps,  &c,  about  12$;  the  remainder 
being  caused  by  gasolene  stoves  and  lamps;  prairie,  running 
grass  and  forest  fires;  sparks  from  threshing-machines;  loco- 
motive sparks;  chimney  sparks;  smoke-houses;  spontaneous 
combustion ;  rats  and  mice. 

On  the  business  other  than  farm,  the  fires  attributed  to  un- 
known causes  were  about  20  $  of  the  entire  number ;  exposures 
about  20$;  lightning  to  buildings,  2$  (lightning  seldom  causes 


134 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


loss  in  cities  in  buildings  with  metal  roofs  and  well  grounded 
metal  leaders  and  water  pipes);  incendiarism  internal,  4$;  ex- 
ternal, 9  io ;  mechanics,  1 

The  remaining  causes,  in  which  carelessness  figures  largely, 
are  matches,  smoking,  candles,  swinging  gas  jets,  lights  in 
show  windows,  kerosene  oil,  electricity,  leaking  gas  pipes,  gas- 
olene machines,  lamps  and  stoves,  fireplaces,  furnaces,  stoves 
and  other  heating  apparatus,  steam  pipes,  etc.,  dry-rooms, 
vacancy,  sparks  of  locomotives,  chimneys,  overheating  of  ashes, 
illuminations,  spontaneous  combustion,  sunlight  through  glass, 
explosions,  sawdust  spittoons,  rats  and  mice,  steam  drying  appa- 
ratus, friction,  gas  engines,  and  conflagrations — which  latter 
cause  from  six  to  ten  per  cent  of  all  the  losses. 

The  successful  agent,  therefore,  will  bear  these  figures  in 
mind ;  not  alone  to  persuade  indifferent  insurers  as  to  the  danger 
of  fires  from  causes  which  he  cannot  control,  but  with  a  view  to 
correcting  faults  while  inspecting.  He  will  thus  be  enabled  to 
discharge  his  duty  to  the  community  in  which  he  lives,  his  duty 
to  the  company  he  represents  and  his  duty  to  himself ;  for  his 
reputation  as  an  agent  and  the  esteem  in  which  he  is  held  by  his 
company  will  be  largely  dependent  upon  his  escaping  losses 
which  come  under  the  designation  "preventable." 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  percentages  of  the  following  table 
differ  from  those  I  have  given,  which  were  prepared  by  tabulat- 
ing the  causes  assigned  as  matters  of  careful  opinion  expressed 
by  the  adjuster  on  the  ground.  Such  statistics  are  more  reliable 
than  tabulations  by  city  and  State  officials,  published  in  insur- 
ance reports.  They  must  get  their  information  from  persons  like 
firemen  and  others,  who  have  only  limited  opportunities  for  in- 
vestigating the  facts.  The  adjuster,  on  the  other  hand,  has 
plenty  of  time  for  this  purpose,  and  what  firemen  or  others  may 
learn  about  a  case  is  easily  available,  as  well,  for  his  consider- 
ation. 

Out  of  the  total  number  of  fires  in  the  City  of  New  York 
(1,396)  for  a  single  year,  four  hundred  and  thirty-nine  (439) 
were  attributed  to  carelessness  with  matches.  As  of  these  only 
forty-two  were  caused  by  children,  it  follows  that  those  of  ma- 
ture age,  if  not  of  mature  judgment,  are  culpably  and  generally 
negligent. 


STOVES,   STOVE-PIPES,  ETC. 


135 


Gaslight  in  show-windows  caused  75 

Leakage  of  gas-pipes  and  metres  (probably  from 
carelessness  in  approaching  them  with  lights) . .  39 

Boiling  over  of  grease,  pitch,  tar,  &c   19 

Hot  ashes  and  coals   17 

Malicious  mischief   18 

Kerosene  oil  (upsetting  of  lamps,  use  of  it  for 

kindling  fires,  &c)  112 

Spontaneous  combustion   39 

Accidental,  specific   77 

In  all  eight  hundred  and  thirty-five  (835)  fires  out  of  1,396, 
nearly  60$,  due,  in  one  year,  to  carelessness,  and,  therefore, 
preventable. 

A  careful  insurance  adjuster  once  told  me  that,  going  to  his 
room  in  an  office  building,  after  the  work  of  the  day,  he  threw 
his  cigar  away  as  he  unlocked  his  door.  While  writing  at  his 
desk,  a  moment  later,  it  occurred  to  him  to  see  where  the  cigar 
had  been  thrown,  and  he  found  it  burning  in  the  sawdust  of  a 
sawdust  spittoon  in  the  hallway.  A  less  careful  person — per- 
haps any  other  than  an  insurance  man — would  have  failed  to 
take  the  precaution,  and  the  building  would,  probably,  have 
been  destroyed  that  night. 

It  is  in  this  way  that  fires  so  frequently  start,  with  sawdust 
spittoons,  into  which  matches,  cigars  or  lighted  cigarettes  are 
thoughtlessly  deposited.    Insist  on  their  removal. 

One  of  the  best  receptacles  for  keeping  matches  is  an  ordinary 
stone  jar,  with  a  cover.  It  protects  them  from  dampness  and 
from  rats  and  mice,  and  even  if  they  should  become  ignited 
they  are  not  likely  to  do  any  damage. 

Stoves,  Stove-Pipes,  &c.  It  is  probably  unnecessary  to  say  to 
any  person  of  ordinary  intelligence  that  stoves  should  be  free 
from  cracks;  that  the  floors  under  them  should  be  protected 
with  zinc  (brick  platforms  are  not  safe,  as  coals  of  fire  sift  down 
between  the  bricks) ;  that  the  plastering  on  walls  near  stoves 
should  be  unbroken,  not  leaving  exposed  lath  work;  that  wood 
should  not  be  piled  under  or  near  them ;  and  that  stove-pipes 
should  not  enter  chimneys  at  a  point  out  of  sight  or  in  unused 
rooms,  where  parted  joints  may  emit  sparks,  and  where  the 
coating  of  dust  and  ignitible  substances,  which  always  collect 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


on  the  upper  surfaces  of  pipes  running  horizontally,  is  not  likely 
to  be  seen.  These  points  should  he  especially  noticed  in  bagging 
factories,  cotton  mills  and  other  establishments  where  fibrous 
collections  are  incidents  of  the  risk. 

Stove-pipes  should  never  pass  out  of  a  window,  through  the 
roof  or  through  the  side  of  a  building.  Where  they  do.  the  risk 
should  be  declined.  Nor  should  stove-pipes  enter  a  chimney 
vertically,  at  the  bottom  of  a  flue  starting  from  a  ceiling  above, 
as  there  is  danger  of  fire  from  burning  soot  falling  out  of  the 
flue  through  the  space  around  the  pipe. 

Most  insurance  companies  decline  to  insure  buildings  where 
stove-pipes  pass  through  the  roofs,  even  though  the  building  be 
a  small  summer  kitchen  or  "lean-to,"  not  merely  because  of  the 
danger  of  igniting  the  roof  at  the  point  of  exit,  which  is  always 
to  be  considered,  but  because  of  the  danger  of  flying  sparks, 
which  find  lodgment  under  the  edge  of  shingles,  ignitible  as 
tinder  after  a  dry  season,  and  because  of  the  danger,  also,  of 
igniting  birds'  nests  or  rubbish  in  the  cornices  and  eaves. 

A  stove-pipe  may  sometimes  be  permitted  to  pass  out  of  the 
roof  of  a  summer  kitchen  or  "lean-to"  if  properly  protected,  but 
where  stove-pipes  pass  through  a  roof  they  should  in  all  cases 
be  double,  with  at  least  an  inch  of  space  between  the  pipe  itself 
and  the  outer  or  "sleeve"  pipe,  and  the  woodwork  of  the  roof 
should  be  cut  away  at  least  six  inches  from  the  pipe,  which 
should  be  held  in  place  by  a  zinc  or  tin  plate,  to  keep  it  at  all 
points  equidistant  from  the  roof. 

Such  risks  should  be  referred  to  the  company  for  consent  be- 
fore issuing  the  policy.  There  is  little  or  no  profit  in  the  class, 
and  no  insurance  company  would  regret  losing  them. 

Tile  Chimneys.  These  are  quite  common,  and  as  dangerous  as 
they  are  common.  They  are  liable  to  crack,  even  where  the 
tile  is  vitrified,  or  well  burned.  The  double  iron  stove-pipe  is 
preferable.  Indeed,  it  is  a  grave  question  if  the  double  iron 
stove-pipe,  properly  secured  and  extending  a  sufficient  height 
above  the  roof,  is  not  preferable  to  the  highly  dangerous  '  'half 
brick"  chimneys,  so  called,  only  four  inches  thick,  which  are 
sometimes  built  upon  wooden  shelves  or  which  rest  on  wooden 
joists.  Such  chimneys  should  be  prohibited  by  law.  The  differ- 
ence in  cost  between  a  poor  chimney  and  a  good  one  is  so  slight, 


LIGHTING,   ASHES,  ETC. 


K57 


and  the  danger  to  life  as  well  as  property  so  great,  that  no 
reasonable  man  would  be  content  with  the  sham  if  he  were  in- 
formed as  to  the  actual  difference  in  cost  and  appreciated  the 
danger  to  the  lives  of  his  family. 

A  tabulation  of  some  twenty-three  thousand  fires  in  dwellings 
and  farm  property  showed  1}/ifo  of  the  total  number  of  losses 
due  to  defective  flues,  and  20$  of  the  total  amount  of  losses 
due  to  the  same  cause. 

Lighting.  Movable  gas  or  lamp  brackets  should  be  secured  by 
stops,  to  prevent  their  being  swung  under  or  against  woodwork. 
They  should  not  be  nearer  to  a  ceiling  above  them  than  36  inches, 
and  should  be  provided  with  hanging  metal  or  glass  shades. 
Metal  nailed  to  woodwork  is  objectionable  if  the  flame  is  within 
twelve  inches  of  it.  unless,  as  already  explained,  an  air  space  is 
left  behind  the  metal. 

Lights  in  Show-Windows.  Are  a  frequent  cause  of  fires ;  glass 
globes  and  wire  netting  should  be  provided  to  prevent  contact 
with  ribbons,  laces,  &c,  &c,  which  may  be  blown  into  the 
jet  by  a  passing  draft,  as  when  a  door  is  opened.  A  safer 
method  is  to  have  the  lights  arranged  above  the  goods,  with 
reflectors.    Electric  lights  properly  installed  are  better. 

Ashes.  These  should  not  be  permitted  in  wooden  receptacles. 
Wood  ashes  are  liable  to  ignite  spontaneously  after  they  are 
supposed  to  be  cold. 

Cleanliness.  Probably  more  fires  are  due  to  want  of  clean- 
liness, especially  in  cellars  and  out  of  the  way  places,  where 
rubbish  is  allowed  to  accumulate,  than  from  all  other  causes 
except  defective  flues.  All  rubbish  is  objectionable,  and  the 
sweepings  of  floors,  particularly  of  drug  stores  and  grocery 
stores,  where  sawdust  is  used,  are  especially  liable  to  cause  fires. 
Fires  resulting  from  carelessness  form  such  an  alarming  pro- 
portion of  those  from  all  causes  as  to  require  unusual  care  on 
the  part  of  insurance  agents  and  inspectors  in  pointing  out  and 
explaining  its  dangers.  Most  householders  are  ignorant  of  the 
dangers  of  spontaneous  combustion  and  the  necessity  of  keeping 
matches  in  stone  jai^s,  to  prevent  their  being  ignited  by  rats  and 
mice  or  by  cockroaches.  An  agent  at  Jacksonville,  Florida, 
told  me  that,  on  one  occasion,  while  his  family  was  absent  from 
the  city,  he  went  to  his  house  at  noon,  and  while  in  one  of  his 


138 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


rooms  heard  a  sound  behind  him,  and,  turning,  saw  a  box  of 
matches  which  had  been  ignited  by  the  gnawing  of  a  cockroach 
— one  of  the  largest  he  had  ever  seen — which  frightened  by  the 
fire  was  running  down  the  leg  of  the  table  on  which  the  box  of 
matches  stood.  Here  was  an  instance,  capable  of  proof  by  an 
intelligent  man,  of  a  danger  which  most  people  would  ridicule 
as  improbable. 

A  recent  fire  in  California  was  extinguished  at  a  point  where 
a  number  of  burned  rats  and  charred  matches  were  found 
occupying  the  same  paper  box.  It  is  almost  safe  to  assume  that 
a  risk  should  be  declined  where  chronic  carelessness  is  dis- 
covered as  to  the  use  of  matches.  Where  they  are  found  left 
loose  upon  shelves,  in  closets  and  drawers,  a  fire  is  almost  certain 
to  result. 

The  following  taken  from  the  Journal  of  Commerce  and 
Commercial  Bulletin,  N.  Y.,  as  to  the  dangerous  affinity  be- 
tween mice  and  matches  is  interesting. 

'  'A  great  deal  has  been  said  and  written  about  mice  starting  fires  by  gnawing 
at  the  heads  of  matches,  but  it  is  seldom  that  positive  proof  of  the  assertion 
can  be  found.  This  week  Fred  Weddigen,  a  Williamsport,  Pa.,  agent,  received 
from  a  grocer  a  box  which  showed  just  how  such  fires  are  started.  In  this  in- 
stance one-half  of  the  matches  were  gone  and  the  remains  were  used  in  build- 
ing a  nest  for  the  mice.  Two  young  mice,  probably  as  many  days  old,  were 
found  in  the  nest.  The  mice  gnawed  the  wood  of  the  match  until  it  resembled 
excelsior.  All  but  the  heads  of  the  matches  were  used.  The  heads  were 
carefully  piled  away  in  one  corner  of  the  box  under  the  nest.  It  is  when  the 
mouse  gnaws  too  close  to  the  head  that  the  fire  is  started.  Instantly  one  is 
ignited  the  shavings  in  the  box  blaze  up,  and  sometimes  serious  conflagrations 
result." 

No  more  dangerous  practice  exists  than  the  common  one  of 
keeping  matches,  either  loose  or  in  paper  boxes,  in  drawers  of 
bureaus,  office  desks,  &c,  the  sliding  motion  of  which,  as  in 
opening  or  shutting,  frequently  ignites  them.  Fires  may  be 
caused  in  this  way  by  the  closing  of  desks  in  offices,  which  do 
not  break  out  until  all  have  left  the  rooms  for  the  night. 

Safety  Matches.  The  use  of  "safety  matches,''  which  will  not 
ignite  unless  brought  in  contact  with  a  specially  prepared  sur- 
face, should  be  encouraged  as  tending  to  safety. 

Some  persons  are  constitutionally  careless.  Some  years  ago 
a  fire  resulting  in  a  loss  of  over  half  a  million  dollars  was  caused 
by  one  of  the  proprietors  of  a  warehouse  lighting  the  gas  with 


SAFETY  MATCHES,  ETC. 


139 


a  piece  of  paper,  which  he  threw  aside  and  which  set  fire  to  the 
premises,  although  it  was  his  own  rule  of  the  warehouse  that 
only  tapers  should  be  used  for  lighting  purposes. 

Reading  at  night  while  in  bed,  with  a  candle  or  lamp  by  the 
bedside,  is  a  common  practice  with  many  persons,  especially 
with  servants  and  children,  and  results  in  many  fires. 

Screens  full  of  clothes  are  frequently  placed  near  stoves  to 
dry,  where  a  slight  movement  of  the  air  or  draft  from  an  open 
window  or  door  will  precipitate  them  on  the  fire.  Clothes  which 
have  been  freshly  cleaned  with  benzine  or  alcohol  should  never 
be  brought  near  a  fire.  The  contents  of  fireplaces  and  stoves 
are  often  pulled  out  on  the  hearths  at  night,  instead  of  arrang- 
ing them  in  the  grate ;  and  kindling  wood  is  often  piled  in  ovens 
to  dry  for  the  morning  fire. 

Working  over  hours  causes  many  fires,  through  the  sleepy 
indifference  of  tired  workmen,  especially  where  the  overtime 
work  is  only  for  a  few  hours,  as,  in  the  hurry  to  get  home,  they 
are  liable  to  leave  without  taking  proper  precautions  to  see  that 
there  are  no  hot  journals,  &c. 

It  is  a  grave  question  whether  all-night  work  is  not  less  hazard- 
ous than  half-night  work.  Where  employees  work  hah7  the 
night  to  make  up  time,  and  go  home  tired  out,  they  too  fre- 
quently fail  to  examine  journals  and  put  out  fires,  which  start 
after  they  leave,  when  there  is  no  one  to  extinguish  them. 

Numerous  fires  occur  in  cities  where  rubbish,  waste  paper, 
packing  material  or  dried  leaves  accumulate  under  open  grat- 
ings, where  falling  matches  or  cast  away  lighted  cigars  will 
ignite  them.  Where  windows  are  below  the  level  of  sidewalks, 
with  areas  for  the  admission  of  light,  the  accumulation  of  dried 
leaves  is  a  special  danger. 

As  a  rule,  dangerous  combustible  substances,  like  gasolene, 
naphtha,  lime,  phosphorus,  &c,  &c,  are  not  so  dangerous  in 
those  risks,  like  drug  stores  or  chemical  works,  where  they  are 
thoroughly  understood  and  of  which  they  are  incidents,  as  where 
they  are  mere  accidents  and  where  the  parties  using  them  are 
ignorant  of  their  dangerous  properties.  Lime,  for  example,  is 
more  dangerous  in  paper  mills  and  grocery  stores,  where  it  may 
be  kept  for  sale,  than  with  those  who  deal  in  it  in  quantities  by 
wholesale.   Oily  waste,  which  every  cotton  manufacturer  knows 


L40 


(  A  I  SKS  OF  KIKES. 


will  burn  spontaneously,  and  which  he  carefully  keeps  in  a  metal 
receptacle  during  the  day  and  removes  from  his  mill  at  night,  is 
often  the  cause  of  fire  in  machine  shops  and  other  mechanical 
risks,  where  it  is  used  to  wipe  off  machinery  and  afterwards 
carelessly  thrown  aside  in  some  closet  or  rubbish  box  to  en- 
danger the  property.  Linseed  oil.  which  any  painter  knows  to 
be  dangerous  if  fibrous  material  is  saturated  with  it  and  it  be- 
comes covered  up,  is  apt  to  cause  fires  by  the  careless  throwing 
away  of  cloths  with  which  servants  have  rubbed  off  furniture  or 
hardwood  floors.  The  intelligent  and  carefid  insurance  in- 
spector will  take  pains  to  explain  such  matters  when  examining 
buildings. 

It  is  not  safe  to  infer  that  the  risks  of  those  who  have  never 
had  a  tire  do  not  need  to  be  carefully  examined.  Long  im- 
munity from  fires  seems  to  have  a  natural  tendency  to  make 
persons  careless. 

Spontaneous  combustion  probably  causes  more  fires  than  are 
attributed  to  it,  from  the  fact  that,  in  order  to  determine 
whether  a  fire  originates  in  this  manner  or  not.  it  must  necessa- 
rily be  detected  at  its  very  commencement  and  before  the  flames 
have  destroyed  the  evidence  of  its  cause ;  and  as  the  substances 
which  cause  the  spontaneous  ignition  are  quickly  consumed, 
the  incendiary  is  seldom  caught  red-handed  in  the  act.  Most 
people,  moreover,  are  not  aware  of  the  dangers  of  spontaneous 
combustion,  and,  where  ignorant,  such  unexplained  fires  are 
usually  attributed  to  incendiaries,  defective  flues  or  other  causes. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  an  expert  insurance  inspector  will  make 
careful  examination  of  all  closets  and  concealed  spaces,  and  will 
especially  examine  attics  and  cellars — those  portions  of  a  build- 
ing which  the  owner  himself  too  frequently  overlooks. 

It  is  only  within  recent  years  that  spontaneous  combustion 
has  been  reasonably  understood.  For  many  years,  a  fire  origi- 
nating from  this  cause  was  regarded  as  a  phenomenon;  but, 
owing  to  the  investigations  and  explanations  of  scientific  men, 
and  to  the  efforts  of  underwriters  in  collecting  and  publishing 
the  statistics  of  fires,  with  a  view  to  lessening  their  losses,  the 
ignition  of  many  substances  without  the  application  of  fire  heat 
or  flame,  merely  by  the  chemical  action  of  the  materials  them- 
selves, has  come  to  be  regarded  as  an  accepted  fact,  and  few 
persons  are  so  ignorant  as  to  doubt  it. 


SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION,  ETC 


Ul 


Spontaneous  combustion  is  generally  due  to  the  absorption  of 
oxygen  from  the  atmosphere  by  various  substances  which  have 
an  affinity  for  it.  The  rapid  drying  of  siccative  oils,  especially 
vegetable  oils,  like  linseed,  and  the  drying  of  moist  charcoal, 
result  in  the  rapid  absorption  of  oxygen  to  the  extent  of  ignition. 

It  will  be  understood,  also,  that  heat  results  from  almost  every 
operation  of  force;  the  friction  of  machinery,  the  turning  of  iron 
in  a  lathe,  the  cutting  of  threads  on  a  bolt,  the  driving  of  a  nail 
into  wood  and  especially  into  hardwood,  the  electricity  generated 
by  a  rapidly  moving  belt,  and  a  hundred  or  more  processes 
familiar  to  mechanics.  It  is  principally  of  the  slow  and  insidi- 
ous self-ignition  of  inert  substances,  not  suspected  by  those 
whose  property  is  endangered,  that  we  propose  in  this  connect- 
ion to  treat.  The  fire  which  every  miller  knows  will  result  if 
the  stones  of  his  mill  are  permitted  to  run  in  contact  when  the 
feed  is  shut  off  by  some  accident  is  not  more  certain  than  that 
which  will  ensue  from  the  oily  waste  which  he  uses  to  wipe  off 
machinery  and  afterwards  throws  aside  in  some  corner  to  lie 
neglected  and  forgotten  until  it  bursts  into  flame. 

Heat  results  from  chemical  action  as  surely  though  sometimes 
more  slowl}'  than  from  the  application  of  flame.  Of  those  sub- 
stances which  absorb  oxygen  most  rapidly,  the  siccative  or  dry- 
ing vegetable  oils,  such  as  linseed,  cotton-seed,  palm  oil,  almond, 
rapeseed,  &c. ,  are  the  most  dangerous.  They  are  not  danger- 
ous, however,  in  bulk,  as  in  barrels  or  cans,  but  when  distri- 
buted over  fibrous  substances,  rags,  &c,  especially  when 
covered  up  so  as  to  confine  the  generated  heat.  The  petroleum 
oils,  however,  are  not  dangerous  as  to  spontaneous  ignition,  and 
even  a  mixture  of  petroleum  with  vegetable  oils  lowers  the 
temperature  almost  invariably  to  the  point  of  safety.  Petro- 
leum products  are  dangerous,  of  course,  on  account  of  their 
vaporizing  qualities  and  ignitibility. 

Sawdust  mixed  with  linseed  oil  will  ignite  in  a  few  hours;  so 
will  cotton  waste.  Cotton  waste  saturated  with  linseed  oil  will 
burn  in  from  two  to  ten  hours,  according  to  circumstances ;  with 
rape  and  olive  oils  (and  large  quantities  of  olive  oils  in  the 
market  are  really  cotton-seed  oils)  in  from  five  to  six  hours.  Ig- 
nition takes  place  more  rapidly  with  silk  waste  than  with  cotton. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  oily  rags  are  liable  to  be  found 


142 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


in  almost  every  collection  of  rubbish,  and  it  is  for  this  reason 
that  inspectors  should  decline  buildings  where  rubbish  is  allowed 
to  accumulate.  Wet  cotton,  damp  oatmeal  or  bran,  and  most 
vegetable  substances,  when  packed  together  in  a  confined  place, 
without  being  sufficiently  dry.  undergo  fermentation  or  heating 
and  are  liable  to  take  fire.  Spent  tanbark  is  liable  to  ignite 
spontaneously  when  stacked  up  in  heaps.  It  is  used  in  white 
lead  works  for  this  very  reason,  to  generate  carbon  dioxide  by 
its  fermentation  in  the  corroding  beds.  Wet  iron  filings  gener- 
ate heat,  and  so  also  does  all  rusting  iron ;  in  fact,  iron  rust  is 
combustion  or  oxidation  of  iron.  Very  fine  fragments  of  iron 
and  steel  by  rapid  oxidation  become  red  hot — the  theory  of 
striking  fire  with  a  flint  and  steel — and  it  is  now  claimed,  with 
some  show  of  reason,  by  an  English  scientist  that  some  of  the 
fires  caused  by  steam-pipes  may  originate  in  this  manner  from 
the  rust  of  iron.    He  says : 

""When  oxide  of  iron  is  placed  in  contact  with  timber,  excluded  from  the 
atmosphere,  and  aided  by  a  slightly  increased  temperature,  the  oxide  parts 
with  its  oxygen,  and  is  converted  into  very  finely  divided  particles  of  metallic 
iron,  having  such  an  affinity  for  oxygen  that,  when  afterwards  exposed  to  the 
action  of  the  atmosphere  from  any  cause,  oxygen  is  absorbed  so  rapidly  that 
these  particles  become  suddenly  red  hot,  and,  if  in  sufficient  quantity,  will 
produce  a  temperature  far  beyond  the  ignitible  point  of  dry  timber.  Wher- 
ever iron  pipes  are  employed  for  the  circulation  of  any  heated  medium 
(whether  hot  water,  hot  air  or  steam),  and  wherever  these  pipes  are  allowed  to 
become  rusty,  and  are  also  in  close  contact  with  timber,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
suppose  that  under  these  circumstances  the  finely  divided  particles  of  metallic 
iron  become  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  (and  this  may  occur  from 
the  mere  expansion  or  contraction  of  the  pipes),  in  order  to  account  for  many 
of  the  fires  which  periodically  take  place  at  the  commencement  of  the  winter 
season." 

The  iron  scraps  or  shavings,  lathe  chips,  etc. ,  to  be  found  in 
small  heaps  on  the  floors  of  machine-shops,  and  which  are 
always  more  or  less  oily,  are  particularly  liable  to  heat  if  they 
become  rusty ;  and  fires  in  such  heaps,  in  the  yards  of  iron-works, 
where  exposed  to  alternate  rain  and  sunshine — particularly 
where  sawdust  is  used,  as  in  the  case  of  nut  and  bolt  works 
— are  far  from  uncommon. 

In  one  instance,  where  a  large  machine-shop  was  flooded  by 
a  sudden  freshet  which  thoroughly  wetted  such  heaps  upon  the 
floor,  they  began  to  heat  from  the  rusting,  immediately  after 
the  water  had  subsided. 


SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION,  ETC1. 


143 


The  spontaneous  ignition  of  coal  mines'is  supposed  to  be 
due  to  the  chemical  action  of  water  and  iron  pyrites,  the  de- 
composition of  sulphurets  of  iron  in  the  slates,  which  rapidly 
absorb  oxygen.  The  fire  in  the  Hickory  Shaft,  an  extensive 
colliery  near  Pottsville,  Pa.,  in  1S7(>,  it  is  claimed,  originated 
in  this  manner. 

"The  yellowish  matter  commonly  called  copperas  stone,  brazil,  rust  balls 
or  marcasite,  ofl  en  adhering  to  or  mixed  with  the  substance  of  pit  coal,  consists 
of  sulphur  and  iron,  and  is  a  species  of  pyrites.  These  are  picked  out  and 
laid  aside,  and  such  heaps  have  been  known  i<>  take  (ire,  as  at  Whitehaven  and 
near  Halifax,  and  at  Puddle  Dock,  London.  Water  having  obtained  access  to 
it,  it  burned  like  red  hot  coals." — Bishop  Watson  s  Chemical  Essays,  vol.  \  ,p.  194. 

It  is  well  known  that  all  finely  divided  sul  (stances,  such  as 
sawdust,  wood  lathe  dust,  cotton,  wool,  hemp,  rags,  rubbish, 
floor  sweepings,  etc.,  etc.,  when  saturated  with  oil,  and  es- 
pecially with  the  siccative  or  drying  vegetable  oils,  such  as 
linseed,  olive,  cotton-seed,  rape-seed,  etc.,  are  liable  to  burn 
spontaneously.  This  combustion  is  accelerated  by  the  applica- 
tion of  heat,  whether  artifical  or  that  of  the  sun,  but  takes  place 
also  when  the  substance  becomes  in  any  manner  covered  up,  as 
in  heaps,  barrels  or  boxes,  so  as  to  confine  the  heat  generated. 
The  small  scraps  of  oil-cloth,  for  instance,  so  harmless  when 
scattered  over  the  floors  of  a  carpet  store,  become  dangerous 
when  collected  in  heaps  or  quantities. 

The  following  report  of  what  is  termed  a  "curious  case  of 
spontaneous  combustion"  was  published  in  the  New  York  Sun: 

CURrOUS  CASE   OF   SPONTANEOUS   COMBUSTION   AFTER   WOUNDS   HAD  BEEN 

DRESSED. 

Louisville,  Ky.,  June  4,  1001. — What  is  considered  a  remarkable  case  of 

spontaneous  combustion  is  brought  to  light  by  Dr  ,  who  for 

several  years  has  been  Dean  of  the  Kentucky  School  of  Medicine  and,  for  t  wenty 
years,  a  professor  of  chemistry  of  that  college.  The  report  of  the  case  comes 
to  Dr.  Woody  in  a,  letter  from  a  reputable  Kentucky  physician.  In  part  the 
letter  says: 

"A  child  about  four  years  old  was  burned  on  the  extremities  and  abdomen 
by  its  dress  catching  on  fire.  The  burns  in  each  locality,  being  of  moderate 
severity  and  strictly  superficial,  were  not  sufficient  to  have  caused  a  fatal 
result.  The  burns  were  dressed  in  the  following  manner:  First  dusted  with 
subnitrate  of  bismuth,  then  linseed  oil  was  freely  poured  on  the  parts  wrapped 
in  cotton  batting  and  a  sheet  pinned  around  it  snugly,  and  lastly  a  quilt  was 
wrapped  around  this. 


144 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


"The  child  was  put  to  bed  aud  instructions  were  given  not  to  remove  the 
dressing.  The  child  complained  bitterly  all  night  long,  the  parents  thinking 
that  the  suffering  was  due  to  the  original  burn.  About  daylight  they  saw 
smoke  arising  from  the  bed,  but  being  very  ignorant  people  thought  it  was 
the  'fire  leaving  the  burn,'  and  did  not  remove  the  dressing  until  later,  when 
the  child  was  dying.  Upon  removing  the  dressing  they  found  the  inner  aspect 
of  the  sheet  was  scorched,  the  cotton  batting  was  burned  almost  entirely  up, 
over  the  abdomen,  and  still  smouldering. 

"The  child  was  burned  into  the  intestines  in  three  places  aud  died  in  a  few 
moments.  There  was  not  the  least  evidence  or  the  remotest  possibility  of  the 
second  fire  originating  from  the  outside,  and  there  was  absolutely  nothing  used 
but  the  bismuth  and  linseed  oil." 

Dr.  Woody  gives  the  following  explanation: 

"Under  the  circumstances  it  must  have  been  spontaneous  combustion  of  the 
linseed  oil.  The  bismuth  subnitrate  and  cotton,  divided  finely,  distributed  the 
oil  and  exposed  a  large  surface  to  the  action  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  The 
warmth  from  the  body  added  to  the  heat  and  hastened  the  oxidation,  and  the 
covering  confined  the  heat  until  the  oxidation  became  an  actual  combustion." 

The  only  thing  that  is  curious  about  the  matter  is  that  a 
physician  could  overlook  the  danger  of  cotton  fiber  saturated 
with  linseed  oil  and  covered  up  so  as  to  confine  the  heat.  The 
conditions  in  this  case  are  exactly  those  which  result  invariably 
in  rapid  oxidation  and  so-called  spontaneous  combustion,  and  it 
is  ignorance  of  the  inevitable  consequence  of  such  conditions 
that  leads  to  so  many  fires,  year  by  year,  from  spontaneous 
combustion,  which  probably  contributes  more  to  fires  classified 
as  "unknown"  than  any  other  one  cause,  because  the  evidences 
of  spontaneous  ignition,  as  already  explained,  are  naturally  al- 
most invariably  destroyed  by  the  fire. 

A  fire  occurred  in  the  Wanskuck  Woolen  Mill  of  X.  Providence,  R.  I.,  in 
an  imperfectly  scoured  piece  of  heavy  woolens  placed,  while  still  warm  from 
the  drying  machine,  under  several  other  pieces.  Loss  on  goods  §1,000  before 
discovered  and  extinguished. 

In  the  same  year  a  fire  occurred  in  the  repair  shop  of  the  Everett  Mills  at 
Lawrence,  Mass.,  from  spontaneous  combustion  in  a  box  containing  some  lathe 
dust  from  spindle  bobbins  (which  had  been  made  a  little  more  dishing.)  These 
bobbins  when  new  had  been  soaked  in  linseed  oil. 

In  June  of  the  same  year  a  fire  occurred  in  the  Pemberton  Mill  of  Lawrence 
from  spontaneous  combustion  in  black  and  brown  yarns  lying  in  bins,  probably 
from  the  small  quantity  of  oils  used  in  scouring  these  yarns.*    Loss,  $17,000. 

A  fire  occurred  in  the  Cordis  Mill,  Millbury,  Mass.,  in  an  attic  mule  room, 

*Goods  or  yarns  recently  dyed  black  should  be  well  aired  and  cooled  before 
being  packed. 


SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION,  ETC. 


145 


in  a  small  quantity  of  carriage  flyings  which  lay  under  a  skylight  where  they 
were  slightly  wet  by  a  shower  and  afterwards  exposed  to  a  bright  sun  shining 
through  the  glass. 

A  fire  occurred  in  black  yarns  in  the  Plunkett  Cotton  Yarn  Mills,  Adams, 
Mass.,  August,  1891,  and  in  aniline  black  cotton  at  New  York  Mills,  N.  Y., 
July  14.  1901,  and  in  dyed  skeins  of  yarn  at  the  Thorndike  Cotton  Mill,  Thorn- 
dike,  Mass.,  same  year,  and  in  bundles  of  cloth  dyed  black  in  the  United  States 
Finishing  Company's  risk  at  Norwich,  Ct. 

In  Mr.  Edward  Atkinson's  careful  statistics  of  fires  in  mills 
insured  by  his  company  much  valuable  information  will  be 
found  as  to  spontaneous  combustion. 

It  is  well  known  that  fires  occur  from  the  heating  of  webs 
fresh  from  the  loom,  if  piled  on  top  of  each  other,  or  covered  up 
in  any  way  before  being  scoured. 

Too  much  care  cannot  be  observed  as  to  the  oil  used  on  stock ; 
only  a  safe  animal  oil  should  be  used,  pure  sperm,  pressed  or 
saponified  lard  oils,  or  a  pure  olive.  Olive  oil  has  of  late  been 
so  adulterated  with  cotton  seed  oil  (exported  for  the  purpose)  as 
to  render  its  use  on  wool  or  cotton  highly  dangerous. 

To  avoid  fires  from  spontaneous  combustion,  all  dirty  or 
greasy  cotton  or  woolen  waste  should  be  removed  to  a  building 
especially  prepared  for  its  reception,  (and  not  exposing  the  mill) 
and  never  left  in  the  mill  over  night.  The  cards  should  be 
cleaned  in  the  forepart  of  the  day,  the  waste  passed  through  the 
duster  and  removed  to  the  waste-house.  It  is,  moreover,  to  the 
manufacturer's  interest  to  clean  the  waste  as  soon  as  it  comes 
from  the  card,  since  if  left  to  accumulate,  it  becomes  matted 
and  will  not  clean  well.  The  pickers  should  also  be  daily  over- 
hauled and  all  waste  removed. 

Sweepings  of  floors  nearly  always  contain  more  or  less  oil, 
and  should  not  be  allowed  to  accumulate  in  corners,  but  should 
be  carefully  removed  each  afternoon. 

Too  much  pains  cannot  be  taken,  in  case  any  painting  is  done 
on  the  premises,  to  see  that  no  rags,  waste,  or  cotton  saturated 
with  linseed  oil  (a  most  dangerous  combination)  is  left  in  any 
part  of  the  building.  The  examinations  for  such  negligence 
should  be  the  more  thorough  that  the  danger  is  greatest  when 
such  materials  are  covered  up  in  any  way ;  a  condition  in  which, 
as  before  explained,  they  are  most  likely  to  ignite,  while,  at 
the  same  time,  most  likely  to  elude  a  search  for  them. 


146 


CATSKS  OF  FIRKS. 


The  increased  use  of  hard  woods  as  a  finish  for  the  interior 
of  buildings,  especially  in  offices,  engine-rooms,  stair- ways,  etc., 
and  the  habit  of  re-oiling  them  from  time  to  time,  renders 
the  observance  of  these  precautions  extremely  necessary. 

Many  other  substances  are  known  to  burn  spontaneously, 
such  as  lampblack,  oiled  clothing,  wet  hemp  ropes  and  mats, 
phosphorus,  bituminous  coal  in  large  heaps,  moist  hay,  etc.,  etc. 

An  experiment  showing  the  manner  in  which  subterranean 
fires  possibly  sometimes  originate  is  also  mentioned  : 

"Twenty  five  pounds  of  powdered  sulphur  were  mixed  with  an  equal 
weight  of  iron  filings.  After  being  kneaded  together  with  a  little  water  to 
the  consistenee  of  paste  it  was  placed  in  an  iron  pot,  covered  with  a  cloth,  and 
the  whole  buried  under  ground  about  one  foot  deep.  In  eight  or  nine  hours 
the  earth  swrlled,  uivu  warm  and  cracked;  hot  sulphurous  vapors  were 
perceived;  a  flame  which  dilated  the  cracks  was  observed;  in  short,  a  subter- 
raneous fire,  producing  a  volcano  in  miniature,  was  spontaneously  lighted  up 
from  the  reciprocal  actions  of  sulphur,  iron  and  water." 

Bituminous  Coal  in  large  heaps,  owing  to  the  decomposition 
of  sulphuret  of  iron  which  it  contains  in  large  quantities,  has 
caused  many  fires,  the  most  serious  of  which,  probably,  was 
that  at  Copenhagen,  about  the  year  1804,  when  1400  buildings 
were  destroyed.  Numerous  fires  have  occurred  at  the  different 
U.  S.  Navy  Yards,  where  large  quantities  of  the  coal  are  kept 
— notably  at  Brooklyn,  Boston,  Portsmouth,  and  in  a  heap  of 
coal  under  the  trestle  of  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  R.  R.,  at 
Nashville,  Tenn. 

In  December,  1875,  a  fire  started  in  a  large  heap  of  1300  tons 
of  bituminous  coal  stored  in  the  basement  of  a  store-house  con- 
nected with  the  Burlington  Woolen  Mill  at  Winooski,  Vermont, 
no  doubt  caused  by  the  decomposition  of  sulphurets  in  the  coal. 
A  singular  fatality  has  attended  many  of  the  ships  in  the  carry- 
ing trade  of  soft  coal,  unexplained  except  upon  the  hypothesis 
of  spontaneous  combustion  of  the  coal. 

Bituminous  coal  should  be  kept  in  small  heaps,  out  of  doors, 
protected  by  sheds  from  the  rain,  but  where  frequent  currents 
of  air  may  keep  it  cool.  It  is  possible  to  have  pipes  running 
into  the  heap  to  ventilate  the  pile  and  to  determine  a  rising 
temperature  by  thermometers  and  other  tests. 

Everyone  is  familiar  with  the  spontaneous  ignition  of  un- 
slaked lime  when  dampened  in  any  way,  and  yet  it  is  frequent- 
ly stored,  as  elsewhere  mentioned,  in  a  careless  manner,  where 


SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION,  ETC. 


147 


exposed  to  rain  by  an  open  or  broken  window  or  a  leaky  roof, 
or  in  warehouses  on  water  fronts  where  freshets  may  reach  it. 
Almost  every  spring  fires  from  freshets  in  lime  warehouses  are 
recorded. 

As  I  write,  information  is  received  of  a  fire  resulting  in  a 
$10,000  loss  at  Richmond,  Va.,  caused  by  the  water  from  a 
freshet  coming  in  contact  with  lime  in  the  plant  of  Warner 
Moore  &  Company,  millers  and  feed  supply  men. 

The  ordinary  oiled  clothing  to  be  found  in  ship  chandlery 
stores,  and  in  clothing  stores  near  the  water  fronts  of  cities,  is 
dangerous  when  in  piles  because  of  the  linseed  oil  used  in  the 
manufacture.  It  should  always  be  hung  up  and  exposed  to 
free  currents  of  air,  by  which  the  heat  evolved  is  conducted 
away.  Stocks  of  goods,  where  it  forms  a  large  percentage  of 
the  stock  and  where  it  is  kept  in  piles  on  shelves  or  counters 
or  in  drawers,  are  undesirable  risks. 

Charcoal  will  burn  when  pulverized  or  finely  divided,  in 
heaps.  Indeed,  a  ton  or  two  of  charcoal  in  a  state  of  minute 
division  is  almost  certain  to  ignite  spontaneously.  In  an  ex- 
periment which  was  made  in  France,  under  government  direc- 
tion, it  was  found  that  the  inflammation  occurs  towards  the 
centre  of  the  mass,  in  such  cases,  at  about  five  or  six  inches 
below  the  surface.  The  temjjerature  is  constantly  higher  in 
this  place  than  in  any  other.  In  another  instance,  where  small 
charcoal  was  thrown  into  a  heap  ten  feet  square  and  four  feet 
deep,  containing  two  or  three  tons  of  charcoal,  the  temperature 
in  three  days  had  increased  to  90°,  though  at  first  only  57°  (that 
of  the  air  at  the  time.)  On  the  sixth  day  it  was  150°,  and  on 
the  seventh  day  combustioyi  had  occurred  in  several  places. 
The  charcoal  had  been  made  ten  or  twelve  days  before  the  ex- 
periment took  place,  had  been  freely  exposed  to  the  air,  and 
was  not,  in  any  sense,  what  is  known  as  "freshly  burned"  char- 
coal. When  finely  powdered,  charcoal  is  more  dangerous  than 
when  in  sticks.  Sixty  pounds  of  powdered  charcoal  is  some- 
times a  large  enough  quantity  to  ignite  spontaneously.  Lumps 
of  charcoal,  if  moist  and  subjected  to  a  slight  drying  heat,  will 
ignite  (see  the  interesting  experiment  of  Professor  Jackson, 
under  head  of  steam-pipe  fires,  page  166). 

Dr.  Kane,  in  the  narrative  of  his  Arctic  explorations,  men- 


I  -is 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


tions  a  fire  originating  unmistakably  in  the  "remains  of  a 
barrel  of  charcoal  which  had  been  left  in  the  carpenter's  room 
of  the  ship,  ten  feet  from  the  stoves  and  with  a  bulkhead  sepa- 
rating it  from  them." 

Phosphorus — which  should  always  be  kept  under  water, 
and  which,  when  it  becomes  uncovered,  by  evaporation  or 
leakage  of  the  water,  absorbs  oxygen  so  rapidly  at  a  temper- 
ature below  70°  as  to  take  fire  readily,  especially  when  in  a 
powdered  state — is  very  dangerous.  Sufficient  powdered  phos- 
phorus is  sometimes  to  be  found  on  the  head  of  matches  to 
ignite  in  this  way.  Some  fires  are  possibly  due  to  the  ignition 
of  matches  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  which,  in  a  window  and  in 
summer,  is  frequently  as  high  as  140° — more  than  enough  to 
ignite  phosphorus.  The  ordinary  lucifer  match  composition  is 
luminous  on  dark,  warm  nights,  showing  that  oxidation  is  going 
on  and  a  process  of  heating ;  hence  large  quantities  of  matches 
should  not  be  kept  in  stores,  especially  where  any  heat — 
whether  of  stoves,  steam-pipes,  or  of  the  sun — can  reach  them. 

Chlorine,  one  of  the  most  energetic  of  elementary  substances, 
largely  used  in  bleaching,  in  the  form  of  chloride  of  lime, 
chlorate  of  potash,  chloride  of  magnesia,  &c,  has  a  powerful 
affinity  for  hydrogen,  seizing  it  in  many  of  its  liquid  and  solid 
combinations,  as  in  volatile  oils,  which  it  inflames,  and  in  cotton 
and  flax.  It  spontaneously  burns  many  substances.  Some  of 
the  metals,  when  finely  divided,  take  fire  spontaneously  in 
chlorine,  such  as  brass-leaf  or  powdered  antimoirv. 

Lampblack  is  claimed  to  be  dangerous,  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  of  its  liability  to  ignite  spontaneously  if  mixed  with  oils 
— especially  linseed — which  contain  a  large  proportion  of  hydro- 
gen. It  is  claimed  to  be  the  unsuspected  cause,  sometimes,  of 
fires  in  shoe  manufactories,  in  which  risks  it  is  urged  by  some 
that  not  over  one  day's  supply  should  be  permitted.  As  lamp- 
black is  almost  always  to  be  found  near  oils,  as  in  paint  shops, 
&c,  care  should  be  taken  that  it  does  not  cause  fires.  Its  use 
with  putty,  as  in  the  case  of  furniture  factories,  or  other  risks, 
may  supply  the  necessary  material  for  combustion. 

Tracing  paper,  made  transparent  with  oil,  in  process  of  manu- 
facture, if  the  sheets  are  not  thoroughly  dry  and  cool  before 
piling,  will  take  fire  within  an  hour,  on  account  of  the  linseed 
oil  used. 


SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION,  ETC. 


U9 


Roasted  coffee  sometimes  takes  fire  spontaneously.  Its  latent 
heat  is  greatly  increased  by  the  process  of  roasting. 

It  is  well  known  that  hay,  when  stored  away  too  green  or 
wet,  is  very  liable  to  set  barns  on  fire  by  the  heat  generated  in 
fermentation.  It  is  claimed  that  salt  sprinkled  in  the  mow  is 
a  preventive  of  heating,  and  that  if  the  mow  is  pierced  with 
holes  to  permit  the  escape  of  the  gases  and  heat  generated,  no 
combustion  can  take  place. 

Tarred  felt  and  moist  hemp  have  been  known  to  take  fire 
spontaneously. 

'"Charged  silks,"  viz.,  silks  which  have  been  treated  with  oil 
to  increase  their  weight,  and  certain  shades  of  dyed  silks,  are 
so  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion  that,  in  1872,  their  trans- 
portation was  prohibited  on  German  railways.  A  peculiar  kind 
of  nut  oil  was  used. 

Goods  and  yarns  dyed  black,  possibly  from  some  chemical 
used  in  the  dye,  especially  if  packed  solidly  together  before  the 
heat  from  the  drying  process  at  the  mills  has  escaped  from  the 
cloth  or  yarn,  are  very  liable  to  burn  spontaneously.  *  No  less 
than  six  fires  occurred  in  1873,  in  mills,  from  spontaneous  com- 
bustion in  black  goods.  One  at  the  Norwich  Bleachery,  several 
at  the  Pacific  Mills,  one  at  the  Silver  Spring  Dye  Works,  and 
one  at  the  Danvers,  Conn.,  Bleachery.  In  1875  a  fire  occurred 
at  the  Washington  Mills,  Lawrence,  Mass.,  in  a  roll  of  alpaca 
goods,  dried  on  a  drying  machine  the  day  previous;  and,  in  the 
same  year,  at  the  Renfrew  Manufacturing  Company's  Mill, 
Adams,  Mass.,  in  Black  Yarns;  and  at  the  Lonsdale  Bleachery, 
Lonsdale,  R.  I.,  in  a  pile  of  colored  goods  in  the  dye  house. 

The  burning  of  several  Russian  ships  in  the  harbor  of  Cron- 
stadt  was  caused  by  the  spontaneous  ignition  of  firwood  soot 
and  rape  oil  varnish,  wrapped  in  a  bass  mat  and  lying  on  the 
floor  of  the  cabin,  preparatory  to  painting  a  ship  with  it. — 
Papivortlfs  "Notes  on  Spontaneous  Combustion." 

A  vessel  loaded  with  Guano  which  became  wet  with  salt 
water  took  fire  instantly. 

It  is  claimed  that  buildings  have  been  set  on  fire  by  spon- 

*Probably  due,  also,  to  the  fact  that  this  color  admits  of  greater  "loading," 
the  introduction  of  material  to  give  weight  to  the  goods,  which  would  "be 
apparent  in  the  lighter  colors. 


I  r,i  i 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


taueoiis  ignition  of  the  guano  of  pigeons  or  oilier  birds,  and 
certainly  some  fires  attributed  to  this  cause  seem  to  be  more 
easily  explainable  on  this  hypothesis  than  on  any  "iher. 

Fires  have  been  known  to  occur  from  the  heat  of  the  sun  con- 
centrated  upon  Light  combustible  materials,  such  as  shavings, 
oily  cotton,  or  sawdust,  through  imperfect  panes  of  window- 
glass,  which  serve  the  purpose  of  a  "burning  lens."  When 
woodwork  is  deeply  smeared  with  a  coating  of  linseed  oil,  as 
is  frequently  the  case  in  paint  shops,  carriage  shops  and  other 
risks  using  it,  it  would  not  seem  a  difficult  matter  for  the  heat 
of  the  sun  to  ignite  it. 

Sunlight  passing  through  a  spheroidal  glass  vessel  of  water 
has  been  known  to  produce  the  same  result. 

A  fire  was  caused  in  this  manner  in  the  laboratory  of  Dr.  H. 
C.  Bolton,  of  Columbia  College.  New  York  City.  Upon  enter- 
ing the  room  at  9  a.  m.,  he  found  a  wooden  table  on  fire,  igni- 
tion having  been  occasioned  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  passing 
through  a  spherical  glass  flask  containing  water. 

Vessels  at  sea  have  been  set  on  fire  by  means  of  the  "bull's 
eye"  glasses  used  to  admit  light  between  decks.  Their  use  had 
to  be  discontinued  and  flat  glass  substituted.  Captain  Scoresby 
and  Dr.  Kane,  it  is  said,  succeeded  in  kindling  fires  with  lenses 
made  by  them  of  ice,  which  very  naturally  "astonished  the 
natives." 

Almost  every  boy's  book  of  "games"  contains  recipes  for 
chemical  combinations  which  will  ignite  without  artificial  heat, 
and  it  seems  strange  that  owners  of  property  will  overlook  or 
doubt  the  fact  that  the  same  dangerous  conditions  may  be 
reached,  every  day,  in  storage  stores  and  warehouses,  by  the 
accidental  combination  of  many  substances  in  common  use. 
The  explosion  at  the  great  fire  in  Broad  Street,  New  York,  in 
i  s 45,  was  undoubtedly  caused  by  the  accidental  combination 
of  saltpetre  with  the  charred  bags  or  other  carbon. 

Strong  nitric  or  sulphuric  acid,  mixed  with  wool,  straw  or 
certain  essential  oils  will  cause  combustion. 

Calcined  magnesia  and  sulphuric  acid  will  almost  instantly 
ignite.  Chlorate  of  potash  and  loaf  sugar  reduced  to  powder 
will  ignite  with  the  addition  of  a  drop  of  sulphuric  acid. 

'  'Fuming  acid  of  nitre  mixed  with  oil  of  turpentine  will  ignite 


SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION,  ETC. 


151 


instantly,  and  the  experiment  proving  it  is  a  very  dangerous 
one,  to  be  carefully  made,  the  experimenter  being  careful  not 
to  approach  too  close  to  the  mixture." — Watson's  Chemical 
Essays. 

Wood  which  has  been  for  a  length  of  time  in  contact  with 
pipes  containing  hot  water  or  steam,  seems  to  be  reduced  gradu- 
ally to  a  condition  favoring  spontaneous  ignition.  The  destruc- 
tion of  the  English  House  of  Parliament  and  many  other  fires 
have  been  attributed  to  this  cause. 

Vice-President  Snow,  of  the  Home  Insurance  Company,  has 
secured  valuable  statistics  as  to  the  fires  in  dry-kilns  and  dry- 
rooms,  and  has  practically,  it  seems  to  me,  demonstrated  that 
wood  subjected  continuously  to  heat  for  a  given  length  of  time 
gets  into  a  condition  where  it  ignites  spontaneously.  This  will 
explain  the  numerous  fires  in  dry-kilns  and  dry-houses,  and 
enforce  the  necessity  of  discontinuing  the  use  of  wood  in  rooms 
subjected  to  high  temperatures. 

Many  of  the  fires  originating  in  Broom  Corn  warehouses  are 
supposed  to  be  due  to  spontaneous  combustion  resulting  from 
the  saturation  of  the  fibre  with  oil  from  the  seed,  expressed  by 
the  process  of  baling  and  handling,  and  the  numerous  fires  in 
cotton  gin  houses  may  be  largely  due  to  the  ignition  of  cotton 
saturated  with  oil  from  the  cotton-seed  expressed  during  the 
process. 

Paint  shops  are  particularly  liable  to  fire,  on  account  of  the 
linseed  oil  used.  A  paint  shop  in  a  building  is  always  an 
objectionable  feature,  and  in  manufacturing  establishments, 
such  as  plow  works,  carriage  shops,  agricultural  implement 
manufactories  and  others,  great  danger  exists  from  the  care- 
lessness with  which  linseed  oil  is  frequently  handled  by  persons 
ignorant  of  its  dangerous  properties. 

Junk  stores  and  rag  stores  are  very  liable  to  spontaneous 
combustion  and  are  not  safe  risks  to  insure;  aside  from  the 
questions  of  unsatisfactory  values,  which  are  always  involved 
in  the  adjustment  of  losses  on  them,  they  contain  at  all  times, 
miscellaneous  rubbish  picked  up  in  the  streets — wisps  of  oily 
cotton,  greasy  rags,  oily  cotton  waste,  etc.,  etc.,  and  as  they 
are  generally  in  the  hands  of  persons  ignorant  or  indifferent  as 
to  the  dangers  of  spontaneous  ignition,  they  should  be  carefully 
avoided  by  the  insurance  agent,  either  as  risks  or  exposures. 


152 


CAUSES  OF  m  RES, 


The  agent  must  expect  to  find  the  danger  of  spontaneous 
combustion,  however,  in  every  class  of  risks.  Even  dwellings 
are  not  exempt  from  it.  In  one  case  a  ball  made  by  children 
out  of  woolen  yarn  which  they  had  oiled  to  make  it  clastic  and 
pliable,  and  had  then  covered  with  leather,  thus  fulfilling  un- 
consciously all  the  conditions  favoring  spontaneous  combustion, 
was  found  to  have  ignited  spontaneously  and  burned  to  ashes. 
A  notable  instance  of  spontaneous  combustion  in  a  dwelling 
was  where  a  mattress  took  fire.  Upon  examination  it  was 
found  that,  instead  of  being  stuffed  with  hair,  as  was  supposed, 
such  materials  as  tow,  flax,  rovings,  waste,  and  other  substi- 
tutes, had  been  used  by  the  upholsterer.  A  lounge,  stuffed  in 
the  same  manner,  took  fire.  Numerous  instances  are  reported 
each  year  to  insurance  companies  of  the  spontaneous  combustion 
of  greasy  overalls  of  painters  left  in  buildings  over  night.  In 
a  casein  Host  on  ii  was  discovered  that  a  pair  of  greasy  overalls, 
which  had  been  accidently  covered  up  in  the  cellar,  were  on 
fire.  In  the  case  of  a  newly  finished  house,  a  fire  started  in  a 
small  pile  of  oil-cloth  clippings,  left  by  the  carpet  fitter.  While 
spread  out  <  .11  the  floor  the  heat  was  conducted  a  way  by  currents 
of  air,  but  in  a  pile  it  was  confined,  and  the  oil}*,  vegetable  fibre 
of  the  cloth  ignited. 

The  sweeping's  of  factories,  drug  stores,  grocery  stores,  ma- 
chine shops  or  other  risks  where  oil  is  used  or  kept,  are  very 
liable  to  take  fire,  especially  if  allowed  to  accumulate  in  corners, 
waste  barrels  or  boxes ;  and  those  risks  where  sawdust  is  used 
on  the  floors,  such  as  drug  stores  and  grocery  stores,  are  par- 
ticularly liable  to  fire  from  this  cause.  The  breaking  of  a 
bottle  of  olive  oil  upon  the  floor  of  a  grocery  store,  saturating 
the  sawdust  with  which  the  floor  was  covered,  caused  a  fire 
sixteen  hours  afterward.  The  sweepings  had  been  left  in  a 
heap  where  sunlight  reached  them  and  accelerated  the  com- 
bustion. Olive  oil  has  not  been  considered  dangerous,  but  its 
adulteration  with  cotton-seed  oil  (very  common  of  late  years), 
makes  it  as  dangerous  as  any  other. 

Receptacles  for  waste  and  rubbish,  especially  in  mills,  should 
be  of  metal,  as  they  would  then  serve  to  conduct  away  the 
generated  heat  of  their  contents,  and  where,  through  any 
neglect,  such  waste  should  not  be  removed  over  night,  the 
danger  would  be  less  than  where  wooden  boxes  were  provided. 


KEROSENE  OIL,  ETC. 


153 


Wood — besides  being  itself  combustible — is  a  poor  conductor  of 
beat,  and  serves  to  confine  that  generated  until  a  dangerous 
temperature  is  reached. 

An  instance  showing  the  necessity  for  the  thorough  exami- 
nation of  every  portion  of  a  risk,  and  particularly  of  those  "out 
of  the  way"  places  which  are  so  liable  to  be  overlooked  by 
owners  and  insurance  inspectors,  was  that  of  a  fire  in  a  large 
establishment  at  Zanesville.  Ohio,  in  which  the  rule  was  to 
burn  all  oily  waste  and  rags  each  day,  under  the  boilers.  One 
of  the  workmen,  having  occasion  to  go  into  the  attic,  found  it 
full  of  smoke,  and  an  investigation  revealed  the  fact  that  the 
fire  originated  in  some  greasy  rags  in  the  space  between  the 
brick  wall  and  the  eaves  of  the  roof,  where  they  had  been 
hidden  by  a  boy  who  desired  to  collect  and  sell  them  on  private 
account.  Fortunately  the  roof  was  of  slate,  instead  of  shingles, 
and  served  to  confine  the  fire  long  enough  to  ensure  its  discovery 
and  extinction. 

As  before  stated,  petroleum  oils  are  not  liable  to  cause  spon- 
taneous ignition.  They  have  no  affinity  for  oxygen,  and  their 
danger  seems  to  be  confined,  as  elsewhere  stated,  to  their 
liability  to  evolve  dangerous  explosive  vapors,  and  to  their 
inflammability. 

Among  the  authorities  on  this  point  are  Prof.  Anderson,  of 
Glasgow  University,  who  says:  "By  a  special  experiment  I 
have  found  that  petroleum  does  not  absorb  oxygen  and,  there- 
fore, cannot  cause  spontaneous  combustion."  Dr.  Hoffman, 
president  of  the  London  Chemical  Society,  saj's:  "Petroleum 
oils  are  safer  than  animal  or  vegetable  oils,  inasmuch  as  they 
do  not  absorb  oxygen,  and  cannot  undergo  spontaneous  com- 
bustion." Prof.  Wilson,  of  Edinburgh,  says:  "I  find  that 
mineral  oil  does  not  sensibly  absorb  oxygen,  either  alone  or 
diffused  through  cotton  wool,  and  cannot  take  fire  spontan- 
eously." Prof.  Frankland,  Dr.  Wallace,  of  Glasgow,  and  other 
scientists  add  their  testimony  to  this  effect. 

KEROSENE  OIL. 

Of  late  years,  since  the  manufacture  of  kerosene  by  the 
Standard  Oil  Company,  by  which  a  safer  grade  of  oil  is  sold 
almost  without  exception,  fires  have  been  less  numerous  from 


154 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


this  cause  than  in  former  times,  when  there  were  many  oil  re- 
fineries competing  with  each  other  for  price  and  selling  oil  of 
low  specific  gravity,  due  only  to  the  presence  of  heavier  oils 
averaging  in  gravity  with  the  lighter  and  more  volatile  gasolene 
and  naphtha  so  that  a  specific  gravity  test  would  not  reveal  the 
danger.  It  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  there  is,  to-day,  no 
kerosene  in  the  market  which  would  not  stand  the  U.  S.  stand- 
ard of  1 1 0  degrees  flash  test. 

As  an  evidence  that  the  losses  formerly  due  to  dangerous 
kerosene  have  been  largely  reduced  by  the  improved  quality  of 
the  article  sold,  I  would  offer  the  statistics  of  34,000  fires,  which 
show  that  less  than  six  per  cent  of  the  number  of  all  fires  were 
due  to  kerosene  oil  lamps,  and  less  than  three  per  cent  of  the 
amount  of  losses  from  all  causes  attributed  to  kerosene.  Of 
course,  these  figures  should  be  considered  in  connection  with  the 
fact  that  electricity  and  gas  have  done  away  with  the  use  of 
kerosene  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  also  with  the  fact  that 
the  use  of  gasolene  for  lighting  has  to  some  extent  done  away 
with  the  use  of  the  safer  material;  but  the  figures  are  evidence, 
nevertheless,  supporting  the  contention  that  the  kerosene  as 
now  put  forth  by  the  Standard  Oil  Company  is  a  much  safer 
article  than  it  is  supposed  to  be. 

The  statistics  of  the  Massachusetts  Insurance  Department 
show  a  larger  percentage  of  fires  due  to  kerosene  oil  than  the 
statistics  I  have  quoted,  but  the  Massachusetts  figures  are  made 
upon  a  much  smaller  number  of  fires.  For  example,  the 
Massachusetts  figures  show  1160  losses  out  of  8500  fires,  where- 
as the  figures  I  have  quoted  cover  four  times  as  many  fires, 
the  latter  tabulation  being  based  upon  the  careful  report  of 
adjusters  on  the  ground  in  each  case  which,  I  think,  explains  the 
difference. 

In  1869,  Prof.  C.  F.  Chandler  was  requested  by  the  New 
York  Board  of  Health  to  report  upon  "the  traffic  in  dangerous 
kerosene."  The  result  was  an  elaborate  report,  from  which  we 
shall  quote  freely,  as  occasion  may  require,  in  the  following 
pages. 

Crude  petroleum,  as  it  comes  from  the  oil  well,  is  a  dark, 
greenish-brown  liquid  of  offensive  odor,  chiefly  a  mixture  of  a 
great  number  of  hydro-carbons — the  average  proportion  of  the 


KEROSENE  OIL,  ETC. 


155 


mixture  being  85  parts  of  carbon  to  15  of  hydrogen.  These 
hydro-carbons  differ  in  volatility;  some  evaporate  rapidly  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  making  it  unsafe  to  approach  them 
with  a  flame,  while  others  are  less  dangerous.  Their  volatility 
is  intimately  related  to  their  specific  gravity  or  weight — the 
lightest  being  the  most  volatile  while  the  heaviest  possess  the 
higher  boiling  points.  Their  inflammability  is  also  intimately 
connected  with  their  volatility  and  specific  gravity. 

The  light,  volatile  oils  ignite  or  "flash"  on  being  approached 
with  a  lighted  match,  no  matter  how  cold  then  may  he,  while 
the  heavier  oils  can  only  be  ignited  when  the  temperature  is 
raised  considerably  higher  than  that  of  the  atmosphere. 

"It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  the  specific  gravity 
of  an  oil  can  be  considered  a  sure  index  of  its  safety;  on  the 
contrary,  the  specific  gravity  gives  very  little  idea  of  its  safety ; 
for,  while  naphtha  tends  to  render  oil  lighter,  the  average 
gravity  of  good  oil  may  be  maintained  by  the  presence  of 
heavier  oils.  A  poor,  dangerous  oil  may,  in  this  way,  actually 
be  heavier  than  a  safe  oil." 

Petroleum,  as  it  comes  from  the  wells,  is  subjected  to  a  dis- 
tillation or  refining  process,  the  first  products  of  which  are  gases 
which  require  cooling  with  ice  or  compressing  in  order  to  con- 
dense them. 

"Soon  the  vapors  begin  to  condense  in  the  worm  and  a  stream 
of  oil  trickles  from  the  far  end  of  the  coil  into  the  receiving 
tank."  It  is  at  this  point  that  the  refiner  may  decide  as  to 
whether  his  oil  shall  be  a  safe  or  dangerous  one,  since  it  only 
depends  upon  the  gravity  at  which  he  turns  the  product  into 
the  kerosene  tank.  If  he  waits  until  the  product  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  58°  Baume,  before  changing  the  direction  of  the 
stream  from  the  coil  into  the  kerosene  tank,  the  result  will  be 
a  safe  oil.  The  price  of  crude  naphtha  is  so  low,  however,  as 
to  make  it  a  strong  inducement  for  the  refiner  to  turn  it  into 
the  kerosene  tank,  where  it  will  bring  within  a  few  cents  per 
gallon  of  the  market  price  of  safe  oil. 

The  product  known  as  crude  naphtha  is  separated,  by  re- 
distillation, into  (1)  "Gasolene," — the  lightest  (used  in  gas 
machines,  carbonizers  or  carburetters);  (2)  "Naphtha," — used 
for  oil-cloths,  cleaning,  and  for  many  of  the  dangerous  brands 


156 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


of  burning  oil;  (3)  "Benzine," — used  for  paints  and  varnishes. 

The  operation  of  testing  kerosene  is  merely  that  of  ascertain- 
ing the  temperature  at  which  the  oil  anils  an  inflammable 
vapor — the  "flash  point" — or  the  temperature  at  which  the  oil 
itself  takes  fire — the  "burning  point,"  These  tests,  the  "flash- 
ing test"  and  the  "burning  test,"  are  often  confounded,  and 
when  a  law  or  ordinance  specifies  the  "fire  lest,"  there  is  a 
doubt  as  to  which  of  the  two  is  intended. 

"The  'flashing  lest,"  which  determines  the  lowest  temper- 
ature at  which  oil  aires  off  an  inflammable  vajxn-,  is  by  far 
the  most  important,  as  it  is  the  inflammable  vapor  evolved  at 
atmospheric  or  ordinary  temperatures  which  causes  most  of 
the  accidents.  Moreover,  an  oil  which  has  a  high  flash  in  (j 
test  is  sure  to  have  a  high  burning  test,  while  the  reverse  is 
not  true." 

The  burning  point  of  an  oil  is  from  ten  to  fifty  degn  ■<  •>  Kahren- 
heit  higher  than  the  flashing  point,  the  two  points  being  quite 
independent  of  each  other. .  The  "flashing  point"  depends  upon 
the  amount  of  the  most  volatile  constituents  present — 
naphtha,  etc.  While  the  "burning  point"  depends  upon  the 
general  character  of  the  whole  oil,  two  per  cent,  of  naphtha 
will  lower  the  flashing  point  of  an  oil  ten  degrees,  without 
materially  affecting  the  burning  test.  The  burning  test  does 
not  always  determine  the  real  safety  of  the  oil,  i.  e.,  the  ab- 
sence of  naphtha.  The  "flashing  test"  should,  therefore,  be 
the  only  test  mentioned  in  laws  framed  to  prevent  the  sale  of 
dangerous  oils. 

""What  flashing  point  should  be  selected,  as  a  standard  of  safety,  is  a  ques- 
tion on  which  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion.  The  higher  the  flashing 
point  the  safer  the  oil.  Animal  and  vegetable  oils  do  not  flash  below  500°  to 
(500°  Fahrenheit;  hence  it  is  impossible  to  have  an  explosion,  or  any  burning 
accident,  with  a  lamp  or  can  filled  with  such  an  oil. 

"The  flashing  point  should  be  somewhat  higher  than  the  highest  temperature 
the  oil  ever  reaches  in  the  lamps  or  cans.  Our  highest  summer  temperature  does 
not  far  exceed  90°  Fahrenheit,  though  a  can  of  oil  placed  in  the  sun  or  near  a 
fire  might  become  much  hotter." 

"The  point  of  100°  (a  temperature  sometimes  reached  in  metal  lamps)  does 
not  seem  to  be  high  enough  to  secure  immunity  from  danger,  though  it  may 
be  said  very  few,  if  any,  accidents  occur  with  oil  which  does  not  flash  below 
this  temperature.  In  some  State  laws,  110°  F.  is  fixed  as  a  flashing  point,  and 
in  one  of  them  120°  F. 


KEROSENE  OIL,  ETC. 


i.->; 


"When  it  is  remembered  that  the  temperature  of  oil  in  lamps  sometimes 
rises  above  100°  F. — thus  reaching  a  temperature  at  which  even  oils  which  do 
not  emit  a  combustible  vapor  below  100°  F.  would  be  dangerous — it  is  ap- 
parent that  100°  is  too  low  a  standard  for  safety;  120°  P.  would  not  be  too  high 
as  a  standard,  and  its  adoption  would  not  add  three  cents  per  gallon  to  the  cost 
of  the  oil." 

At  ordinary  temperatures  gasolene  and  naphtha  are  continu- 
ally giving  off  inflammable  vapor,  and  a  lighted  match  or  lamp, 
at  some  distance  from  the  material  itself,  will  ignite  it  through 
the  medium  of  the  vapor. 

The  metallic  attachments  of  ordinary  lamps  are  sufficient  to 
conduct  the  heat  of  the  flame  to  the  oil  in  the  lamp,  and  to 
cause  it  to  evolve  dangerous  and  explosive  vapors,  unless  the 
oil  is  a  safe  one.  So  long  as  the  lamp  is  unbroken  and  kept 
closed,  no  explosion  is  likely  to  take  place;  but  if  opened  for 
filling,  near  a  fire  or  flame  of  any  kind,  an  explosion  is  almost 
certain  to  ensue.  It  must  be  remembered  that  actual  contact 
of  flame  with  the  oil  itself  is  not  necessary.  The  danger  is 
from  the  vapor  with  which  the  vacant  space  in  the  lamp  above 
the  oil  is  filled.  This  vapor  is  invisible,  is  always  under  press- 
ure— because  gradually  and  continually  generated  in  a  confined 
space — and  when  released,  as  by  the  opening  of  a  lamp  for 
purposes  of  filling,  expands  in  volume,  sometimes  sufficiently 
to  fill  a  small  room,  and  to  reach  the  flame  of  a  lamp  or  stove 
at  some  distance  from  the  oil  itself. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  lamps  should  never  be  filled  at  night ; 
that  kerosene  should  never  be  handled  or  sold  within  fifteen  feet 
of  any  artificial  light  or  stove ;  and  it  is  for  this  reason,  as  well 
as  on  account  of  the  danger  from  leakage,  that  a  can  or  barrel 
of  oil  should  never  be  kept  in  the  same  room  with  a  furnace, 
sto  ve,  or  fire  of  any  kind. 

A  terrible  instance  of  the  danger  from  kerosene  of  a  low 
flashing  test,  when  kept  or  handled  in  warm  rooms  or  near 
stoves,  was  that  of  a  fire  at  Morton  Station,  near  Philadelphia, 
by  which,  in  consequence  of  the  explosion  of  a  one-gallon  can 
of  volatile  kerosene  or  so-called  "combination  fluid,"  four  per- 
sons were  bin  ned  to  death. 

We  quote  from  the  published  account  of  the  investigation : 

"The  room  in  which  the  explosion  took  place  had  a  low  ceiling  and  a  very 
large  stove,  which  had  been  kept  at  nearly  a  red  heat,  in  order  to  expedite  a 


15« 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


large  ironing.  There  was  no  light  or  fire  in  the  room,  except  the  one  in  the 
stove.  A  young  woman,  one  of  the  victims,  was  still  conscious  and  live/1  long 
enough  to  relate  that  her  mother  took  the  can  of  oil,  removed  the  cork  of  the 
spout  at  the  table — several  feet  from  the  stove — she  instantly  saw,  on  the  re- 
moval of  t  he  cork,  a  Jlash  go  from  the  stove  to  the  can,  heard  a  loud  hissing  noise, 
.■mil  that  was  all  she  remembered  !" 

The  explanation  of  this  occurrence  is  very  simple.  The  can 
of  oil  had  been  generating  vapor  in  the  warm  room  all  day, 
until  the  space  between  the  surface  of  the  oil  and  the  top  of  the 
can  was  filled  with  an  inflammable  gas  under  the  pressure  of 
its  confined  volume.  Immediately  upon  removing  the  cork, 
the  escaping  vapor — expanding  as  it  became  released — filled 
the  room  and,  igniting  at  the  stove,  caused  the  explosion. 

Tests  of  kerosene  should  he  carefully  made.  Instruments  for 
making  the  tests  are  simply  contrivances  for  apj)lying  a  slow 
heat  to  oil  in  which  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer  is  placed.  Upon 
the  application  of  heat,  the  lighter  portions  of  the  oil  rise  to  the 
surface  and  are  there  converted  into  vapor  which,  when  evolved 
in  appreciable  quantities,  will  ignite,  with  a  succession  of  flashes, 
on  the  approach  of  flame. 

"The  thermometer  should  not  descend  far  below  the  surface 
of  the  oil;  if  the  bulb  is  well  covered  it  is  sufficient.  It  is  well 
to  stir  the  oil  before  applying  the  flame,  which  should  not  be 
thrust  against  the  oil,  but  should  be  flitted  quickly  across  the 
surface  after  noting  the  thermometer.  The  oil  should  be  heated 
very  slowly ;  a  test  should  never  be  completed  in  less  than  fifteen 
minutes,  and  when  the  oil  flashes  or  burns  but  a  few  degrees 
from  the  standard  temperature,  it  is  hardly  safe  to  spend  less 
than  twenty-five  to  forty  minutes  in  raising  the  temperature  of 
the  oil  to  the  flashing  point." 

A  rude  and  not  very  reliable  test,  but  one  which  is  still  better 
than  none,  is  to  place  some  of  the  oil  in  an  ordinary  saucer, 
which  may  be  floated  on  the  top  of  water  in  a  pan  set  upon  a 
stove,  with  a  thermometer  in  the  water.  The  flame  may  be 
applied  in  the  manner  described. 

One  very  simple  test  may  be  tried  by  any  one.  It  is  to  pour 
a  few  drops  of  the  oil  into  a  saucer  and  apply  a  match ;  if  the 
oil  takes  fire  at  once,  it  is  unsafe.  "The  fact  that  the  ma- 
terial can  be  ignited  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  a 
dwelling-house  should  be  a  sufficient  evidence,  to  a  person  of 


KEROSENE  OIL,  ETC. 


159 


intelligence,  that  when  employed  in  the  household,  for  lighting 
purposes,  it  may,  at  the  first  thoughtless  or  careless  act,  become 
the  cause  of  awful  accidents." — Dr.  WahVs  Report  on  Kero- 
sene to  the  Board  of  Underwriters. 

While  it  would  not  necessarily  follow,  from  the  test  just 
mentioned,  that  an  oil  which  does  not  ignite  is  a  safe  one  (be- 
cause the  temperature  in  lamps  is  always  greater  than  that  of 
the  atmosphere),  it  may  safely  be  assumed  thai  an  oil  which 
does  ignite  is  unsafe,  and  there  is  no  need  to  carry  the  experi- 
ment farther. 

The  fact  that  certain  highly  dangerous  oils  or  naphthas  will 
burn  quickly,  without  explosion,  when  an  unprincipled  vendor 
unscrews  the  wick-tube  of  a  lamp  and  applies  a  match,  must 
not  be  taken  as  any  evidence  of  safety.  A  certain  rat io  of  air 
to  vapor  is  necessary  to  mala'  an  explosion.  The  maximum 
degree  of  violence  results  from  a  proportion  of  eight  or  nine 
parts  air  to  one  of  vapor.  The  vendor  takes  advantage  of  this 
fact  when  he  practises  the  sham  test  just  mentioned;  the  pro- 
portion of  vapor  to  air  is  too  great  to  explode,  and  it  burns 
quietly. 

If  he  should  place  a  small  quantity  of  the  same  oil  in  a  tin  can 
and  shake  it  thoroughly,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  vapor  would 
probably  be  evolved  to  form  an  explosive  mixture  with  the  air 
in  the  can,  and  the  result  would  be  very  different ! 

Petroleum  lubricators  should  not  evolve  an  inflammable  vapor 
below  300°. 

Any  caution  to  those  who  make  tests  of  kerosene  to  be  care- 
ful and  )u>t  endanger  property  by  the  very  art  which  is  in- 
tended to  secure  it,  would  seem  to  he  superfluous  if  a  gentle- 
man in  New  Bedford,  in  carelessly  trying  a  fire  test  on  a  sample 
of  kerosene,  had  not  burned  up  a  refinery — oil,  barrels,  still  and 
buildings! 

Recipes  for  making  oils  safe. — ''Processes  have  been  patented,-' 
says  Prof.  Chandler,  "and  vendors  have  sold  rights  throughout 
the  country  of  patented  and  secret  processes  for  rendering  gas- 
olene, naphtha  and  benzine  non-explosive.  Thus  treated,  these 
explosive  oils — just  as  explosive  as  before  the  treatment — are 
sold  under  trade  names  indicating  safety." 

ilIt  is  not  possible  to  make  gasolene,  naphtha  or  benzine 


160 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


Safe  l>H  amj  addition  tlial  can  lie  made  to  it.  Nor  is  ;mv  oil 
safe  that  can  lie  set  on  fire  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the 
ail/' 

"Safety"  lamps,  cans,  etc.— "An  indefinite  number  of  'safety' 
lamps  have  also  heen  patented  with  a  view  to  make  it  possible 
to  burn  explosive  naphthas  without  danger;  hut  the  accident, 
which  is  always  marc  likely  to  occur  outside  than  within 
the  lamp,  is  just  as  liable  to  take  place.  The  lamp  is  dropped 
or  broken;  it  is  filled  while  burning;  the  servant  neglects  to 
screw  in  the  wick  tube;  the  oil  is  upset  or  left  uncorked,  or  the 
servant  uses  it  l<>  kindle  I  tic  Jirc.  In  some  way  or  other,  tire 
gets  to  the  vapor  of  the  oil,  and  an  explosion  occurs.  Even 
when  the  'safety  lamp'  has  an  ally  in  the  form  of  a  'safety 
can,' it  still  fails  to  make  naphtha  safe.  It  is  an  axiom  that 
no  lamp  is  safe  with  dangerous  oil,  and  any  tamp  is  safe 

with  safe  oil." 

Empty  Kerosene.  Naphtha  or  Gasolene  Barrels  are  sometimes  pro- 
ductive of  fires,  in  consequence  of  carelessness  in  approaching 
them  with  lights.  They  are,  nearly  always,  full  of  explosive 
vapor,  especially  after  standing  in  a  warm  place  or  in  the  sun, 
and  have  been  known  to  explode  with  great  violence. 

Dealers  are  generally  so  careless  with  respect  to  empty  oil 
barrels,  that  they  should  be  cautioned  by  agents  as  to  the  danger 
of  approaching  them  with  lights  or  matches. 

Gasolene  Gas  Machines.— The  lighting  of  buildings  with  gas 
manufactured  by  simply  passing  a  current  of  air  through  gas- 
olene, so  as  to  evolve  a  vapor  which  rises  very  readily  from  it, 
has  now  become  so  general  as  to  deserve  careful  and  extended 
notice.  Neither  mechanical  disturbance  of  the  material  nor  the 
application  of  heat  is  necessary.  The  air  itself  readily  takes  up 
the  vapor,  and  the  gas  resulting  becomes  merely  a  mechanical 
mixture,  not  a  chemical  union. 

When  the  apparatus  is  safely  arranged,  the  lighting  of  build- 
ings in  this  manner  may  be  safer  than  by  movable  kerosene 
lamps,  but  there  are  many  unsafe  gas  machines,  the  owners  of 
which  deceive  property  holders  and  insurance  agents  with  state- 
ments that  their  particular  machines  have  been  "approved  by 
the  underwriters."  Every  agent,  therefore,  should  be  thorough- 
ly informed,  so  as  to  judge  for  himself  as  to  whether  a  machine 


GASOLENE  GAS  MACHINES,  ETC. 


161 


is  safe  or  not,  and  as  to  whether  the  position  in  which  it  is  placed, 
and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  used,  will  justify  his  approval. 

Gasolene  gas  or  naphtha  gas  is  simple  a  mixture  of  common 
air  and  gasolene  vapor,  in  such  proportions  as  to  make  it  bum. 
The  machinery  usually  consists  of  a  metal  tank  or  receiver,  for 
holding  the  liquid,  and  an  air-pump  or  "blower"  to  supply  it 
with  air.  The  tank  should  be  under  ground,  from  thirty  to 
fifty  feet  distant  from  the  building  to  be  lighted,  if  it  is  a  dwell- 
ing, and  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  feet  distant,  if  it  is  a  hotel, 
manufactory  or  other  large  building,  requiring  a  greater  number 
of  burners.  The  aim  should  always  be  to  mingle  at  such  tem- 
perature that  it  will  not  separate  or  condense  afterward, 
especially  at  ordinary  temperatures,  as  the  tendency  of  the 
mixture — particularly  when  the  fire-heat  is  applied  to  make  the 
liquid  vaporize — is  to  condense  in  the  pipes  at  any  temperature 
materially  lower  than  that  at  which  it  is  generated,  for  which 
reason  no  artificial  heat  should  be  permitted. 

The  receiver  should  be  lower  than  the  air-pump  or  "'blower" 
and  the  pipes  throughout  the  building  should  be  inclined,  so 
that  any  condensation  will  flow  outside  of  the  building  and 
back  into  the  tank  or  receiver.  Where  the  tank  is  lower  than 
the  building  it  is  impossible  for  any  of  the  liquid  to  flow  into 
the  building;  and  when  a  considerable  distance  intervenes  be- 
tween the  tank  and  the  building  a  further  advantage  is  secured, 
the  pipe  passing  under  ground  being  cool,  the  gas  is  more  likely 
to  condense  before  it  reaches  the  building,  and  a  safer  gas — one 
which  is  not  likely  to  condense  in  the  temperature  of  the  building 
— enters  the  pipes. 

The  air-pump,  "blower"  or  "meter,"  for  forcing  air  into  the 
gasolene  tank,  usually  works  by  clock-work,  the  motive  power 
being  a  suspended  weight.  As  the  air-pump  requires  frequent 
attention,  and  contains  water  which  must  not  be  allowed  to 
freeze,  and  as  it  should  be  in  a  dry  place,  where  the  moving 
parts  may  not  be  injured  by  rust,  some  builders  claim  that  it  is 
necessary  to  permit  it  to  be  placed  in  the  cellar  of  the  building ; 
but  as  furnaces  are  usually  located  in  cellars,  there  would  be  a 
liability  to  great  danger,  if  any  of  the  gas  should  escape  from 
the  pump  or  blower  into  the  cellar.  The  gas  being  heavier  than 
the  air,  owing  to  the  preponderance  of  carbon,  is  very  liable  to 


L62 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


ignite  at  1li<'  furnaces  and  cause  explosion  and  fire.  For  tliis 
reason  the  supply  of  air  to  the  pump  should,  in  all  cases,  be 
taken  by  an  induction  pipe  from  the  outside  of  tin-  tmildiiig, 
so  in  case  of  any  change  of  pressure,  by  which  the  gas  in  the 
tank  should  happen  to  be  forced  back  into  the  air-pump  and 
through  the  induction  pipe,  it  may  not  enter  the  cellar  (as  would 
be  the  case  if  the  induction  pipe  opened  into  the  cellar),  but  pass 
off  into  the  outer  air. 

The  gas  of  the  tank  may  he  forced  back  into  the  air-pump  if 
the  filling  of  the  tank  Avith  gasolene  is  not  properly  done ;  as,  for 
instance,  where  the  vent  cock  is  not  opened  during  the  process 
of  filling  from  the  barrel,  the  pressure  of  the  entering  fluid 
would  force  the  gas  through  the  pipe  leading  to  the  bloAver. 

In  this  way  the  Cashier  of  the  Continental  Insurance  Com- 
pany lost  his  dwelling-house  and  its  contents.  The  air-pump 
took  its  supply  '  ft  air  from  the  inside  or  cellar  of  /he  l>n  tiding; 
and  as  he  neglected  to  open  the  vent  cock,  while  filling  the  tank, 
gas  was  forced  through  the  air-pump  and  induction  pipe  into 
the  cellar.  A  servant,  entering  the  cellar  a  few  moments  after- 
wards, with  a  lighted  candle,  caused  an  explosion  which  fatally 
burned  her  and  destroyed  the  building  and  furniture.  The  fire 
was  peculiarly  rapid,  preATenting  the  saving  of  anything  of 
A-alue. 

The  most  approved  gas  appara tn s  uoav  used  has  a  vent  cock 
so  constructed  that  the  cock  for  filling  cannot  be  opened  with- 
out opening  both  and  is  "fool-proof." 

There  should  be  a  cut-off  stop-cock  in  the  gas  pipe,  at  the 
building,  to  cut  off  the  tank  from  the  house,  if  occasion  should 
require  it. 

It  would  seem  unnecessary  to  add  that  all  of  the  apparatus — 
tank,  air-pump  and  pipes — should  be  made  of  the  best  materials 
and  in  the  best  manner.  All  of  the  pipes  should  be  tested,  by 
competent  experts,  before  the  gas  is  let  on. 

Particular  inquiry  should  be  made  as  to  Avhether  the  person 
entrusted  with  the  filling  of  the  tank  is  informed  as  to  the  im- 
portance of  haATing  the  vent  open  and  the  air-pump  shut  off  be- 
fore commencing  to  fill  the  tank,  and  as  to  the  general  danger 
of  using  a  light  in  or  near  the  gas-house  or  vault. 

jVtf  barrels  containing  any  of  the  materials  should  beper- 


(IASOLEN  10  STOV  KS. 


mitted  in  or  near  insured  buildings,  and  no  empty  gasolene 
barrels  should  be  permitted  near  them,  on  account  of  the 
dangerous  gas  which  such  barrels  always  contain,  as  before  ex- 
plained. It  is  claimed  that  a  pint  of  gasolene  will  impregnate 
and  make  explosive  ^(io  cubic  feet  of  air.  As  we  have  elsewhere 
stated,  it  depends  only  upon  the  proportions  in  which  gasolene 
vapor  and  air  are  mixed  (page  159.)  as  to  whether  the  result  is  a 
burning  gas  or  explosive  vapor.  If  the  air  is  thoroughly 
carburetted  it  burns  quietly;  but  if  not,  it  explodes.  For  this 
reason  the  vapor  found  in  empty  barrels  is  nearly  always  a 
highly  explosive  one. 

Gasolene  Stoves,  now  frequently  used  in  tin-shops  for  heating 
soldering  irons,  and  in  other  risks  for  cooking,  heating,  and  other 
purposes,  must  not  be  permitted  by  agents  without  the  consent 
of  the  company  and  according  to  National  Board  precautions 
and  rules.  The  danger  of  these  stoves  is  not  so  much  from  the 
mere  process  of  burning  gasolene  vapor  as  from  the  presence 
in  a  building  of  the  material  itself,  and  the  dangers  insepa- 
rable from  the  handling  of  it.  It  is  more  dangerous  than  gun- 
powder, as  the  latter  will  not  seek  flame  or  fire,  while  the  vapor 
of  gasolene  will,  and  parties  who  handle  the  material  grow 
careless.  All  receptacles  are  liable  to  leak,  and,  even  in  the 
hands  of  the  most  careful  person,  tin1  filling  of  the  receiver  is 
attended  with  danger. 

If  such  stoves  are  ever  safe  it  is  only  where  the  receptacle  for 
the  gasolene  is  outside  of  the  building,  and  the  gasolene  in- 
troduced to  the  stove  by  a  pipe  running  through  the  wall.  The 
material  must  not  be  stored  in  or  near  the  insured  buildings, 
except  as  described  in  the  small  quantity  for  the  use  of  the  stoves. 

As  I  write,  a  California  journal  contains  accounts  of  two  gas- 
olene fires  which  illustrate  the  danger  of  having  the  material 
about.  A  fire  occurred  in  Los  Angeles,  Cal.  Gasolene  was 
actually  drawn  in  a  pitcher  and  left  standing  upon  a  kitchen 
table.  Another  member  of  the  household,  discovering  the 
pitcher  and  supposing  it  to  hold  water,  actually  poured  it  into 
a  tea  kettle,  which  was  over  a  burning  gas  jet  on  a  gasolene 
stove.    The  result  is  said  to  have  been  instantaneous ! 

The  second  fire  occurred  in  another  California  house,  where 
a  cup  of  the  fluid  was  left  standing  on  a  table ;  a  match  lighted 


164 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


in  its  vicinity  set  fire  to  the  gasolene,  causing  an  explosion,  re- 
sulting  in  a  loss  of  over  four  hundred  dollars. 

STEAM-PIPES  AND  THEIR  DANGER. 

This  is  a  subject  to  which  we  desire  particularly  to  call  your 
attention.  It  has,  at  last,  become  a  serious  question  whether 
stoves — because  of  their  admitted  danger  and  the  consequent 
care  in  their  management — are  not  safer  than  steam-pipes, 
where  the  manufacturer  entertains  doubts  as  t<  the  ignition  of 
wood  by  them  when  in  contact  with  it.  Unfortunately  the 
causes  of  main*  tires  are  never  discovered.  All  traces  are  lost  in 
the  ruin  which  follows  the  conflagration ;  but  sufficient  statistics 
of  well  authenticated  cases  of  fires  from  steam-pipes  have  been 
secured  to  convince  the  most  skeptical  on  this  point.  AVe  give 
a  list  of  some  of  them,  in  the  hope  that  our  pains  may  not  be 
without  reward.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  catch  such  a  dangerous  incendiary  "red  handed  in 
the  act."    Our  list  might  be  larger. 

E.  31.  Williams'  Woolen  Mill  at  Yantic,  Conn.,  from  wool  in  contact  with 
steam  coil.    Loss  $8,o0fl. 

Jones  &  Loughlins'  American  Iron  Works  at  Pittsburgh.  Pa.,  Fire  in  a 
wooden  box  containing  a  steam-pipe  packed  in  sawdust.  A  clear  case— dis- 
covered in  the  daytime. 

Briggs  House,  Chicago.  Steam-pipes  in  drying  room  of  laundry  in  contact 
with  wood.    Discovered  and  extinguished. 

Store  of  Wm.  H.  Watson,  cor.  Park  Place  and  Church  Street,  New  York, 
Steam-heating  pipes. 

Dwelling  House  cf  Beach  Yanderpool,  Esq.,  in  Washington  Place,  Newark. 
N.  J.  Steam-heating  pipes  in  a  wood-box.  Discovered  and  extinguished  in 
the  daytime.  A  clear  case.  This  was  a  first-class,  brick  dwelling  costing 
875,00b. 

Utica  Steam  Cotton  Co.,  Utica,  N.  Y.  Fire  discovered  running  over  twc 
laps  of  cotton  in  contact  with  steam-pipes.  A  clear  case  of  the  ignition  of 
clean  cotton. 

Republican  News  Office,  Geo.  Knapp  &  Co.,  S.  E.  cor.  Third  and  Chestnut 
Streets,  St.  Louis,  Mo.    Main  pipe  leading  to  top  of  building. 

Oneco  Mills,  Sterling,  Conn.    Steam-pipe  packed  in  charcoal. 

Pacific  Mills,  in  wool  sorting  room,  from  placing  fleeces  over  steam-pipes 
to  warm  for  opening. 

Lonsdale  Mill,  R.  I.  Steam-pipe  packed  in  sawdust.  Box  on  fire  a  number 
of  times. 


STEAM-PIPES  AND  THEIR  DANGER. 


Androscoggin  .Mills.    From  oily  overalls  hung  to  dry  over  steam-pipes. 

St.  Nicholas  Hotel,  New  York.  Woodwork  in  contact  with  steam-pipes. 
Discovered  before  loss. 

Metropolitan  Hotel,  New  York.    Woodwork  in  contact  with  pipes. 

Robertson  Paper  Co.,  Bellows  Falls,  \'t.  Steam-pipe  set  fire  to  wooden 
casing  in  which  it  was  enclosed. 

Higgins  Carpet  Co.  The  superintendent  of  the  Higgins  Car- 
pet Company's  Mills,  in  New  York,  told  me  that  he  saw,  one 
day,  a  collection  of  flyings  on  top  of  the  steam-pipes  which  ran 
along  the  side  w  alls  hurst  into  flame  from  the  heat  of  the  pipes 
and  run  the  whole  length  of  the  piping.  The  fire  occurred  while 
the  men  were  out  of  the  mill,  during  the  dinner  hour,  and  hut 
for  the  fact  that  he  happened  to  he  in  the  mill  at  the  time  there 
would  have  been  a  disastrous  conflagration. 

It  will  be  seen  that  several  fires  occurred  from  the  use  of  char- 
coal, sawdust,  etc.,  for  packing  to  prevent  loss  of  steam  by 
radiation  and  condensation.  These  substances  are  not  safe 
for  the  purpose.  Prof.  Tyndall  recommended  powdered  gyp- 
sum as  a  safe,  inexpensive  and  equally  efficacious  substitute. 

A  fire  was  discovered  in  the  mill  of  Mr.  Eddy  of  Fall  River, 
and  its  fortunate  extinction  may  serve  to  convince  manu- 
facturers of  a  danger  from  steam-pipes  not  before  thought  of. 

The  gentleman  in  question  had  placed  a  pine  board  in  his 
wool-drying  room,  about  three  or  four  inches  above  the  steam- 
pipes,  to  prevent  wool  from  falling  on  them.  A  fire  ensued, 
causing  a  loss  of  several  thousand  dollars  before  being  ex- 
tinguished, and  a  careful  examination  as  to  its  origin  satisfied 
him  that  the  heat  of  the  pipes  hod  distilled  the  pitch  from 
several  pine  knots  in  the  board,  which  dropping  on  the  pipes 
below  had  caused  the  combustion. 

We  need  not  suggest  the  lesson  of  this  fire,  or  the  necessity 
of  following  steam-pipes  throughout  their  length  to  see  that 
where  the;/  pass  under  woodwork — as  when  suspended  he- 
low  eeilings  or  floor  timbers — they  ore  not  so  near  as  to  en- 
danger the  mill  in  the  manner  above  described:  nor  need  we 
add  that  the  general  use  of  the  Southern  or  yellow  pine  in  the 
flooring  or  girders  of  buildings  (the  knots  of  which  yield  their 
pitch  to  a  very  moderate  heat)  will  justify  a  thorough  scrutiny 
of  the  woodwork,  from  time  to  time,  to  guard  against  fire. 

The  well-known  tendency  of  lumps  of  charcoal  to  take  fire 


nit; 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


spontaneously  if  moistened  and  then  subjected  toa  slight  drying 
heat,  (less  than  that  of  boiling  water),  suggests  another  way  in 
which  steam-pipes  may  set  fire  to  wood.  We  give  an  interest- 
ing account  of  an  experiment  by  Professor  C.  T.  Jackson  (the 
well-known  discoverer  of  etherization)  in  his  own  words.  Not 
less  interesting  than  the  narrative  is  his  very  clear  explanation 
of  the  phenomenon  and  its  cause : 

"Three  times,"  he  says,  "I  have  set  fire  to  charcoal  at  temper- 
atures below  that  of  boiling  water.  My  first  experiment  or 
observation  was  accidental.  I  was  preparing,  while  at  Bangor, 
Me.,  for  a  lecture,  in  which  I  had  occasion  to  show  an  artificial 
volcano.  I  took  a  tray  filled  with  gunpowder  and  laid  it  on  the 
Stove  to  dry.  I  then  took  a  paper  of  pulverized  charcoal,  such 
as  is  sold  by  the  apothecaries  for  tocth-powder,  the  charcoal  be- 
ing wrapped  in  white  paper,  and  placed  it  on  the  top  of  the  gun- 
] » >wder  which  was  being  dried  upon  the  stove.  Having  occasion 
to  go  out,  I  took  <  »ff  the  paper  of  charcoal  and  laid  it  on  the  table. 
When  I  came  back  in  about  twenty  minutes,  I  observed  the 
paper  smoking.  The  charcoal  was  completely  consumed.  Dur- 
ing all  this  time  the  gunjxrwder  remained  on  the  stove  unex- 
ploded. 

''My  next  observation  was  this:  While  at  work  in  my  labora- 
tory, I  had  occasion  to  use  a  piece  of  charcoal  for  blow-pipe 
experiments.  I  went  down  into  my  cellar  and  brought  up  a 
piece  of  light,  fine,  round  charcoal,  suited  for  that  purpose.  It 
was  damp.  I  laid  it  on  the  top  of  a  column  stove  to  dry,  directly 
beside  a  tin  pan  containing  water,  which  was  not  boiling,  and 
never  did  boil  there.  I  took  the  charcoal  off  the  stove  and  laid 
it  on  my  table.  A  short  time  afterward,  I  discovered  that  it 
was  on  fire  all  through  the  piece.  I  laid  it  aside,  and  it  burned 
entirely  to  ashes.  The  theory  of  the  ignition  of  the  charcoal 
under  these  circumstances  struck  me  at  once.  Charcoal  has 
wonderful  porosity:  it  has  the  power  of  analyzing  air,  and 
absorbing  the  oxygen  with  comparatively  little  of  its  nitrogen. 
The  pores  of  the  charcoal  were  previously  filled  with  moisture. 
Drying  expelled  this  moisture.  The  oxygen  of  the  air  was  con- 
densed in  the  charcoal,  taking  the  place  of  the  moisture.  The 
condensation  of  the  oxygen  produced  sufficient  heat  to  ignite  the 
charcoal.  I  repeated  this  experiment  again  intentionally,  watch- 
ing it  carefully,  and  with  the  same  result.'' 


STEAM-l'll'KS  AM)  THKIK  DAXGKK. 


L67 


I  have  never  found  any  manufacturer  or  practical  mechanic 
who  denied  that  steam-pipes  would  reduce  wood  to  a  condition 
of  charcoal — all  admit  this.  The  wooden  covering  or  "lagg- 
ing" of  engine  cylinders  alter  a  few  years  of  service,  or  any 
other  wood  in  contact  with  steam-pipes  for  a  sufficient  length  of 
time,  will  give  evidence  enough  in  proof  of  this  if  examined. 
It  is  needless  to  suggest  the  numerous  ways  in  which  these 
charred  surfaces  may  become  moistened  and  reduced  to  pre- 
cisely the  same  conditions  as  the  charcoal  in  the  experiment 
described,  after  which  the  pipes  themselves  supply  the  requisite 
degree  of  heat  to  fulfil  all  the  conditions  necessary  to  produce 
combustion. 

The  writer  some  years  ago  was  inspecting  the  Conestoga 
Mills  at  Lancaster,  Pa.  The  superintendent,  a  very  intelligent 
man,  combated  the  theory  of  ignition  by  steam-pipes,  and  in- 
sisted on  a  visit  to  the  engine-room,  to  observe  the  charred 
wood  lagging  of  the  steam-cylinder  of  his  engine,  which  he  said 
had  been  on  the  engine  for  years  and  had  been  reduced  almost 
entirely  to  charcoal  and  had  not  ignited.  I  related  this  incident 
of  Professor  Jackson,  and  suggested  that  the  dryness  of  the 
lagging  might  really  be  the  explanation  of  its  failure  to  ignite, 
explaining  that,  in  the  case  of  floors,  where  the  steam-pipe 
always  reduces  the  interior  of  the  planking  to  charcoal  which 
afterwards  might  become  damp  from  washing  the  floors,  and  so 
present  exactly  the  conditions  of  the  damp  charcoal  undergoing 
the  drying  process  in  Professor  Jackson's  experiment,  there 
might  not  be  the  same  immunity  from  ignition.  I  also  urged 
the  Eddy  incident  as  explaining  another  class  of  steam-pipe 
fires  and  the  danger  of  a  horizontal  pipe  running  through  his 
weave  room  just  under  yellow  pine  girders. 

He  listened  with  great  interest  and,  with  that  promptness 
which  characterizes  fair-minded  men  when  they  become  con- 
vinced, accepted  the  explanation  as  a  good  one  and  ordered  the 
girders  protected  by  tin  wherever  they  passed  over  steam-pipes, 
and  the  flooring  cut  around  steam  risers. 

I  do  not  regard  the  practice  of  covering  steam-cylinders  with 
wooden  lagging  cs  safe,  but  I  presume  I  should  be  regarded  as 
radical  by  nine  so-called  practical  men  out  of  ten,  among  me- 
chanics, if  I  should  presume  to  suggest  any  correction  of  the 
practice. 


168 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


Steam- pipes  are  particularly  dangerous  where  they  pass,  for 
any  distance,  <>nf  of  sight  between  floors  or  through  hollow 
plastered  partitions.  The  tendency  of  rats  and  mice  to  build 
their  nests  near  them,  on  account  of  the  warmth  they  afford,  is 
well  known,  and  they  arc,  for  this  reason,  often  in  actual  con- 
tact with  the  most  dangerous  rubbish,  such  as  oily  or  greasy 
rags,  cotton  or  woolen  waste,  occasioning  fires  whose  origin  is 
never  known.  In  such  cases  the  steam-pipes,  it'  they  do  not 
actually  ignite  the  combustible  material,  become,  it  must  be 
conceded,  the  direct  promoters  of  spontaneous  combustion. 
They  should,  if  for  this  reason  alone,  be  always  in  plain  sight 
and  exposed  to  view  throughout  the  mill,  and  where  they  pass 
through  floors  should  be  protected  by  metal  thimbles  or  flanges, 
the  inner  rim  of  which  should  he  furnished  with  points  to 
admit  of  a  constant  current  of  air. 

Steam-pipes  have  been  known  to  s-.-t  fire  to  wood  at  a  distance 
of  three  hundred  feet  from  the  boiler.  Hot  water  pipes  were 
claimed  by  Mr.  Braidwood,  of  the  London  Fire  Brigade,  to  be 
dangerous  if  in  contact  with  wood,  as  early  as  1  846.  The  argu- 
ment that  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  is  only  212°,  and, 
therefore,  not  hot  enough  to  ignite  wood,  falls  to  the  ground  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  when  pipes  are  carried  to  a  height  of  sixty 
or  seventy  feet,  as  in  the  case  of  large  buildings,  the  water  of 
the  boilers  is  under  a  pressure  of  two  or  three  atmospheres 
instead  of  one  and  the  boiling  point  may  be  above  212°. 

The  reduction  in  the  number  of  steam-pipes  fires  in  manu- 
factories of  late  years  is  due  to  the  observation  of  precautions 
which  underwriters  have  carefully  pointed  out  as  necessary. 
Chief  among  which  is  the  running  of  pipes  near  ceilings  whe^e 
stock  cannot  touch  them.  They  warm  rooms  better  than  when 
near  the  floor. 

X.  B.    See  possible  explanation  of  steam-pipe  fires,  p.  142. 
LIGHTNING. 

Lightning  causes  many  fires',  which  could  he  prevented  by 
good  lightning-rods,  extending  into  moist  ground  or  into  the 
water  of  wells.  The  inspector  should  carefully  examine  a  build- 
ing to  see  that  rods  have  sufficiently  numerous  points  and  are 
connected  with  soldered  joints  and  properly  grounded.  Claims 
for  losses  are  rare  on  buildings  properly  rodded. 


LIGHTNING  RODS. 


169 


Probably  no  consideration  connected  with  dwelling-houses, 
especially,  is  the  subject  of  greater  diversity  of  opinion  than  that 
of  whether  or  not  lightning-rods  are  necessary.  That  it  is 
advisable  to  have  a  good  lightning-rod,  well  grounded,  i.  e., 
connected  with  moist  ground,  is  the  generally  accepted  opinion 
of  those  who  ought  to  be  best  informed  on  the  subject.  I  am 
fully  aware  that  lightning-rods  are  regarded  by  a  large  number 
of  people  as  affording  no  protection ;  indeed,  a  gentleman  who 
has  favored  me  with  many  valuable  suggestions,  insists  that  a 
dwelling  of  his,  destroyed  by  fire  in  consequence  of  being  struck 
by  lightning,  was  rodded  in  the  best  manner.  Notwithstanding 
his  opinion,  I  advise  every  one  to  have  a  good  lightning-rod,  and 
to  supplement  its  protection  with  a  fire-insurance  policy  in  a 
reliable  insurance  company.  The  Washington  monument  was 
repeatedly  struck  and  injured  until  it  had  been  protected  with 
a  rod,  and  though  repeated \\  struck  afterward,  no  damage  was 
done. 

The  large  chimney,  surrounded  by  staging,  of  the  West 
Boyish m  Manufacturing  Company,  at  East  Hampton  Mass., 
while  in  process  of  building  was  struck  by  lightning  on  July  14, 
1900.  It  was  claimed  that  the  wire  cable  for  hoisting  material 
and  laborers  to  the  top  of  the  chimney  acted  as  a  lightning-rod 
and  accounted  for  the  small  amount  of  damage.  This  could 
not  have  been  the  case,  however,  as  the  cable  was  not  connected 
by  any  conductor  to  moist  soil  so  as  to  secure  a  good  ground. 

The  advantage  of  lightning-rods,  it  should  be  remembered,  is 
not  restricted  to  the  conducting  away  of  strokes  of  lightning. 
Their  principal  office  is  to  tap  the  electricity  in  the  atmosphere 
so  to  speak,  and  conduct  it  quietly  away  to  the  ground,  prevent- 
ing its  accumulation  in  sufficient  volume  for  a  stroke.  For 
this  reason  the  lightning-rod  should  have  numerous  points  on 
the  roof.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  beech-trees  are  seldom 
struck  by  lightning,  whereas  oaks,  hemlocks,  and  other  trees, 
especially  locusts,  are  subject  to  frequent  damage;  and  while 
this  well-known  fact  is  accounted  for  on  the  supposition  that 
the  rougher  barks  hold  water,  itself  a  good  conductor,  and  that 
oak  contains  a  great  deal  of  iron  in  its  composition,  the  exemp- 
tion of  the  beech-tree  is  believed  by  many  to  be  due  to  the  fact 
that  it  has  numerous  pointed  leaves  and  twigs,  as  well  as  a 
smooth  bark. 


170 


CAUSES  OF  FIRES. 


The  lightning-rod  may  he  of  iron  or  copper,  and  may  he  in 
the  simple  form  of  a  hollow  gas-pipe  or  in  twisted  wire  cables, 
or  it  may  be  in  a  flat  or  taped  surface.  It  is  the  surface  which 
conducts  the  electricity,  rather  than  the  center  or  solid  portion 
of  the  rod. 

Houses  and  barns  should  be  protected  by  good  rods,  with 
numerous  points  of  bright  polished  metal  on  the  highest  points 
of  the  roofs.  As  a  rule  a  pointed  rod  protects  as  much  of  the 
surface  of  a  roof  as  would  be  swept  by  a  radius  or  line  four 
times  the  height  of  the  rod  above  the  roof,  showing  the  necessity 
of  numerous  points. 

Iron  is  almost  as  good  as  copper  as  a  conductor,  and  an  ordi- 
nary gas-pipe  :!4  inch  in  diameter  makes  a  good  rod.  Four  or 
five  strands  of  ordinary  barbed  wire  for  fencing,  twisted 
together,  would  make  a  good  lightning-rod  and  an  econom- 
ical one.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  strands  un- 
broken, however,  as  it  would  not  be  sufficient  to  twist  ends 
together  or  join  them  by  laps  unless  they  were  soldered ;  each 
strand  should  be  continuous  from  the  roof  to  the  "'ground"  in 
moist  earth.  Points  may  be  made  by  filing  the  ends  of  the  wire 
with  a  file,  on  the  roof  ridges  and  at  all  prominent  places,  tops  of 
chimneys,  etc.  A  sufficient  number  of  such  barbed  wire  rods 
would  be  all  that  would  be  necessary  to  protect  buildings,  and 
any  farmer  can  make  them  for  himself.  In  the  absence  of 
barbed  wire,  which  would  be  apt  by  its  points  to  hold  its  place 
on  the  roof,  especially  with  staples,  driven  into  the  shingles  or 
siding,  three  or  four  strands  of  quarter  inch  iron  wire,  twisted 
together,  would  make  an  admirable  rod,  care  being  taken  to  file 
the  ends  to  sharp  points  where  they  project  above  the  roofs  or 
chimneys.  It  is  vitally  important,  however,  that  the  rod 
should  go  far  enough  into  the  ground  to  reach  damp  earth. 
Where  this  is  difficult  to  find,  an  artificial  ground  may  be  made 
by  filling  the  bottom  of  the  hole  in  which  the  foot  of  the  rod 
enters  with  a  bushel  or  two  of  good  charcoal.  One  of  the  best 
grounds  is  to  attach  the  rod  to  the  pump  rod  in  the  well,  so  that 
there  may  be  a  continuous  metal  conductor  from  the  highest 
point  of  the  roof  to  the  bottom  of  the  well. 

The  rod  may  be  fastened  to  the  roof  and  sides  of  the  building 
with  ordinary  iron  staples.    It  is  not  necessary  to  use  glass 


LIUHTNIXii. 


in 


insulators,  as  li^litxiin^*  will  not  leave  the  metal  rod  to  enter 
the  poorer  conductor  of  the  wooden  structure. 

It  is  entirely  unnecessary  to  buy  some  of  the  patent  rods  on 
the  market,  which  are  sold  at  fancy  prices.  As  already  stated, 
a  :!4  inch  gas  pipe,  or  a  rod  of  copper  wire  one-quarter  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  or  simple  barbed  wire,  with  the  points  sharp- 
ened makes  a  good  conductor. 

Where  contracts  are  made  with  itinerant  lightning-rod  ven- 
ders, care  should  be  taken  as  to  the  form  of  notes  and  contracts 
for  signature.  Gross  frauds  have  been  practiced  upon  unsus- 
picious men  by  unscrupulous  parties,  and  the  innocent  victims 
have  learned,  when  notes  have  been  presented  for  collection,  or 
bills  presented  for  signed  contracts,  that  alterations  in  the  text 
have  been  made  after  the  signature  has  been  affixed,  and  that 
the  terms  of  the  contract  have  not  been  fully  and  honestly 
explained. 

The  writer  would  advise  all  persons  erecting  dwellings  in 
isolated  locations  to  have  rods.  In  cities  they  are  not  necessary, 
due  to  the  use  of  tin  or  other  metal  for  roofs,  water-pipes  con- 
nected with  the  underground  system  of  the  city,  or  with  drain- 
pipes which  are  sufficiently  good  conductors  to  make  rods  un- 
necessary. Indeed,  even  in  country  dwellings,  if  leaders  and 
gutters  are  connected  with  the  points  of  the  rod  on  the  roof, 
they  form  sufficient  channels  for  carrying  the  electricity  or 
lightning  to  the  ground,  provided  they  are  connected  with 
moist  <jroiui<l  or  with  the  pump-rod  in  the  well. 

A  poor  rod,  or  one  not  properly  connected  with  moist  ground, 
or  disconnected  at  points,  is  worse  than  none. 

Lightning  is  less  dangerous  in  cities,  where  as  already  stated, 
the  numerous  metal  roofs  and  connections  of  metal  in  the  shape 
of  piping,  gutters,  leaders,  &c. ,  with  underground  systems  of 
pipes  conduct  away  the  electricity,  and  it  will  be  found  that 
only  one  per  cent  in  number  of  losses  on  buildings  in  cities  are 
due  to  lightning,  and  two  per  cent  of  the  amount  of  insurance; 
whereas  on  farm  property,  11  Yi r}  of  the  total  number  of  losses 
on  buildings,  are  due  to  lightning,  the  aggregate  loss  being  8$ 
of  the  total  amount  paid  from  all  causes.  On  live  stock,  25  <fc  of 
the  number  of  losses  are  due  to  lightning,  and  8  ^  of  the  total 
amount  of  losses  paid  from  all  causes, 


APPLIANCES  FOR  EXTINGUISHING  FIRE,  CITY  FIRE 
DEPARTMENTS,  ETC 


Every  building  should  be  provided  with  fire-extinguishing 
appliances  of  its  own  in  proportion  to  its  area  and  height.  The 
best  fire  appliances,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  are  the  cheapest — 
pails  tilled  with  water  ready  at  the  head  of  every  staircase,  and 
for  the  reason  that  everyone  knows  how  to  use  a  pail  of  water, 
while  the  average  person,  especially  in  the  bour  of  excitement, 
and  danger  does  not  understand  patent  fire-extinguishing  ap- 
pliances and  might  not  kn<  iw  h<  »w  to  turn  on  the  valve  of  a  stand- 
pipe  and  bring  the  hose  into  action.  Even  in  manufactories, 
where  cool-headed  mechanics  might  be  supposed  competent  to 
handle  fire  apparatus,  more  than  sixty-five  per  cent  of  all  the 
fires  are  extinguished  by  pails  <  >f  water.  Underwriters  should 
therefore,  regard  these  simple  but  effective  appliances  favorably 
in  making  rates,  which  should,  in  all  cases,  be  5$  lower  where 
they  are  provided,  at  the  rate  of  say  six  pails  to  every  2,500 
square  feet  of  superficial  area  or  floor  surface.  A  little  salt 
added  to  the  water  will  prevent  its  freezing  and  tissue  paper 
over  the  top  will  prevent  rapid  evaporation  and  accumulations 
of  dust.  Salt  in  metal  pails,  however,  will  corrode  them.  It 
is  claimed  that  Calcium  Chloride  will  prevent  freezing  and  will 
not  cause  rust. 

Standpipes  sin  aid  be  provided,  with  Siamese  or  double  con- 
nections for  the  use  of  fire  engines  at  the  street,  with  hose  outlets 
also  at  each  window,  to  save  the  carrying  of  hose  upstairs;  and 
internal  standpipes  should  be  provided  in  all  high  buildings, 
supplied  with  tanks  on  the  roof,  but  these  latter  should,  as 
already  explained,  be  supported  on  iron  beams  and  rest  in  a 
c<  >rner  of  the  building  where  two  brick  enclosing  walls  will  form 
the  basis  of  support. 

Public  Fire  Departments  and  city  fire  appliances  should  be  recog- 
nized, of  course,  in  all  rating  systems. 


FIRE  EXTINCTION. 


The  best  system  of  water  supply  is  one  where  the  water  is 
under  sufficient  pressure  at  the  hydrant  to  throw  over  the  high- 
est buildings  without  the  use  of  a  steam  pump  or  steam  fire 
engine;  in  other  words,  where  the  pressure  is  a  gravity  pressure. 
This  can  only  he  secured  where  an  elevation  of  at  least  two 
hundred  feet  in  height  can  be  had  for  a  reservoir  sufficiently 
neai  to  a  city  to  prevent  the  loss  of  pressure  by  the  "frictional 
head"'  in  the  pipes.  Where  this  is  not  possible,  as  explained  in 
the  article  on  water  supply,  direct  pumping  systems  are  desir- 
able, though  not  so  good. 

Theoretically,  a  first-class  steam  fire  engine  is  supposed  to 
throw  one  thousand  gallons  of  water  per  minute,  but  the  aver- 
age water  discharged  would  probably  be  nearer  seven  hundred 
gallons  per  minute.  Even  with  the  heaviest  and  best  engines 
of  the  Silsby,  La  France  or  other  makes,  it  is  best  to  count  upon 
this  quantity,  rather  than  upon  the  maximum  theoretical  value 
of  the  engine. 

The  whole  subject  of  fire  engines,  hook  and  ladder  trucks, 
chemical  extinguishers,  gravity  water  supply,  direct  pumping 
systems,  &c,  is  treated  of  under  the  Universal  Schedule,  and 
their  relative  value  is  measured  by  the  deductions  allowed  f<  >r 
each. 

Paid  fire  departments  are,  of  course,  superior  to  volunteer 
organizations,  but  the  firemen  should  not  be  paid  according  to 
the  number  of  fires  they  attend — a  dangerous  method  of  com- 
pensation. The  chief  should  be  a  competent  fireman,  enjoying 
the  confidence  of  his  force. 

Mr.  Braidwood,  who  was,  for  many  years,  the  superintendent 
of  the  London  Fire  Brigade,  until  his  death  in  the  great  fire  of 
the  London  Warehouses,  on  Cotton's  Wharf,  in  1861,  in  an 
interesting  and  instructive  work  on  the  extinction  of  fires,  says : 

"It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the  whole  force  brought 
together  to  extinguish  a  fire  should  be  under  the  direction  of 
one  individual.  By  this  means  all  quarreling  among  the  fire- 
men about  the  supply  of  water,  the  interest  of  particular  com- 
panies and  other  matters  of  detail,  is  avoided.  It  is  quite 
obvious  that  a  fire  brigade,  however  complete  in  its  apparatus 
and  equipments,  must  depend  for  its  efficiency  on  the  stoic 
of  twining  and  discipline  of  the  firemen,   Wherever  there 


FIRE  EXTINCTION. 


is  inexperience,  want  of  co-operation,  or  confusion  amongst 
them,  the  utmost  (Linger  is  to  ho  apprehended  in  the  event  of 
fire.  It  is  amidst  the  raging  of  this  destructive  element,  the 
terror  and  bustle  of  the  inhabitants,  that  organization  and  disci- 
pline triumph  ;  and  it  is  then,  too,  that  coolness  and  promptitude, 
steadiness  and  activity,  fearlessness  and  caution  are  peculiarly 
required;  but,  unfortunately,  it  is  then,  also,  that  they  are  most 
rarely  exhibited."  He  adds,  "On  no  account  whatever  should 
directions  be  given  to  the  firemen  by  any  other  individual  while 
the  superintendent  of  brigade  is  present" — a  most  important 
matter. 

The  i mportance  of  permanence  in  Hie  positions  of  Chief 
and  Assistant  Engineers  of  fire  departments  was  a  topic 
considered  at  the  convention  of  Chief  Engineers,  held  in  New- 
York,  in  October,  1875.  It  was  premised  that  "these  officers 
are  entitled  to  no  permanency  except  that  which  their  merits 
and  ability  as  firemen  and  leaders  of  firemen  entitle  them  to," 
but  that  "permanency  in  such  offices  is  essential  to  proper  disci- 
pline in  the  force  and  to  secure  the  advantages  of  education  and 
experience.  The  greatest  evils  result  from  the  uncertainty  of 
tenure  of  such  offices  and  the  influences  under  which  officers  are 
appointed  to,  or  dismissed  from  office.  If  party  fealty  and 
efficiency  are  to  be  regarded  as  tests  of  merit,  the  least  efficient 
fireman  in  the  department,  or  any  one  out  of  it,  may  hope 
in  that  line  to  rival  and  supplant  the  Chief.'" 

When  men,  ever  so  well  qualified,  are  placed  under  an  in- 
competent and  inexperienced  leader,  they  are,  in  emergencies, 
well-nigh  helpless  and  useless.  "Under  such  circumstances  it 
will  often  be  the  case  that  private  members  will  possess  more 
knowledge  of  the  duty  to  be  performed  than  their  superiors 
have,  which  inevitably  tends  to  disrespect  and  a  lack  of  proper 
subordination." 

It  was  remarked  by  the  first  Napoleon,  when  speaking  of 
Marshal  Ney,  "better  an  army  of  deer  commanded  by  a  lion, 
than  an  army  of  lions  commanded  by  a  deer!" 

The  whole  general  force  of  a  city  should  realize  that  their 
position  will  be  permanent  during  good  behavior  and  efficiency. 

AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS. 


It  is  not  necessary  in  this  place,  nor  would  it  be  wise,  to  go 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS. 


175 


into  details  as  to  the  rules  for  installing  automatic  sprinklers. 
Proper  regulations  for  these  valuable  appliances  are  kept  up  to 
date  by  the  New  England  Insurance  Exchange,  the  New  York 
Board  of  Underwriters,  and  the  National  Board  of  Under- 
writers, and  it  would  be  well  to  apply  through  the  bureau  of 
underwriters  having  jurisdiction  of  the  territory  in  which  the 
building  is  located,  for  full  specifications.  If  the  property- 
owner  follows  these  he  will  avoid  serious  mistakes,  such  as  are 
sometimes  made  even  by  practical  mechanics,  as  to  the  size  of 
distributing  rising  pipes,  which  should  always  be  proportionate 
to  the  number  of  orifices  to  be  supplied  with  M  ater.  Where 
they  are  not  of  sufficient  capacity  the  system  of  heads  would  be 
of  little  value. 

The  sprinkler  heads  opening  on  an  area  of  ten  thousand 
square  feet  would  use  more  water  than  a  powerful  steam  fire 
engine  would  throw,  and  it  is,  therefore,  important  that  the 
riser,  main  and  distributing  pipes  should  be  of  proper  dimen- 
sions. 

It  is  also  important  to  put  a  sprinkler  head  in  every  section  of 
the  risk.  So  many  fires  have  passed  control  owing  to  the  fact 
that  they  have  started  in  locations  where  it  was  supposed  there 
was  the  minimum  of  danger,  that  the  rule,  almost  paradoxical 
in  its  character,  has  been  suggested:  "Be  sure  to  put  sprinkler 
heads  in  those  places  where  you  feel  certain  the}'  will  not  be 
needed." 

It  is  important,  also,  to  see  that  the  valves  controlling  the 
supply  are  open  and  sealed  open.  Not  less  than  one  instance 
per  week  is  the  record  of  discovery,  in  mills  of  New  England 
territory,  of  neglect  of  such  a  vital  precaution.  The  system 
therefore,  should  be  tested  by  an  insurance  inspector,  to  make 
certain  that  the  whole  installation  is  not  simply  on  dress  parade. 
In  one  instance  coming  to  the  writer's  attention,  a  mechanic, 
having  occasion  to  use  packing  for  a  flange  joint,  not  having 
any  gasket  for  the  purpose,  used  a  sheet  of  rubber,  but  neglected 
to  cut  out  the  vent  re.  The  water  way,  therefore,  was  effectu- 
ally blocked  and  the  whole  system  was  useless. 

All  sprinkler  systems  should  be  connected  by  risers  with 
Siamese  connections  at  the  street,  so  that  the  fire  department 
can  attach  a  steam  fire  engine  and  supply  water  after  the  tank 


L76 


FIRE  EXTINCTION. 


is  exhausted.  This  is  a  very  important  matter,  for  it  insures 
that  the  water  thrown  by  the  fire  department  will  reach  exactly 
the  spot  where  it  is  most  needed,  it  being  safe  to  assume  that 
the  sprinkler  heads  would  he  open  where  the  fire  is  burning. 
It  would  be  well  to  have  a  check  valve  at  the  tank,  so  that  the 
pressure  may  be  thrown  directly  upon  the  system  of  sprinkler 
heads  from  the  engine.  In  such  case,  as  already  stated,  the 
coupling  and  thread  should  correspond  with  that  of  the  fire 
department  ;  and  to  make  sure  that  it  does  it  would  be  well  to 
ask  the  foreman  of  the  nearest  engine  company  to  test  his  hose 
coupling  with  the  Siamese  connection.  The  fire  department 
should  be  informed  as  to  the  location  of  the  connection,  and  it 
should  be  the  task  of  the  underwriter  to  make  sure  that  the 
chief  of  the  department  and  the  various  captains  and  foremen 
of  the  companies  believe  in  this  important  precaution  of  at  once 
coupling  on  the  sprinkler  system.  Some  of  the  chiefs  have  not 
recognized  the  importance  of  taking  this  action,  but  the  more 
intelligent  officials  are  now  fully  convinced  that  it  should  not  be 
neglected  in  any  case. 

The  following  is  a  brief  synopsis  of  the  requirements  of  the 
New  England  Insurance  Exchange,  the  New  York  Board  of 
Underwriters  and  other  organizations  as  to  the  installation  of 
sprinklers : 

It  is  probably  unnecessary  to  explain  that  an  automatic 
sprinkler  is  a  device  for  distributing  water,  having  a  valve 
arranged  to  open  when  any  rise  of  temperature,  as  from  a  fire, 
shall  melt  the  fusible  metal  which  solders  the  joints,  just  as 
wax  would  while  cold,  hold  two  surfaces  in  contact,  but  release 
them  so  soon  as  wanned  by  heat.  The  soluble  solder  used  in 
sprinklers  is  adjusted  for  various  temperatures  according  to  the 
character  of  occupancy  of  the  building  which  they  are  expected 
to  protect. 

The  underlying  principles  to  secure  the  best  results  are: 
1.  Open  construction;  freedom  from  concealed  spaces  or 
places  where  water  thrown  from  sprinklers  cannot  penetrate. 
It  is  obvious  that  sprinklers  would  not  throw  water  into  closed 
drawers,  under  counters,  &c.  The  distribution,  moreover, 
would  not  be  as  satisfactory  in  a  warehouse  full  of  empty  bar- 
rels as  in  the  case  of  a  store  where  all  of  the  goods  were  dis- 
played on  open  tables, 


LOCATION  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  SPRINKLERS. 


irr 


•2.  Sprinklers  should  be  so  located  that  their  distribution 
will  cover  all  parts  of  the  premises.  As  already  stated,  they 
should  be  placed  in  those  portions  where  they  are  supposed  not 
to  be  needed,  as  well  as  all  others. 

3.  The  piping  must  be  of  sufficient  capacity.  Where  the 
riser  pipe  and  distributing  mains  are  not  sufficient  to  supply  the 
heads,  the  system  is,  of  course,  of  little  value. 

4.  The  water  must  be  under  pressure  at  all  times,  except  in 
case  of  buildings  where  there  is  danger  of  its  freezing,  in  which 
case  the  dry  pipe  system  is  to  be  used. 

5.  There  should  be  two  sources  of  water  supply:  (1)  a  tank 
sufficiently  elevated  to  afford  pressure,  and  (2)  a  supply  by  a 
force  pump,  or  by  the  city  department. 

Siamese  connections  at  the  street,  for  the  use  of  fire  depart- 
ment, to  attach  engines  on  the  system,  are  imperatively  neces- 
sary. 

LOCATION  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  SPRINKLERS. 

Sprinklers  should  be  located  preferably  in  an  upright  position 
on  top  of  pipes. 

Deflectors  must  in  all  cases  be  parallel  to  ceilings,  roofs  or 
the  incline  of  stairs.  The  deflectors  of  sprinklers  in  the  j>eak  of 
a  pitch  roof  should  be  horizontal. 

The  distance  of  deflectors  from  ceilings  or  bottom  of  joists 
should  not  be  less  than  three  inches  nor  more  than  ten  inches. 

Sprinklers  should  be  placed  in  closets,  basements,  lofts,  ele- 
vator wells,  under  stairs,  and,  as  already  stated,  at  every  point 
where  a  fire  could  burn.  Special  instructions  should  be  obtained 
relative  to  placing  sprinklers  under  large  shelves,  benches,  tables, 
overhead  storage  racks  and  platforms,  and  inside  such  small  en- 
closures as  drying  and  heating  boxes,  caul  boxes,  tenter  and  dry 
room  enclosures,  chutes  and  cupboards;  also  over  all  shafting 
and  gears,  even  in  wet  basements,  and  in  boiler  rooms,  especial- 
ly if  steam  fire  pump  depends  on  said  boilers  for  its  steam  sup- 
pi)*.  Sprinklers  should  not  be  omitted  in  any  room  simply  be- 
cause it  is  damp  or  wet. 

Not  more  than  six  sprinklers  should  be  placed  on  one 


178 


EIRE  EXTINCTION. 


branch  1 1  hp  of  pipe,  except  under  special  regulations  as  to  pipe 
sizes. 

Each  automatic  sprinkler  should  have  an  unobstructed  outlet 
of  such  size  and  form  that  with  five  pounds  pressure  maintained 
at  the  sprinkler  it  would  discharge  approximately  twelve  gallons 
per  minute. 

FEED  MAINS  AND  RISERS. 

"Center  Central"  or  "Side  Central*'  feed  to  sprinklers  is  rec- 
ommended ;  the  former  preferred,  especially  if  there  are  more 
than  six  sprinklers  on  a  branch  line.  End  feed  should  not  be 
used. 

Then'  must  be  a  separate  riser  in  each  building,  find  in  each 
section  of  a  building  divided  by  fire  walls;  the  size  of  such  riser 
to  be  sufficient  to  supply  all  the  sprinklers  on  any  one  floor  as 
determined  by  the  standard  schedule  of  pipe  sizes.  If  the  con- 
ditions warrant,  special  permission  will  be  granted  allowing  the 
sprinklers  in  a  fire  section  of  small  area  to  be  fed  from  the  riser 
in  another  section. 

Where  there  are  enough  sprinklers  in  a  room  to  require  a  six- 
inch  riser,  according  to  schedule,  it  is  preferable  to  have  these 
sprinklers  supplied  through  two  or  more  smaller  risers  (not  over- 
looking the  rules  as  to  capacity  of  pipes — one  six-inch  pipe  will 
throw  more  water  than  two  three-inch  pipes.) 

A  belt,  stair  or  elevator  tower,  having  floor  openings  without 
"shut  offs,"  is  to  be  treated  as  one  room,  and  pipe  sizes  arranged 
accordingly;  sprinklers  to  be  on  a  separate  riser,  with  inde- 
pendent shut-off  and  drip  valve. 

Circulation  of  water  in  sprinkler  pipes  is  very  objectionable, 
owing  to  greatly  increased  corrosion,  deposit  of  sediment  and 
condensation  drip  from  pipes.  For  this  reason  the  pipes  of  a 
sprinkler  system  should  not  be  used  for  domestic  or  other  service. 

Hand  hose,  for  fire  purposes  only,  may  be  attached  to  sprinkler 
pipes  within  a  room  under  the  following  restrictions: 

Hose  not  to  be  larger  than  three-quarter  inch. 

Nozzle  not  to  be  larger  than  three-eighths  inch. 

Hose  not  to  be  connected  to  any  sprinkler  pipe  smaller  than 


SUBSCRIPTIONS  TO  FIRE  APPARATUS. 


179 


2%-inch;  l>ul  hose  should  not  be  attached  to  a  dry-pipe 
system. 

Spacing  of  Sprinklers  should  be  in  accordance  with  National 
Board  specific  ations. 

Uniform  Thread  and  Dimensions  of  Hose-Couplings. — The  dimen- 
sions recommended  by  the  National  Association  of  Fire  Engi- 
neers are  as  follows:  inside  diameter  of  couplings  2%  inches  in 
the  clear;  outside,  :!'s  inches,  exclusive  of  thread,  and,  includ- 
ing the  thread.  3%  inches.  The  number  of  threads  to  the  inch 
to  be  eight. 

The  same  dimensions  should  he  followed  by  all  mills  and 
manufactories  relying  upon  the  co-operation  of  the  nearest  city 
or  village  department  in  case  of  fire.  It  has  frequently  happened 
that  such  auxiliary  aid  has  been  valueless,  simply  because  hose 
and  hydrant  threads  would  not  fit  those  of  the  department,  and 
reducing  or  expanding  couplings  had  not  been  provided  to 
remedy  the  fault. 

The  same  difficulty  would  exist,  in  case  of  an  emergency  in  a 
town  requiring  the  assistance  of  a  neighboring  city,  unless  a 
uniformity  existed  as  to  the  size  of  hose  couplings  and  threads. 

As  early  as  1830,  Mr.  Braidwood,  suggested  that,  if  uni- 
formity in  the  structure  and  design  of  apparatus  could  extend 
to  the  most  minute  particulars,  "a  screw  or  nut  of  any  one 
engine  would  fit  every  other  engine  in  the  kingdom." 

SUBSCRIPTIONS  TO  FIRE  APPARATUS. 

It  is  the  rule  of  insurance  companies  to  decline  all  applications 
for  the  support  of  fire  patrols,  as  well  as  for  the  support  of  fire 
departments  and  organizations  of  that  character,  for  the  simple 
reason  that,  as  underwriters,  we  pay  the  full  value  of  all  fire 
departments,  fire  patrols,  waterworks,  &c,  in  the  reduction  of 
rates. 

In  the  case  of  fire  patrols  we  actually  pay  three  times  over 
what  we  subscribe : 

1st — In  the  cost  of  outfit  and  maintenance. 

2d — The  property-holder  who  intelligently  observes  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  patrol  very  intelligently  estimates  the  probable 
amount  of  salvage,  and  carries  a  correspondingly  small  amount 


ISO 


SUBSCRIPTIONS  TO  FIRE  APPARATUS. 


of  insurance.  In  this  way  we  pay  by  reason  of  the  lower  con- 
tribution in  case  of  partial  losses. 

:;<1 — The  insurance  companies,  taking  studiously  into  account 
the  probable  salvage  on  stock  by  the  tire  patrol,  underbid  each 
other  in  the  rate. 

We  do  not,  in  any  way,  disapprove  of  fire  patrols  or  fire 
departments,  but  simply  contend  that,  as  underwriters,  the  full 
benefit  of  the  patrol  is  recognized  by  us  in  the  rate  of  premium 
charged.  There  can  be  no  question  that  a  fire  patrol  saves 
money  in  case  of  fire,  but  this  saving  is  in  the  interest  of  the 
assured,  who  secures  the  salvage  himself  by  carrying  a  smaller 
amount  of  insurance  and  thus  discounting  all  the  advantages  of 
the  patrol. 

It  all  citizens  insured  their  property  to  its  full  value  and  paid 
underwriters  a  full  rate,  without  reduction  because  of  fire  de- 
partments, there  might  be  some  excuse  for  taxing  insurance 
companies  for  their  support;  but  where  rates  are  reduced 
because  of  extinguishing  facilities  exactly  in  proportion  as  they 
are  efficient,  and  when  property-owners  reduce  the  amount  of 
insurance  carried  by  them  in  the  s:ime  proportion,  some  citizens 
declining  to  insure  at  all,  surely  it  is  hard  to  see  why  under- 
writers should  be  taxed  on  the  lower  premiums  received  by 
them  on  only  a  small  percentage  of  the  values  at  risk. 

We  must,  therefore,  decline  all  applications  to  subscribe  for 
fire  departments,  believing  that  our  agents  will  readily  see  the 
justice  of  our  reason. 

On  the  basis  of  sympathy,  the  officers  of  the  company  have 
no  right  to  give  away  money  which  does  not  belong  to  them; 
and  on  a  business  basis,  they  have  already  paid  for  the  fire 
department  in  their  rates  of  premium.  80  insurance  companies 
may  claim,  with  propriety,  that  it  is  a  matter  of  little  moment 
to  them  whether  there  is  a  fire  department  or  not,  if  only  they 
have  knowledge  of  the  facts,  their  rates  being  graded  according 
to  means  provided  for  extinguishing  fire.  If  our  agents,  here- 
after, are  urged  to  forward  appeals  for  pecuniary  aid  to  fire 
departments,  no  matter  of  what  character,  we  trust  they  will 
explain  the  matter  to  those  who  solicit  subscriptions,  and  save 
us  the  trouble  of  doing  so. 


RATES. 


A  vitally  important  subject,  upon  which  the  safety  of  com- 
panies and,  indirectly,  the  security  of  those  insured  by  them 
depends. 

About  twenty-five  years  ago,  I  undertook  to  prepare  a  sched- 
ule for  rating  mercantile  risks.  At  that  time  schedule  rating 
was  in  its  infancy;  the  only  schedule  which  was  worthy  of  the 
name  was  the  schedule  for  rating  cotton  and  woolen  mills. 
After  working  assiduously  upon  the  task  I  abandoned  it,  believ- 
ing it  impossible  of  accomplishment.  I  realized  that  a  rate  for 
groceries,  for  example,  ought  to  be  different  from  the  rate  for 
exactly  the  same  kind  of  stock,  even  in  the  same  kind  of  build- 
ing, in  another  part  of  the  same  city,  if  the  exposures  or  environ- 
ment were  different,  and  if  the  street  water  mains  were  not  of 
the  same  size,  and  if  the  same  facilities  for  fire  extinguishment 
were  not  provided,  and  if  the  occupancy  of  other  sections  of  the 
building  were  not  alike  in  hazard.  I  also  realized  that  a  risk 
in  one  city  should  differ  from  the  same  kind  of  a  risk  in  another 
city,  not  only  because  of  the  difference  in  fire  department  and 
water  supply,  but  because  of  the  "lay  of  the  land",  whether  on 
level  ground  or  on  hillsides — like  Lynchburg.  A'a..  and  Quebec 
— or  because  of  the  previous  fire  record  of  the  city,  indicating 
exceptional  moral  or  physical  hazard,  &c,  &c.  All  of  these 
combinations  seemed  as  unlimited  as  those  of  a  kaleidoscope. 
Last  of  all  came  the  important  question  of  the  difference  be- 
tween stocks  and  buildings,  not  only  because  of  the  relative 
value  of  water-throwing  facilities,  which  would  injure  stocks, 
while  extinguishing  a  fire,  more  than  they  would  injure  build- 
ings ;  but  because  of  the  problem,  apparently  incapable  of  so- 
lution, as  to  the  relative  difference  between  the  rates  on  stocks 
and  on  the  buildings  containing  them,  which  should  vary  with 
the  construction  of  the  building  and  its  fire-extinguishing  facili- 
ties; there  being  reason,  obviously  for  a  greater  difference  be- 


is-.- 


KATKS. 


tween  the  rate  of  a  stock  and  its  building  where  the  latter  is  of 
substantial  construction,  with  the  best  of  fin;  appliances,  than 
be!  ween  the  same  kind  of  stock  and  another  building,  of  flimsy 
construction  and  with  no  fire-extinguishing  appliances  what- 
ever. 

During  the  ensuing  twenty-five  years,  at  intervals  of  every 
two  or  three  years,  getting  new  light  on  the  subject,  I  attacked 
the  problem  again  and  again.  But  it  was  not  until  the  appoint- 
ment in  1891  of  a  committee,  known  as  the  "Universal  Schedule 
Committee,"  of  which  I  was  Chairman,  and  of  a  number  of  co- 
operating committees  from  the  various  associations  of  under- 
writers throughout  the  United  States,  viz.,  the  New  England 
Insurance  Exchange,  the  Underwriters'  Association  of  New 
York  State,  the  Underwriters'  Association  of  the  Middle  De- 
partment, the  Southeastern  Tariff  Association,  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  and  the  New  York  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters — a  large  committee,  consisting  of  thirty-seven 
members — who  sought  the  advice  and  criticism  of  underwriters 
throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada,  as  well  as  in  Eng- 
land, that  this  important  problem  was  finally  satisfactorily  dealt 
with.  No  one  man  or,  for  that  matter,  no  thirty-seven  men, 
could  have  supplied  the  knowledge  and  statistics  necessary  for 
the  accomplishment  of  the  task. 

The  result  of  their  work,  the  "Universal  Schedule,''  has 
successfully  met  all  adverse  criticism,  during  the  years  which 
have  elapsed  since  the  Schedule  was  finally  put  forth  in  its 
present  form,  but,  what  is  better  still,  the  Schedule  has  been  in 
successful  operation  in  numerous  cities  and  towns  throughout 
the  country — notably  those  of  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia, 
Denver,  Cleveland,  New  Orleans,  Scranton,  Pittsfield,  Albany, 
San  Antonio,  and  others — and  has  been,  in  slightly  changed 
form,  but  with  many  of  the  important  principles,  incorporated 
in  schedules  and  tariffs  throughout  the  United  States.  I  com- 
mend its  careful  study  to  any  novice  who  proposes  to  make 
insurance  his  business,  for  I  am  convinced  of  the  correctness  of 
the  principles  on  which  the  Schedule  is  founded  and  which  are 
recognized  throughout  its  entire  system.  I  assert,  without  fear 
of  contradiction,  that  a  schedule  should  be  formulated  upon  the 
following  lines,  and  that  it  should  recognize : 


RATES. 


183 


First.    A  standard  of  environment — the  city. 

Second.    A  standard  of  construction — the  building. 

Third.  An  addition  for  the  ignitibility  and  combust- 
ibility features  of  occupancy. 

Fourth.  An  addition  to  all  three  of  these  to  get  the  rote 
of  damageable  contents;  incidentally  this  latter  to  be 
varied  in  buildings  which  are  not  .standard,  because  there 
should  be  less  difference  between  the  rate  of  the  building 
and  of  its  contents  in  the  case  of  buildings  of  poor  con- 
struction than  in  buildings  of  standard  construct  ion. 

Fifth.  An  allowance  on  both  building  and  stock  for  ex- 
ceptional features  of  fire  extinction,  proxim  it  y  to  h  ydrants, 
engine  houses,  automatic  fire  alarms,  etc.,  this  being  neces- 
sary to  recognize  the  obvious  difference  between  tiro  risks 
of  the  same  const  ruction  and  occupancy  even  in  the  same 
city. 

Further,  that  a  schedule  should  recognize  in  its  plau  of 
arrangement : 

First.  A  key-rale — as  to  which  carious  cities  and  towns 
differ. 

Second.  Charges  for  variations  from  standards  of  con- 
struction— which  ought  to  be  the  same  everywhere. 

Third.  Charges  for  hazards  of  occupancy — which  ought 
to  be  the  same  everywhere. 

Fourth.  Charges  for  insuring  contents  according  to 
their  susceptibility  to  damage — which  ought  to  be  the  same 
everywhere. 

Fifth.  The  variation  of  these  charges,  according  to  the 
construction  of  the  building.  Clearly  the  same  amount 
should  not  be  added,  even  for  the  same  stock,  to  two  differ- 
ent buildings  where  one  is  an  exceptionally  good  building 
and  the  other  an  exceptionally  poor  one;  there  should  be  a 
greater  difference  between  the  building  and  stock  rate  in 
the  one  case  than  in  the  other. 

Sixth.  The  treatment  of  fire  extinguishing  facilities, 
proximity  to  hydrants,  etc.,  for  the  particular  risk  rated, 
according  to  circumstances;  it  being  clear  that  if  the  risk 
is  within  reach  of  hydrants,  steam  engines,  etc.,  and  on  an 


184 


UATKK. 


eight '-/ iich  or  larger  water  main,  it  should  rale  differently 
from  another  of  like  kind,  even  in  the  same  town,  if  the 
other  risk  be  not  so  fori 'it mate/ //  located. 

Much  has  been  said  about  the  Universal  Mercantile  Schedule, 
pro  and  con.  In  order  to  narrow  down  the  discussion  to  what 
seem  to  me  vital  principles  which  should  he  observed  in  any 
system  of  rating,  I  make  the  claim  that  in  the  following  seven 
of  the  foregoing  vitally  important  requisites  of  any  schedule  the 
"Universal"  stands  alone. 

First.  A  schedule  should  recognize  a  key-rate  as  a  starting  point,  viz.,  the 
rate  of  a  building  of  standard  construction  in  a  standard  environment,  i.  e.,  in 
a  city  presenting  the  must  favorable  conditions  for  the  prevention,  discovery, 
extinction  and  confinement  of  fires  to  single  buildings;  and  the  difference  be- 
tween the  starting  point,  or  base  rate,  of  one  city  as  compared  with  another 
should  lie  explainable  by  charges  for  variation  from  standard.  Unless  differ 
enees  between  two  cities  as  to  the  same  characterof  structure  are  explainable, 
jealousies  and  antagonisms  will  result  in  adverse  legislation. 

No  other  schedule  has  ever  recognized  this  important 
feature. 

Second.  Inasmuch  as  all  the  risks  of  a  city  cannot  have  the  maximum 
benefit  of  the  lire  department,  especially  where  street  water  mains  are  of  in- 
adequate sizes,  it  is  (dear  that  all  risks  in  the  city  should  not  be  rated  alike, 
even  though  identical  in  construction  and  occupancy,  but  that  they  should 
differ,  according  to  the  sizes  of  street  mains,  proximity  to  hydrants,  fire  engine 
houses,  etc.,  etc. 

No  other  schedule  has  ever  recognized,  this  important 
feature. 

Third.  Certain  features  of  construction,  like  se'f-releasing  floor  beams,  for 
instance,  which  improve  a  building  are  of  no  benefit  to  the  stock.  The  stock, 
therefore,  should  not  receive  credit  for  them  in  the  rate.  A  system  of  rating 
by  adding  some  fixed  sum  to  the  final  building  rate  to  get  the  stock  rate  must, 
by  this  process  which  recognizes  features  that  are  not  of  advantage  to  the 
stock,  result  in  an  inadequate  stock  rate. 

The  Universal  Schedule  is  the  only  schedule  which  has 
recognized  this  important  feature. 

Fourth.  Fire-extinguishing  appliances,  especially  for  throwing  w^ater, 
should  not  receive  credit  in  computing  the  rates  of  stocks  to  the  same  extent 
as  in  computing  the  rates  of  buildings,  because  water  damages  stocks  to  a 
greater  extent  than  buildings. 

No  other  schedule  has  ever  recognized  this  important 
feature. 

Fifth.  Exposures  should  be  treated  differently  in  the  case  of  buildings 
from  stocks.    A  building  may  be  so  constructed  as  to  be  a  complete  protection 


RATES. 


1R5 


to  its  stock,  but  require  a  charge  in  its  own  rate  for  possible  damage  to  its 
exterior,  paint,  &<■.,  &c. 

No  other  schedule  has  ever  recognized  tin's  important 
feature.  The  .same  exposure  charge  has  always  been  added 
to  stock  and  building  alike. 

Sixth.  The  rate  of  a  stock  should  approach  that  of  the  building  containing 
it  in  proportion  as  the  latter  is  of  poor  construction,  liable  to  be  totally 
destroyed,  and  in  proportion  as  it.  is  deficient  in  fire-extinguishing  appliances; 
whereas  there  should  be  a  wide  difference  between  the  rate  of  a  building  and 
its  stock  if  the  building  is  of  standard  const  met  ion  and  its  fire-extinguishing 
appliances  are  of  the  best.  And  this  difference  in  rate  should  never  be  deter- 
mined as  a  matter  of  judgment,  but  by  some  automatic  process  winch  will 
adjust  the  difference  in  rate  to  the  conditions.  This  the  Universal  Schedule 
does. 

No  other  schedule  has  ev>er  provided  for  this  vitally  im- 
portant feature. 

Seventh.  The  fire  record  of  a  city  should  be  taken  into  account  in  comput- 
ing rates,  both  at  the  beginning  and  ending  of  the  term  for  •which  the  rate  is 
computed.    The  Universal  Schedule  recognizes  this. 

No  other  schedule  has  ever  recognized  this  important 
feature. 

If,  at  the  end  of  a  given  term,  the  percentage  of  loss  to  premium 
is  less  than  r>.V,',  a  reduction  of  one  per  cent  in  rate  is  made  for 
each  one  per  cent  of  reduction  in  percentage;  so  that  if  the  per- 
centage is  reduced  to  40.  fifteen  per  cent  reduction  in  rate  would 
be  allowed  on  renewals.  Any  system  of  schedule  rating  which 
charged  for  improper  construction  (and  would,  therefore,  en- 
courage proper  construction)  and  which  charged  for  faults  of 
management  (and,  therefore,  would  encourage  cleanliness  and 
other  conditions  which  tend  to  prevent  fires)  would  inevitably 
result  in  a  reduction  of  the  fire  loss,  which  should  be  recognized 
in  the  rate  by  some  systematic  and  equitable  percentage  of 
reduction.  If  not  so  recognized,  it  will  result  in  rate-cutting 
and  demoralization. 

It  is  not  a  serious  question,  in  this  view,  whether  the  indi- 
vidual, detail  charges  of  a  schedule  are  too  high  or  too  low,  or 
whether  the  schedule  itself  be  too  high  or  too  low,  since  it  will 
be  adjusted  in  this  way  to  a  proper  basis. 

I  regard  this  feature  of  adjustment  to  the  fire  record  as  one  of 
the  most  important  features  of  the  Universal  Schedule,  differing 
from  all  others.    It  tends  not  only  to  adjust  the  rate  to  improved 


RATES. 


conditions,  but  it  tends  to  remove  all  opposition  on  the  part  of 
the  public  and  of  their  legislators,  since  nothing  could  be  fairer 
as  ;i  proposition,  when  legislation  prohibiting  comparison  of 
experience  and  co-operation  to  ascertain  and  fix  rates  is  urged, 
than  to  he  able  to  say  to  the  legislator  and  to  the  property-owner  : 
"Our  system  of  rating  is  adjusted  to  a  five  per  cent  profit  only, 
and  the  moment  it  is  found  that  there  is  a  reduced  fire  loss  our 
rates  will  be  reduced  pro  rata." 

It  is,  of  course,  possible  that  a  careful  analysis  of  the  fire 
losses  in  proportion  to  the  amount  ;it  risk  may  some  day  indicate 
that  certain  classes  are  rated  too  low  and  others  too  high. 
When  that  time  arrives,  Imt  not  until  then,  will  it  be  reason- 
able to  change  the  figures  of  the  susceptibility  column  in  the 
schedule,  and  a  common-sense  view  of  the  business  would,  until 
that  time  arrives,  treat  the  figures  in  the  alphabetical  list,  as  the 
best  for  the  time  being,  prepared  as  they  were  at  such  immense 
labor,  as  a  convenient,  nay,  indispensable  arrangement  for  re- 
cording any  valuable  discovery  worthy  of  preservation.  When 
the  underwriter  is  discovered  who  can  name  a  figure  for  sixteen 
hundred  classes,  based  upon  an  intelligent  study  of  a  reliable 
experience  of  fire  cost,  and  can  remember  his  figures  three 
months  together,  ^ve  shall  be  prepared  to  listen  with  deference 
to  his  criticism  of  the  Universal  Schedule. 

EFFECTS  OF  CONTENTS  ON  RISK. 

Every  class  of  merchandise,  when  considered  from  the  view- 
point of  its  effect  upon  the  building  containing  it,  in  the  matter 
of  increase  of  hazard,  and  also  from  the  viewpoint  of  its  sus- 
ceptibility to  damage  by  fire,  water  or  smoke — an  important 
matter  in  estimating  the  rate  for  insuring  it — should  be  treated 
as  of  threefold  character  : 

First.  With  reference  to  its  liability  to  ignite  easily.  Among 
the  stocks  of  this  character  would  be  furniture,  drugs,  oils,  etc. 

Second.  With  reference  to  its  furnishing  fuel  for  intense 
combustion,  likely  to  destroy  the  building  and  its  contents. 
Stocks  illustrating  this  feature  are  furniture,  woodworking  risks, 
wholesale  drugs,  etc. 

Third.    With  reference  to  its  own  susceptibility  to  damage 


EFFECTS  OF  CONTEXTS  ON*  RISK. 


by  fire,  water  and  smoke;  such  stocks  as  millinery,  toys,  leaf 
tobacco,  artificial  flowers  and  feathers,  wall  paper,  etc. — a  feat- 
ure which  affects  only  its  own  rate. 

In  the  Universal  Schedule  the  various  stocks  are  arranged 
alphabetically,  and  the  figures  measuring  the  first  two  qualities 
are  entered  in  the  first  column,  to  be  added  to  the  building  rate 
to  obtain  its  occupied  rate;  while  in  the  second  column  is  in- 
serted the  figure  intended  to  measure  the  susceptibility  to  (lam- 
age,  which  is  to  be  added  to  the  occupied  building  rate  to 
obtain  the  rate  for  the  particular  class  of  goods  to  be  insured. 

It  would  be  found,  in  case  of  a  fire  in  a  building  containing  a 
number  of  different  stocks,  not  totally  destroyed,  that  the  sal- 
vages on  the  various  classes  would  bear  the  same  proportion  or 
ratio  to  each  other,  that  their  susceptibility  figures,  in  the  second 
column  of  the  table,  bear  to  each  other.  For  example,  the  second 
column  for  retail  groceries  is  40  and  for  dry  goods  50,  and  the 
salvage  would  probably  be  as  4  is  to  5. 

The  old  systems  of  rating,  which  made  all  stocks  in  the  same 
building  pay  the  same  rate — and,  in  all  cases,  the  rate  of  the 
worst  class — were,  therefore,  wrong  and  did  injustice  to  the 
owner  of  stocks  of  less  susceptibility.  A  stock,  for  example,  of 
sole  leather,  of  crude  rubber,  of  flour  in  barrels,  or  of  pig  lead, 
should  certainly  not  pay  the  same  rate,  though  in  the  same 
building,  as  leaf  tobacco,  millinery,  wall  paper  or  German  toys. 

The  list  of  hazards  of  the  Universal  Schedule,  alphabetically 
and  numerically  arranged  (the  numbers  being  intended  for  ready 
reference,  especially  in  the  analysis  statistics  of  fire  cost)  em- 
braces not  less  than  1,000  items,  while  the  Warehouse  Schedule, 
intended  to  rate  each  class  of  merchandise  on  its  merits  with 
regard  to  its  susceptibility  to  damage,  contains  not  less  than 
1,2()()  different  kinds  of  merchandise.  It  is  clear  that  no  single 
individual,  however  expert,  would  be  capable  of  fixing  proper 
rates  on  so  many  different  risks,  nor  would  his  memory  be 
capable  of  recalling  these  rates  when  once  fixed.  These  two 
considerations  support  the  claim,  now  universally  recognized  by 
rating  associations  throughout  the  country,  that  the  list  should 
be  kept  for  reference,  and  that  it  is  reliable,  at  least  to  the  extent 
of  showing  the  relative  hazards  of  the  different  classes. 

I  most  emphatically  do  not  believe  in  expert  off-band  opinions 


IKS 


KATES. 


;is  to  rates,  and  especially  as  to  that  feature  of  a  rate  which 
measures  the  susceptibility  to  damage  by  fire,  water  and  smoke. 
It  is  true,  as  claimed,  that  an  expert  in  tobacco  or  in  tea  or  in 
Hour,  or  in  any  article  of  merchandise,  becomes  by  long  practice 
able  to  determine  slight  differences  in  value;  but  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  insurance  expert  cannot  devote  a  lifetime 
to  a  particular  class  of  merchandise.  He  cannot  know  off-hand 
the  value  and  liability  to  damage  of  hundreds,  nay,  thousands  of 
different  articles.  ( )f  course,  no  one  man  can  know  much;  it  is 
only  by  canvassing  for  opinions  and  fixing  the  majority  view  in  a 
printed  list  that  anything  approaching  accuracy  can  be  secured. 

While  engaged  with  my  associates  in  the  preparation  of  the 
warehouse  schedule,  which  includes  over  twelve  hundred  differ- 
ent kinds  of  merchandise;  and  in  order  to  demonstrate  the  in- 
ability of  any  insurance  expert  to  agree  with  others,  or  with 
himself,  I  asked  five  gentlemen  in  New  York,  who  were  ac- 
knowledged experts  in  their  judgment  of  city  business,  to  give 
me  their  opinions  as  to  what  the  rate  ought  to  be  on  about  sixty 
different  classes  of  merchandise  to  be  found  in  New  York  ware- 
houses, when  contained  in  a  twenty-five-cent  building.  I  ven- 
ture to  say  that  any  one  of  these  gentlemen  would  be  regarded 
by  all  of  his  associates  as  the  equal  of  any  other  in  the  business 
for  just  such  a  task.  When  the  lists  were  received  by  me,  I 
arranged  them  in  columns,  and  found,  just  what  I  expected  to 
find,  that  they  differed  with  each  other  by  considerably  more 
than  the  percentage  of  profit  realized  on  the  business'.  In  other 
words,  if  any  one  of  the  five  had  been  taken  as  standard,  the 
other  four  differed  from  him  by  more  than  enough  to  make  a 
profit  or  a  loss.  They  were  much  amused  over  the  result,  no 
one,  however,  knowing  what  his  competitors'  figures  were,  for 
I  had  promised  to  maintain  secrecy  on  this  point. 

About  three  months  afterward  I  asked  these  same  five  gentle- 
men if  they  would  not  take  the  lists  and  give  me  their  opinions 
again  on  the  same  classes  of  merchandise,  assuming  correctly 
that  they  had  forgotten  their  former  figures.  I  then  placed 
their  second  set  of  figures  over  their  first,  and  found  that  each 
differed  with  himself,  after  an  interval  of  three  months,  by  an 
amount  which  very  much  more  than  measured  a  1<  >ss  or  profit 
on  the  classes.  In  other  words,  if  his  figures  in  the  first  instance 
should  be  taken  he  would  make  or  lose  money  by  abandoning 
them  for  his  second, 


EFFECTS  OF  CONTENTS  ON  RISK. 


Here  is  the  list.  The  figures  on  line  with  the  class  represent 
the  first  figure  given  hy  each  man;  the  second  figure,  above  it, 


represents  the  second  attempt : 

A.  B.  C.  D.  E. 

125  100  55  . . 

Acids,  sulphuric,  nuiriatic  and  nitric,  in  carboys                 65  100  55  80  .. 

125  100  55  . . 

Acids,  oxalic,  picric,  citric,  &c,  in  bids                             85  100  55  60  .. 

CO    50  45  50  60 

Nuts,  almonds,  Brazil,  hazel,  &<•..  in  bbls                         55    60  45  ..  40 

75    60  50  55  70 

Nuts,  almonds,  Brazil,  hazel,  &c,  in  hairs                         60  60 

75    60  50  75  60 

Roots,  herbs,  leaves  and  barks,  in  bbls                           65   60  45  60  00 

100    75  50  65  75 

Roots,  herbs,  leaves  and  barks,  in  bags  and  bales             85   75  50  70  75 

90  100  100  100  100 

Artificial  Mowers,  in  cases                                                100  100  55  80  100 

60   40  45  40  60 

Bacon,  in  canvas                                                          50    60  40  60  60 

75  100  100  75  100 

Baskets,  willow                                                            55  100  55  75  10O 

65    60  50  60  75 

Books,  in  cases                                                          65   75  50  60  75 

50    50  50  4C  50 

Boots  and  shoes,  in  cases                                                55    60  50  50  40 

75    60  100  75  75 

Champagne,  in  baskets                                                  65    75  85  50  75 

40    40  50  25  50 

China  clay,  Fuller's  earth,  terra  alba,  &c,  in  bbls             50    60  45  25  40 

60    50  50  40  50 

Cloths,  cassimeres,  &c.,  in  cases                                        55    60  40  50  50 

50    40  50  40  40 

Coffee,  in  bags                                                          45   60  40  60  40 

150  200  150  150  250 

Cotton,  in  bales                                                                 200  110  150  150 

75    70  65  60  50 

Crockery,  in  crates                                                       70    75  50  60  40 

60    60  55  60  45 

Crockery,  in  hhds  or  bbls                                               55    60  55  50  40 

100  150  50  100  75 

Drugs                                                                         55  100  85  75  75 

90    75  65  100  100 

Druggists'  sundries,  in  cases                                             65  100  55  70  75 

60    40  50  40  100 

Dry  g  Is  (except  silk),  in  cases                                      50    60  40  60  40 

75    60  50  60  75 

.Silks,  in  cases                                                               65    60  45  60  50 

45   40  45  40  4() 

Flour,  in  bbls                                                               45    60  40  50  40 

(ill    50  65  60  50 

Flour,  in  bags                                                              55    60  45  60  60 


RATES. 


A.    B.  C.    D.  E. 

TO    50  65    60  60 

Fruits,  preserved,  in  jars,  bottles,  &c,                             55    75  45    60  50 

60    50  50    50  60 

Ginger,  prunes,  &c,  boxed                                          55    75  45   60  50 

75    50  65  100  75 

Furs  (valuable  and  fancy),  in  cases                                   65    75  45    80  75 

60   40  75   75  65 

Furs  (cheap),  in  eases                                                  50   60  45   60  75 

75    60  40    40  45 

Gums,  acacia,  copal,  damar,  shellac,  etc.,  in  bills               55    60  45    60  50 

75    50  65    60  75 

Hardware,  in  cases                                                       65    75  45    70  60 

175  200  150  150  250 

Hemp,  in  bales                                                                  200  40  150  150 

200  200  150  150  250 

Jute,  in  bales                                                                   200  75  150  150 

200  200  150  150  250 

Jute  butts                                                                        200  55  150  150 

40    30  45    25  40 

Leather,  sole,  rough,  &c,  in  cases                                    45    60  40    30  40 

50    35  50    30  45 

Leather,  sole,  rough,  &c,  in  rolls                                    55    60  45    30  50 

60    50  90    50  60 

Leather,  patent,  morocco,  shagreen,  etc..  in  cases               65    75  55    50  60 

75    60  100    60  75 

Leather,  patent,  morocco,  shagreen,  &c.,  in  rolls                85    75  60    60  75 

200  200  55  150  100 

Oakum,  in  bales                                                            55  200  55  150  150 

60    40  50   60  60 

Opium,  in  tin  lined  cases                                                     60  45    60  60 

80    60  65  100  75 

Opium,  not  in  tin  lined  cases  100  .. 

75    60  50   50  60 

Paper,  writing,  flat  and  book,  in  cases                             75    60  45    50  75 

100    70  65    50  70 

Paper,  writing,  flat  and  book,  in  bundles                          100    ..  55    60  .. 

35    30  45    25  35 

Crude  rubber                                                              40    35  40    25  30 

75    75  45    60  75 

Seeds,  canary,  caraway,  cardamon,  etc..  in  bbls                75   60  45   60  75 

100  100  50    70  100 

Seeds,  canarv,  caraway,  cardamon,  «tc,  in  bags  100    75  50    70  100 

50   40  50   40  40 

Silk  (raw),  in  bales                                                       50    60  45   40  40 

75    75  65    60  .. 

Saltpetre,  in  bbls                                                                75  75  75 

150  100  65    70    . . 

Saltpetre,  in  bags                                                                75  85  80 

55    40  50    60  50 

Teas,  in  chests  or  boxes                                                 55    60  45    60  50 

85    70  50  100  100 

Tobacco,  foreign  leaf,  in  bdls                                          90    75  55    80  75 

75    60  65    50  75 

Tobacco,  domestic  leaf,  in  bundles  100    75  65    70  65 


EFFECTS  OF  CONTENTS  ON  KISK. 


191 


Tobacco,  leaf,  in  hhds 


Tobacco,  plug,  in  boxes 


A.  B.  C.  D.  E. 

60  50  50  50  50 

65  60  45  60  40 

50  60  50  40  60 

65  60  55  50  60 


Wine,  in  bbls 


65  40  50  40  60 
65    60    45    50  60 


Wine,  in  bottles,  cased 


75  60  65  50  75 
65    75    85    60  50 


Whiskey,  in  bbls.,  if  in  small  quantities 


•  80  40  100  60  60 
.  . .    60    85  100  60 


Metal,  heavy,  bar,  rod,  angle.  &c 


40  50  45  30  40 
50    60    45    25  40 


It  seems  to  me  nothing  could  be  more  convincing  than  this 
list  to  show  that  something  ought  to  be  done  to  fix  figures  to 
measure  and  preserve  the  opinion  of  the  majority  of  experts 
which  can  be  the  only  one  to  approach  accuracy. 

The  second  column  figure  in  the  Universal  Schedule  for 
Warehouses,  which  measures  the  susceptibility  to  damage 
charge,  was  obtained  after  a  very  wide  canvass,  not  only  of 
underwriters  but  of  expert  merchants  and  manufacturers  deal- 
ing with  the  materials  themselves.  From  these  merchants  and 
manufacturers  valuable  knowledge  was  gained  which  could 
have  been  secured  in  no  other  way.  For  example  a  large  whole- 
sale druggist  suggested  that  albumen  in  barrels  be  rated  at  a 
higher  figure  than  the  committee  had  fixed  for  it.  They  had 
supposed  it  a  good  thing  to  insure,  not  liable  to  damage  by 
smoke  or  water  and  reasonable  safe  from  fire,  but  were  informed 
that  heat  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  barrel  of  albumen  would  cook 
it  like  an  egg.  One  merchant  said  he  had  lost  a  consignment 
of  albumen  on  an  iron  steamship  where  a  fire  in  a  portion  of 
the  hold  remote  from  the  albumen  had  been  put  out,  and  the 
penetrating  steam  from  the  water  thrown  to  extinguish  the  fire 
had  cooked  the  albumen  at  the  other  end  of  the  ship.  Quinine 
in  bottles,  it  was  suggested  by  dealers  in  that  article,  would  be- 
come valueless  if  the  bottles  were  broken  owing  to  the  impossi- 
bility of  separating  the  broken  glass  from  the  quinine.  On  the 
other  hand,  classes  of  merchandise  which  are  supposed  to  be 
very  susceptible  to  damage  were  found,  after  a  careful  canvass 
of  experts,  to  be  entitled  to  lower  rates. 

Before  publishing  the  foregoing  list,  I  secured  the  consent  of 
each  of  the  five  gentlemen,  whose  mistakes,  they  magnani- 
mously concede,  may  afford  a  valuable  lesson  to  the  fraternity. 


192 


RATES. 


They  will  be  known  only  as  A,'  B,'  C,'  &c,  and  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  merchandise  which  they  attempted  to  rate  in 
a  twenty-five-cent  warehouse  is  of  the  classes  most  common  to 
the  business. 

I  was  much  amused,  on  one  occasion,  by  a  well-known  insur- 
ance expert,  who  said  to  me:  "You  don't  expect  to  have  a 
man  carry  around  that  long  list  of  risks  when  he  is  rating,  do 
you  ?" 

1  replied:  "Yes:  I  don't  sec  how  he  can  remember  them  all: 
there  are  over  1,200  in  the  warehouse  list  alone;  they  have  been 
fixed  after  careful  conference,  and  he  ought  not  to  trust  his 
memory.  By  the  way,1  I  inquired,  what  do  you  think  of  the 
rates  ?" 

"Oh,  1  think  many  of  them  are  right;  but  I  don't  agree  with 
your  committee  as  to  a  large  number. " 

"Well,"  said  I,  "you  are  the  man  we  are  looking  for.  We 
are  doing  our  best  to  get  the  rates  correct,  and  if  you  have  any 
information  about  any  of  them  I  will  be  glad  to  have  it."  and, 
taking  the  book,  I  went  over  the  list,  noting  in  pencil  his  views 
as  to  what  the  rates  should  be  on  a  number  of  classes;  then, 
casting  it  aside,  I  engaged  him  in  conversation  for  a  sufficient 
time  to  admit  of  his  forgetting  his  figures.  At  last  I  said  to 
him:  "By  the  way,  what  did  you  say  should  be  the  rate  on 
champagne  in  baskets  in  a  twenty-five-cent  warehouse  ?" 

He  gave  me  the  figure,  and  so,  in  turn,  many  others.  Of 
course,  he  did  not  give  the  same  rates  as  in  the  first  instance. 
I  could  see  him  growing  nervous,  and  finally  I  smiled  and  said : 
"Do  you  know  it  is  very  fortunate  that  I  made  pencil  notation 
of  the  figures  that  you  named  ?" 

"Why?"  he  nervously  inquired. 

"Because  but  for  that  fact  they  would  have  been  lost  to  the 
world.  They  are,  of  course,  immensely  valuable,  because  they 
were  correct  rates  and  differed  from  the  committee  figures,  and 
if  I  had  not  noted  them  carefully  you  would  have  forgotten  them 
and  we  would  have  been  in  the  dark. " 

He  saw  the  point,  and  I  said,  "Now,  Brother  Blank,  you  had 
better  climb  down ;  you  are  no  smarter  than  the  rest  of  us,  and 
need  to  have  the  printed  list  to  jog  your  memory,  just  as  much 


EFFECTS  <)F  CONTENTS  <>X  RISK. 


193 


as  any  of  us;  the  rates  have  been  fixed,  moreover,  after  too  wide 
a  canvass  to  be  ignored." 

Let  no  member  of  the  fraternity  laugh  at  my  five  friends  who 
were  so  inconsistent  with  each  other,  and  with  themselves;  there 
is  no  man  in  the  business  who  could  do  better. 

Surely  the  time  has  come  for  accepting-  the  Universal  Schedule 
as  approximately  correct,  or  to  have  it  corrected  by  those  who 
think  it  is  incorrect  if  they  can  show  wherein  its  faults  lie. 

It  is  contended  by  some  that  the  Universal  Schedule  system 
of  rating  is  neither  easily  nor  quickly  understood,  and  that  it 
requires  an  expert  to  get  the  best  results  from  its  use.  This  I 
concede.  It  is  not  more  difficult,  however,  than  the  first  four 
rides  of  arithmetic,  which  we  mastered  in  youth  only  because 
we  were  compelled  to ;  and,  while,  to  secure  the  best  results,  as 
in  everything  else,  requires  an  intelligent  man  as  a  rating  expert, 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  if  the  person  applying  it  is  ignorant  and  in- 
competent the  resulting  rates  will  yet  be  safer  and  better  if  he 
uses  the  Schedule  than  if  he  draws  upon  his  own  poor  judgment 
and  scant  knowledge.  In  short,  the  more  incompetent  the  man 
the  greater  the  need  of  providing  him  with  some  sort  of  guide. 

At  this  point  I  make  a  further  broad  claim  for  the  Universal 
Schedule,  for  the  consideration  of  those  critics  who  may  think 
that  it  rates  too  high  or  too  low  for  any  town  or  class  of  hazards. 

First.  It  combines  the  best  judgment  of  the  largest  number 
of  underwriters  ever  consulted  on  the  subject  of  rating. 

Second.  It  may  be  applied  to  any  town.  If  the  rating  expert 
were  taken  blindfolded  to  any  town  so  as  not  to  discover  its 
name,  he  would  need  only  to  go  to  the  fire  department  and  the 
office  of  the  waterworks,  to  get  the  particulars  of  fire  engines, 
size  of  water  mains,  pressure,  &c,  aud  to  the  board  of  under- 
writers to  get  the  previous  fire  record,  in  order  to  rate  every 
building,  and  its  contents,  without  inquiring  the  name  of  the 
town,  and  could  safely  leave  without  being  informed  on  the 
subject. 

Third.  If  the  local  underwriters  should  regard  his  rates  as 
too  high  or  too  low,  and  should  insist  on  raising  or  lowering 
them  (in  accordance  with  that  incomprehensible  tendency  of 
some  underwriters  to  insist  upon  an  offhand,  random  opinion  as 
to  a  proper  rate  as  a  standard,  in  utter  ignorance,  often,  of  the 


RATES. 


details  of  the  risk,  and  in  greater  ignorance  still  of  the  fire  cost 
of  the  class  to  which  it  belongs)  it  would  be  necessary  only  to 
raise  or  lower  all  the  rates  by  the  percentage  needed  to  adjust 
them  to  their  own  ideas.  In  short,  my  contention  is  that  a 
schedule  is  simply  a  measure,  like  a  two-foot  rule,  and  if 
properly  made  and  afterwards  applied  In  any  building  with  its 
contents,  it  will  always  measure  the  same  kind  of  a  building 
and  the  same  class  of  merchandise  or  hazard  at  exactly  the 
same  figure;  and  if,  iii  the  opinion  of  those  w bo  prefer  their  own 
judgment,  it  rates  too  high  or  too  low,  it  must  rate  all  risks  too 
high  or  too  low,  but  should  still  be  used  as  the  measure,  the 
rates  being  afterwards  adjusted  by  uniform  percentage  deduction 
throughout  the  list,  to  bring  those  supposed  to  be  wrong  more 
nearly  in  accord  with  the  arbitrary,  dominating  opinion. 

To  use  an  analogous  illustration,  let  us  suppose  that  two  men 
should  proceed  to  measure  the  height,  area,  &c,  of  a  thousand 
or  more  buildings  in  a  city  and,  preserving  their  field  notes, 
should  discover,  after  returning  from  their  task,  that  their  yard- 
stick supposed  to  measure  thirty-six  inches  was  only  thirty 
inches  long;  they  would  be  a  pair  of  idiots  if  they  should  im- 
mediately proceed  to  take  a  correct  yard  measure  and  go  over 
their  entire  work  a  second  time,  when  they  might  decrease  their 
figures  just  16%  per  cent  and  assume  they  had  only  five-sixths 
as  many  yards  as  they  had  supposed  in  their  dimension  figures. 

I  have  been  utterly  unable  to  understand  from  a  logical  view- 
point, the  contention  of  some  underwriters,  that  the  Universal 
Schedule  goes  too  much  into  detail,  that  it  is  difficult  to  under- 
stand and  requires  an  unusually  intelligent  man  to  apply  it. 
It  seems  to  me  that  if  a  man  is  not  intelligent  enough  to  apply 
a  schedule  and  ascertain  a  proper  rate  by  using  a  consistent 
measure  he  certainly  cannot  be  intelligent  enough  to  make  a 
rate  by  offhand  guessing.  If  he  cannot  be  trusted  to  compute 
the  rate,  he  certainly  ought  not  to  be  trusted  to  guess  at  it,  for 
the  same  reason  that  if  a  man  were  not  capable  of  measuring  a 
distance  with  a  two-foot  rule,  he  ought  not  to  be  trusted  to 
pace  the  distance  or  to  estimate  it  in  some  other  careless  way. 

One  of  the  most  capable  rating  experts  in  a  large  eastern 
city,  employed  in  applying  the  Universal  Schedule,  is  a  young 
man  who  came  to  me,  one  day,  direct  from  college.    He  de- 


UNIVERSAL  SCHEDULE. 


1115 


sired  employment.  1  told  him  that  if  he  could  learn  to  rate  by 
schedule  he  could  get  employment  at  once,  but  that,  unfor- 
tunately, I  was  about  leaving  town  for  an  absence  of  several 
weeks  and  could  not  give  him  any  explanation  of  the  schedule, 
such  as  I  had  been  glad  to  give  to  others.  "However",  said  1 
"here  is  the  book,  which  is  intended  to  fully  explain  the 
schedule ;  you  have  just  come  from  your  classes  in  arithmetic, 
algebra,  geometry,  chemistry  and  physics,  and  your  professor 
did  not  go  home  with  you  and  show  you  how  to  study  any  one 
of  these  sciences;  I  suggest  that  you  take  the  schedule  and 
'soak'  it,  just  as  you  studied  your  chemistry  or  your  arithmetic, 
and,  when  you  think  you  have  mastered  the  theory,  apply  rating 
slips  to  various  risks,  and  see  me  on  my  return.11 

I  found,  when  I  returned,  that  he  thoroughly  understood  the 
schedule,  and  to-day  he  is  one  of  the  most  useful  men  on  a 
large  staff,  drawing  a  good  salary,  although  he  commenced  on 
a  small  one. 

I  mention  this  incident  to  illustrate  the  point  that  no  man 
fresh  from  the  discipline  of  an  educational  institution  would 
regard  the  task  of  mastering  the  Universal  Schedule  a  difficult 
one.  We  are  apt  as  we  grow  older  to  shrink  from  the  applica- 
tion with  which  we  grappled  difficult  problems  at  school  where 
the  master  stood  over  us  with  a  birch  rod  and  would  accept  no 
explanation  for  failure,  and  we  need,  sometimes,  to  recall  the 
ease  with  which  we  performed  tasks  and  solved  difficult  ques- 
tions simply  because  we  were  forced  to  grapple  with  them  and 
fight  to  a  finish. 

Insurance  is  not  an  easy  business,  and  rate-making  is  not 
easy  work.  It  is  complicated  and  tedious,  if  it  is  desired  to 
reach  correct  results  and  to  measure  properly  and  equitably  the 
difference  in  details  of  construction,  occupation,  fire-extinguish- 
ing appliances  and  exposures  of  one  risk  with  another. 

It  has  been  my  observation  that,  while  the  most  common 
objection  to  the  Universal  Schedule  when  it  was  first  published 
was  its  numerous  items  and  detail,  I  have  never  met  a  rating 
expert,  engaged  in  the  task  of  applying  it,  whose  idea  of  improv- 
ing it  was  not  that  of  adding  to  its  various  charges  and  deduc- 
tions, rather  than  of  shortening  it  by  omitting  any  items. 
Those  who  have  most  reason  to  complain  of  its  length — the  men 


I  {Hi 


RATES. 


who  have  to  rate  by  it — are  the  very  ones  who  prefer  to  make 
it  longer  rather  than  shorter. 

The  fixing  of  rates  by  a  schedule  consisting  of  many  items, 
charges  and  deductions,  is  claimed  to  be  arbitrary  because  each 
item  is  not  based  on  actual  statistics  of  observed  facts,  by  a 
class  of  persons  who,  however,  do  not  themselves  offer  any  sub- 
stitute or  better  method.  They  claim  that  the  fixing  of  a  price 
without  actually  computing  the  cost  of  each  feature  of  construc- 
tion, such  as  elevators,  staircases,  cornices,  &c,  &c,  is  em- 
pirical, overlooking  the  practical  view  of  tin:  matter,  that  even 
the  most  accurate  measures  in  common  use  in  mechanics,  two- 
foot  rules,  yard-sticks,  weights,  &c,  are  not  exactly  correct, 
though  practically  so  for  the  purpose  intended.  To  decline  to 
use  a  schedule  so  carefully  prepared  as  the  "Universal",  because 
each  item  in  it  cannot  be  demonstrated  to  be  exactly  correcl 
according  to  the  losses  through  a  series  of  years,  due  to  the 
particular  fault  charged  for,  and  to  continue  rating  by  rule  of 
thumb,  which  is  utterly  unreliable,  seems  to  me  to  take  a  pessi- 
mistic view  of  the  whole  matter — and  a  pessimist  has  been  de- 
fined as  one  who,  having  a  choice  of  two  evils,  takes  both. 

1  n  the  Universal  Schedule  charges  are  made  for  all  f aults  of 
management.  I  have  already  dwelt  at  such  length  upon  the 
danger  of  rubbish,  carelessness,  &c,  as  to  make  it  unnecessary 
to  enlarge  upon  it  in  this  connection  more  than  to  say  that  the 
rates  made  by  the  Universal  Schedule,  by  penalizing  faults  of 
construction,  occupancy,  management,  &c. ,  would  inevitably 
reduce  the  fires  and,  therefore,  the  fire  cost;  and  this  fact,  it 
seems  to  me,  is  lost  sight  of  by  those  critics  who  do  not  under- 
stand the  system  of  the  schedule  as  a  whole.  Wherever  it  has 
been  applied  in  cities  or,  for  that  matter,  wherever  any  intelligent 
schedule  has  been  applied  in  cities  or  towns,  the  fire  losses  have 
been  reduced. 

FIRE  COST  PER  ONE  HUNDRED  DOLLARS  AT  RISK. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  well  to  suggest  that  the  statistics 
of  fire  losses  and  premiums,  showing  the  percentage  of  one  to  the 
other,  are  of  comparatively  little  value ;  they  are  more  interest- 
ing than  instructive.    The  aggregate  premiums  of  all  classes  of 


FIRE  cost  PEK  ONE  HUNDRED  DOLLARS  AT  KISK.  197 


hazards,  as  a  sum  total,  include  a  largo  number  of  risks,  some 
of  which  are  rated  too  high  and  others  too  low.  It  is  the  per- 
centage of  loss  on  each  class  to  the  amount  insured  on  such 
class  which  alone  indicates  the  fire  cost;  and  what  rate  will 
yield  a  premium  on  which  the  loss  ratio  shall  be  55$  (that  on 
which  the  Universal  Schedule  is  based,  and  that  which  measures 
the  experience  of  all  the  large  companies  for  all  the  years  they 
have  been  in  business)  can  be  easily  determined.  It  will,  of 
course,  be  182$  (more  accurately  181.81  +)  of  the  fire  cost, 
whatever  that  may  be,  and  the  following-  rule  may  be  stated  : 

To  ascertain  irhat  rate  should  he  fixed  for  any  class  of 
hazard  io  insure  a  ■'>■'>''.  loss  ratio  to  premium,  knowing  the 
fire  cost  in  cents  per  one  hundred  dollars  at  risk,  multiply 
such  fire  cost  by  182.  The  result  will  be  a  rate  on  which 
the  Jire  cost  iri/J  be  such  ■'>■'> r: . 

For  example,  the  "fire  cost"  or  rate  of  burning  on  a  given 
class  being  40  cents  per  $100  of  insurance  at  risk,  73  cents  should 
be  the  rate  of  premium  on  which  to  cents  would  be  55$. 

In  like  manner,  60  cents  being  the  fire  cost,  60  multiplied  by 
182  equals  1.09 — a  rate  on  which  the  60  cents  would  be  55$  of 
the  premium. 

By  way  of  further  illustration,  the  losses  for  a  series  of  years, 
on  mercantile  stocks  of  various  kinds  in  what  are  known  as  the 
Middle  States,  were  at  the  rate  of  62  cents  per  $100  of  insurance; 
the  rate  obtained  averaged  \  2  cents,  and  the  percentage  of  loss 
to  premium  was,  of  course,  85.4$.  The  rate  charged  should 
have  been  1 13  cents  per  $100,  on  which  the  fire  loss  of  62  cents 
per  $100  would  have  been  55$  of  the  premium.  .Contained  in 
these  figures,  however,  were  a  number  of  stocks  on  which  the 
loss  was  less  than  55  $,  and  numerous  other  stocks  on  which  the 
loss  was  greater  than  55$  of  the  premiums  obtained,  showing 
that  injustice  had  been  done  to  some  merchants,  while  others 
should  have  been  charged  higher  rates,  possibly  for  faults  of 
management  which  were  overlooked  by  underwriters  and  not 
penalized,  and  which,  corrected,  would  have  reduced  the  cost 
of  insurance  on  them. 

"With  a  55  $  loss  ratio  and  35$  for  expenses,  making  90$  in 
all,  there  would  be  left  L0$  of  the  premium,  5$  of  which  should 
be  reserved  for  exceptional  and  large  conflagrations.  There- 


IDS 


RATES. 


maining  5f<  would  probably  qoI  be  regarded  as  an  unduly  large 
profit  by  merchants,  who  usually  estimate  for  a  K>''  profit  on 
their  own  sales. 

Wholesale  grocery  stocks  (without  spice  and  coffee  grinding) 
show  a  loss  each  year  on  the  premiums  obtained.  They  are 
usually  regarded  as  among  the  best  of  risks,  and  most  under- 
writers in  considering  them  have  in  mind  the  idea  of  package 
goods — barreled  sugar  and  Hour,  hogshead  molasses,  etc.  The 
fire  cost,  with  usual  environments,  has  been  no  less  than  72  cents 
per  $100,  showing  that  the  rate  obtained  for  a  55$  loss  ratio  to 
premium  should  have  been  L 31,  whereas  the  rate  obtained  on 
the  average  was  101  cents,  on  which  the  percentage  of  loss  to 
premium  was  7 1  fo,  the  business  being  transacted  at  a  loss. 

Retail  groceries  show  somewhat  better  results  under  protection 
of  good  fire  departments. 

The  figures  in  the  illustrations  I  have  quoted  were  on  pro- 
tected business,  that  is,  under  the  protection  of  city  water  works 
and  fire  departments. 

Wholesale  groceries  have  grown  to  be  very  different  risks 
from  what  they  were  some  years  ago.  Coffee  grinding,  and 
even  coffee  roasting,  have  been  added  to  the  hazard.  In  many 
instances  preserving  and  canning  are  done.  Spice  grinding  is 
quite  general,  and  these  facts  may  account  for  the  inadequacy 
of  prevailing  rates.  Matches  are  also  kept  in  large  quantities, 
and  insurance  companies  who  would  decline  a  match  warehouse 
will  write  a  wholesale  grocery  freely.  Some  years  ago  the 
Greely-Burnham  grocery  store,  of  St.  Louis,  was  burned,  the 
fire  being  caused  by  the  falling  of  a  hanging  platform  erected 
about  midway  between  the  floor  and  the  ceiling  of  the  shipping 
room,  in  the  rear  of  the  building,  the  structure  being  a  sort  of 
hanging  shelf,  upon  which  were  piled  about  a  thousand  cases  of 
matches.  These  ignited  when  they  fell,  and  in  a  few  minutes 
the  whole  building  was  in  flames.  In  fact,  a  certain  class  of 
wholesale  grocery  stores,  like  a  certain  class  of  dry-goods  stores, 
known  as  "department"  stores,  should  be  rated  at  higher  figures 
(and  are  by  the  Universal  Schedule) ;  but  so  long  as  under- 
writers fix  their  prices  by  rule  of  thumb  they  wall  lose  money, 
for  even  the  element  of  luck  or  chance  is  against  them.  If  they 
take  all  risks,  no  matter  what  their  faults,  at  a  level  charge, 


FIRE  IXSIRAXCE  BASED  ON"  LAW  OK  AVERAGE.  L99 


without  analyzing-  hazards  and  penalizing  faults  of  management, 
the  odds  will  continue  to  be  against  them;  for  chances,  like 
loaded  dice,  will  always  fall  so  that  they  will  be  losers. 

If  the  business  of  insurance  be  properly  conducted,  there  can 
he,  as  I  have  already  claimed,  no  element  of  luck  or  chance 
whatever  in  it.  I  cannot  better  illustrate  this  than  by  quoting 
from  the  able  address  on  "Scientific  Fire  Rating  from  an  Actu- 
ary's Standpoint,"  delivered  before  the  Fire  Underwriters'  As- 
sociation of  the  Northwest,  September,  1901,  by  Mr.  Miles  M. 
Dawson.    He  says : 

"All  forms  nf  insurance  arc  alike  in  two  things:  Tht-y  indemnify  for  loss, 
and  they  do  so  by  means  of  an  application  of  the  laws  of  probability.  In 
gambling  parlance,  insurance  is  a  hedge'  That  is  to  say,  it  is  the  direct 
opposite  to  gambling.    It  does  not  take  chances,  but,  instead,  cancels  them. 

"It  is  sometimes  erroneously  said  that  companies  which  engage  in  insurance 
are  gambling.  If  they  took  a  few  risks  only,  the  charge  would  be  true;  but 
we  shall  see  that  the  very  fundamental  principle  of  the  law  of  probabilities 
is  that  when  a  very  large  group  is  considered,  chance  is  very  nearly  eliminated 
and  the  aggregate  loss  may  be  estimated  within  narrow  limits,  so  that  the 
purveying  of  indemnity  is  no  more  a  speculation  than  dealing  in  sugar  or 
calico,  nor  indeed  so  much.  Therefore,  by  means  of  insurance  we  find  that 
not  merely  is  the  hazard  of  the  individual  offset,  but  also  that  the  hazard  when 
passed  over  to  the  company  and  combined  with  others  results  in  a  reasonably 
reliable  loss  ratio,  which  is  transmuted  into  a  moderate  tax  upon  all. 

"The  mathematical  law  of  probability  may  be  stated  as  follows:  If  in  a 
large  group  of  persons,  for  instance,  to  each  of  whom  a  certain  thing  appears 
a  pri.  ri  equally  likely  to  happen,  it  does  actually  happen  within  a  certain  time 
in  a  certain  number,  then  the  risk  that  such  will  happen  to  one  person  in  the 
group  within  such  time  may  be  represented  by  a  fraction  of  which  the  number 
to  whom  the  thing  happened  is  the  numerator  and  the  number  composing  the 
group  is  the  denominator." 

I  cannot  more  clearly  illustrate  the  question  of  chances  as  they 
grow  into  certainties  with  larger  quantities  than  by  quoting- 
further  from  Mr.  Dawson's  paper  referred  to : 

"The  value  of  a  broad  basis  is  well  known  to  you  all,  and  yet  I  am  sure  that 
an  illustration  will  not  be  out  of  place.  Common  sense  teaches  us  that,  for 
instance,  in  tossing  a  cent  the  chances  are  even  whether  it  shall  turn  up  head 
or  tail.  But  if  it  be  thrown  but  once,  it  must  have  turned  up  one  or  the  other, 
and  if  a  judgment  were  based  upon  that  throw  only,  we  should  have  a 
certainty.  And  experience,  as  well  as  reason,  teaches  that  there  is  no  certainty 
that  it  will  turn  up  once  one  way  and  once  the  other  in  two  throws;  nor  just 
half  the  time  one  way  and  just  half  the  time  the  other  way  in  four  throws  or 
any  other  small  number  of  throws.  But  what  we  mean  by  saying  that  the 
chances  are  even  is  that  in  a  very  large  number  of  throws  the  number  of  heads 


•200 


BATES. 


:m<l  the  number  of  tails  will  be  nearly  the  same,  and  thai  in  an  infinite  number 
of  throws  they  would  be  just  the  same.  We  expect  the  ratios  found  by  actual 
throwing  the  coin  to  correspond  more  closely  to  the  chances  which  we  deter- 
mined by  reasoning  about  the  matter  the  larger  t he  number  of  throws.  In  the 
same  way.  the  average  fire  loss  which  is  drawn  from  a  very  large  number  of 
exposures  will  more  accurately  correspond  to  the  real  probability;  and.  other 
things  being  equal,  it  will  be  more  reliable  the  more  exposures  it,  is  drawn 
from." 

"Our  study  of  pn (liabilities  leads  us  to  the  conclusion  that ,  si  rictly  speaking, 
there  is  no  such  thing  as  chance — though,  so  far  as  the  power  of  the  individual 
to  control  events  is  concerned,  of  course  there  is  and  must  lie;  but  that  causes 
are  continually  at  work  which  explain  all  that  happens,  and  that  if  our  know- 
ledge of  these  causes  were  perfect  we  should  find  ourselves  in  a  world  of 
certainty.  If  we  could  know  all  the  forces  that  are  in  operation,  we  should  not 
merely  know  which  in  the  group  were  out  of  place  there,  but  we  should  also 
know  to  which  alone  the  event  would  happen,  and  they  alone  would  be  in 
place  there.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  it  should  be  our  task  to  classify  and 
reclassify,  knowing  that  at  best  the  grouping  is  imperfect  and  knowing  also 
that  if  it  ever  became  perfect,  not  only  would  our  labors  be  at  an  end,  but 
there  w  ould  no  longer  be  probabilities,  but  merely  certainties,  so  that  insurance 
would  be  impossible.  It  is  clear,  then,  that  insurance  and  the  science  of  prob- 
abilities are  both  ephemeral  things  which  will  pass  away  when  man's  know- 
ledge is  all  embracing." 

And  he  adds,  with  grim  humor: 

"Perhaps,  however,  the  time  during  which  this  omniscience  is  evolving 
will  be  sufficient  for  our  purpose." 

The  insurance  agent  finds  his  task  of  explaining  the  theory  of 
insurance  to  some  property-holders  a  most  difficult  one.  There 
are  not  a  few  intelligent  business  men  who  do  not  understand 
the  principle  upon  which  the  business  of  fire  insurance  is  based; 
for  we  not  infrequently  hear  from  the  property-holder  the  state- 
ment that  he  has  been  insured  for  thirty,  forty  or  fifty  years 
without  incurring;  a  loss  offered  as  an  unanswerable  argument 
why  his  rate  should  be  less.  It  is  unnecessary  to  explain  to 
mi  fit  of  those  who  will  read  these  pages  that  the  rate  of  premium 
i  ir  price  charged  by  a  company  is  based,  not  upon  the  expectation 
of  burning  of  a  particular  risk  insured,  but  upon  the  number  of 
risks  of  like  kind  which  would  be  burned  or  damaged  out  of  say 
a  thousand  in  any  single  year.  At  a  rate  of  1  for  example, 
a  thousand  risks  each  insured  for  $10,000,  would  yield  §100,000 
in  premium:  if  ten  risks  out  of  the  thousand  should  burn  in  a 
year  the  entire  amount  of  premium  would  be  required  to  pay 
the  loss.    It  is  evident  that  a  smaller  number  than  ten  must 


ANNUAL  FIRE  WASTE. 


-.'01 


burn  or  ;i  higher  rate  than  1  f  must  be  obtained,  to  provide  for 
expenses  ;is  well  as  losses. 

T  cannot  better  explain  this  whole  matter  than  by  referring 
to  the  passages  from  the  National  Board  pamphlet  on  Fire 
Insurance  and  Its  Relation  to  the  Community  already  quoted 
on  pages  8,  9  and  LO. 

Indeed,  I  would  suggest  that  every  insurance  agent  should 
have  at  his  command  one  or  more  copies  of  this  pamphlet.  It 
was  carefully  prepared  by  a  committee  of  the  National  Board 
appointed  for  the  purpose,  in  order  that  this  whole  question  of 
insurance  should  be  made  clear  to  the  community,  and  especially 
to  members  of  legislatures,  in  order  to  save  us  from  some  of  the 
prejudice  from  which  we  now  suffer,  and  for*which  we  are  our- 
selves largely  to  blame.  The  pamphlet  may  be  secured  without 
cost  hy  writing  to  the  General  Agent  of  the  National  Board  of 
Fire  Underwriters,  New  York. 

RATE  OF  BURNING  OR  ANNUAL  FIRE  WASTE. 

It  seems  strange  that,  at  this  late  day,  published  charts  and 
the  statistics  of  insurance  departments  of  the  various  States 
purporting  to  show  the  results  of  the  insurance  business,  should 
persist  in  showing  the  percentage  of  losses  paid  to  premiums 
received — a  percentage  figure  varying  with  the  collection  of 
premiums  and  with  the  payment  of  incurred  losses,  year  by 
year.  Even  the  percentage  of  "loss  incurred"  to  "premium 
earned1'  does  not,  of  course,  determine  any  other  fact  than 
whether  the  particular  company  has  made  or  lost  money. 

It  is  the  fire  cost,  which  shows  the  burning  line,  i.  e.  the 
amount  of  loss  per  one  hundred  dollars  of  insurance  at  risk; 
this  is  as  near  an  approximation  to  the  actual  fire  cost  as  is 
obtainable.  Inadequate  rates,  on  the  one  hand,  or  short  insur- 
ance below  80  io  of  values  would  increase  the  percentage  of  '  'in- 
curred loss"  to  "premiums  earned"  when  the  actual  burning  for 
each  hundred  dollars  at  risk  for  the  year  might  really  be  less 
than  for  the  preceding  year. 

Much  has  been  said  and  written,  of  late  years,  about  an  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  fires.  The  actual  figures  of  the  com- 
panies reporting  to  Insurance  Departments  do  not  show  this. 


2II-J 


RATES. 


The  fire  loss  per  hundred  dollars  at  risk  for  the  year  1900,  for 
example,  was  43.5  cents,  while  for  1899  it  was  nearly  40  cents 
(.00456).  These  figures  may  he  easily  ascertained  hy  taking 
the  Insurance  Report  for  New  York  State,  but  to  obtain  a  more 
accurate  computation  of  the  amount  at  risk  than  that  shown  in 
Table  VII  would  be  to  deduct  from  the  amount  of  risks  in  force 
as  reported  in  the  same  table,  three-fourths  of  the  amount  that 
the  Unpaid  Premiums  reported  in  Table  I  represent.  For 
example,  the  amount  written  in  is'.Mi.  reported  in  Table  VII,  was 
$1  '< ,9( c;,  [•>',  ,•>:>•> ;  premium  charged  thereon  was  $173,843,155.02 ; 
figuring  the  average  rate  obtained,  it  was  97.1  cents.  At  that 
rate  the  unpaid  premiums  represent  $2,619,703,444,  at  risk, 
all  of  which  would,  (it  is  safe  to  assume),  have  been  in  force 
for  a  period  of  not  more  than  three  months.  The  risks  in  force 
at  the  end  of  1899  reported  in  Table  VII  amounted  to  $21,327,- 
5]  I.S89;  from  which  deduct  $1,964,822,583,  being  three-fourths 
of  the  amount  represented  by  the  unpaid  premiums,  would 
leave  as  the  amount  in  force  for  the  whole  year  $19,302,092,300. 

1899. 

Insurance  in  force  (by  all  companies)  December  31,  1899  $19,362,692,306 

Losses  paid  in  1899   $86,251,689 

Add  Losses  unpaid  Dec.  31,  1899   16,018,510 

102,270,199 

Deduct  unpaid  Dec.  31,  1898   13,996,419 

Losses  incurred  for  1899   $88,273,780 

The  Fire  Cost  being  45.6  cents  for  each  $100  at  risk. 

1900 

Insurance  in  force  (by  all  companies)  December  31,  1900  $20,342,808,584 

Losses  paid  in  1900   $89,566,349 

Add  Losses  unpaid  Dec.  31,  1900   15,069,998 

104,636,347 

Deduct  unpaid  Dec.  31,  1899   16,018,510 

Losses  incurred  for  1900  $88,617,837 

The  Fire  Cost  being  43.5  cents  per  $100  at  risk. 

1901. 

Insurance  in  force  (by  all  companies)  December  31,  1901  $21,229,160,033 

Losses  paid  in  1901   $93,431,176 

Add  Losses  unpaid  Dec.  31.  1901   18,490,847 

$111,922,023 

Deduct  unpaid  Dec.  31,  1900   15,069,998 

Losses  incurred  for  1901   $96,852,025 

The  Fire  Cost  being  45.6  cents  per  $100  at  risk. 


RATE  OF  BURNING   PER  $100  AT  RISK.  203 

It  will  be  observed  that  while  the  amount  of  losses  incurred 
for  1900  was  more  than  that  for  1899,  the  amount  at  risk  was 
nearly  one  thousand  million  dollars  greater  than  for  1899,  so 
that  the  "fire  cost"  was  less  for  1900. 

For  the  year  1901,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  amount  of 
insurance  in  force  (due  to  increase  in  values,  new  buildings,  &c.) 
had  increased  again  nearly  a  thousand  millions.  The  fire  cosl 
was  45.6  cents  per  $100  at  risk.  The  losses  of  1901  include  the 
figures  of  the  Jacksonville,  Florida,  fire,  estimated  at  eleven 
millions  of  dollars.  If  the  $<i, 000,000  of  this  amount,  paid  by 
the  insurance  companies  were  deducted,  the  fire  cost  per  $100  at 
risk  would  be  43.2  cents — less  than  for  either  of  the  two  pre- 
ceding years — showing  that  the  unprofitableness  of  the  insurance 
business  has  been  due  not  to  the  increase  of  fires  so  much  as  to 
the  inadequacy  of  rate,  and  demonstrating  that  the  increases  of 
rate  throughout  the  country  have  been  needed,  for  the  rate  of 
loss  to  premium  was  too  high  for  profit. 

These  are  significant  figures,  and  they  are  the  only  ones 
available  for  showing  the  ''burning  line"  or  the  figure  which 
indicates  the  destruction  by  fire,  throughout  the  country,  year 
by  year.  Rates  and  premiums  may  and  do,  go  up  or  down,  but 
the  amount  at  risk  is  a  more  inflexible  figure  and  the  only  re- 
liable one  for  comparing  the  annual  fire  "waste  heap"  of  the 
various  years. 

The  average  rate  of  earned  premium  per  $100  insurance  in 
force  for  1899  of  all  companies  was  65.5  cents,  whereas  for  1900 
it  was  67.5  cents,  and  for  1901  it  was  70.1  cents.  The  percent- 
age of  loss  to  earned  premium  was  69.6$  for  1899,  64.4$  for  1900 
and  65$  for  1901 ;  the  earned  premium  of  all  the  companies  for 
1899  being  $126,782,865,  whereas  for  1900  it  was  $137,441,678, 
and  for  1901  it  was  $148,883,(11 11. 

It  is,  of  course,  easy  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  loss  in  cents 
for  every  hundred  dollars  at  risk  of  any  individual  company 
from  the  printed  reports  of  its  business  as  shown  by  the  State 
records. 

Ratio  of  Assets  to  amount  at  risk.  In  this  connection  it  may 
be  well  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  much  vapid  nonsense 
is  published,  from  time  to  time,  in  the  shape  of  advertisements 
as  to  the  standing  of  particular  companies  which  have  no 


204 


KATES. 


actual  significance.  Some,  for  example,  advertise  that  they 
show  a  larger  amount  of  assets  for  every  dollar  of  insurance  in 
force  than  others;  forgetting,  if,  indeed,  they  are  sincere  in 
making  the  claim,  that  the  more  a  company  has  at  risk  outside 
of  conflagration  areas  of  large  cities  for  every  dollar  of  assets, 
or  for  every  dollar  of  annual  income,  provided  its  acceptances 
are  on  the  safer  classes  (which  because  of  low  rates  for  light 
hazards  would  show  large  amounts  at  risk)  the  safe]-,  from  an 
underwriter's  viewpoint,  would  he  the  business  of  the  company. 
If  a  small  amount  at  risk  for  each  dollar  of  assets  were  a  test 
of  strength,  then  an  insurance  company  having  all  the  best 
dwellings  of  the o  uintry  on  its  bo<  >ks  w<  mid  be  in  worse  condition 
than  one  having  all  the  high  rated  specially  hazardous  risks; 
and  a  company  whose  business  was  confined  entirely  to  frame 
planing-mills  and  other  woodworkers  would  make  a  better 
showing  than  one  having  nothing  but  fireproof  buildings!  As 
an  abstract  proposition,  therefore,  somewhat  general  in  its 
character,  the  larger  the  amount  of  insurance  a  company  may 
have  in  force  on  well  distributed,  carefully  selected  risks  of 
uniform  average  lines,  the  more  worthy  of  confidence  will  it  be. 

REDUCED  RATES  FOR  REDUCED  LOSSES. 

I  come  now  to  a  very  important  matter,  and  my  views  may 
be  regarded  as  radical  by  those  underwriters  who  are  accustomed 
to  proceed  upon  the  theory  of  getting  all  they  can  for  their  risks 
and  keeping  all  they  get,  which,  in  my  judgment,  is  a  short- 
sighted policy  and,  in  the  end,  a  losing  one.  Wherever  rates 
are  unduly  high,  resulting  in  an  abnormal  profit,  they  will  invite 
and  encourage  competition,  which  will  reduce  them — not  dis- 
creetly, but  by  wholesale.  Indeed,  the  history  of  the  business 
of  insurance,  if  illustrated  on  a  diagram  of  profit  and  loss,  of  low 
rates  and  high  rates,  would  show  a  curved  line;  seasons  of 
depression,  following  high  rates,  caused  not  less  by  the  com- 
petition of  new  companies,  organized  to  take  advantage  of 
what  seemed  a  profitable  business,  than  by  the  unscrupulous 
cutting  of  that  minority  of  underwriters,  who,  like  the  minority 
of  all  other  trades  or  callings,  are  dishonest  but  potential  for 
spoiling  prices. 


REDUCTION  OF  RATES  FOR  IMPROVED  FIRE  RECORD.  205 


What,  then,  shall  underwriters  do  if  intelligent  systems  of 
rating',  which  penalize  faults  of  management  and  secure  correc- 
tion of  those  features  which  result  in  fires,  and  especially  in  dis- 
astrous tires,  shall  reduce  the  fire  cost  per  hundred  dollars  of 
insurance  so  that  a  lower  ratio  of  loss  than  5.")','  is  realized'.-'  It 
seems  to  me  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  justice  to  the  companies 
themselves,  to  prevent  the  inclu  sions  of  newly  organized  com- 
panies, to  say  nothing  of  justice  to  property-owners,  who  have 
reduced  the  fire  losses  by  improving  their  risks,  should  require 
that  the  rates  of  premium  he  reduced  pro  rata.  Honesty  is  the 
best  policy. 

Let  us  see  how  safely  this  can  be  done.  It  is  clear  that  when 
an  experience  of  three  consecutive  years  shall  show  a  loss  ratio 
lower  than  55  %  of  the  premiums  (for  under  a  system  of  schedule 
rating,  unlike  the  present  systems,  the  percentage  of  loss  to 
premium  would  mean  something,  whereas  now,  as  already  ex- 
plained, it  is  simply  interesting)  one  per  cent  reduction  in  rate 
might  be  made  on  the  fourth  year's  premium  for  every  one  per 
cent  that  the  loss  ratio  runs  below  55  4  ;  so  that  if  the  loss  ratio 
to  premium  of  a  city,  for  three  consecutive  years,  should  average 
45$,  it  would  be  proper  to  reduce  the  rates  on  the  fourth  year 
ten  per  cent. 

This  would  really  be  less  than  a  pro  rata  or  corresponding 
reduction  in  rate.  For  example,  suppose  that  an  average  rate 
of  1  $>  is  obtained  and  that,  on  this  rate  of  premium,  the  losses 
become  45'/;  KKr  reduction  in  the  rate  of  premium  would  give 
90  cents  as  a  rate,  but  45  cents  of  actual  loss  would  be  only  50$ 
of  the  new  or  reduced  rate  of  90  cents,  45  cents  being  55$  of  82 
cents.  This  margin  of  difference  of  eight  cents,  in  favor  of  the 
companies,  would  be  sufficient  to  make  up  for  the  increased 
percentage  of  expense  (for  the  fixed  expense  would  be  a  greater 
percentage  on  the  smaller  premium)  and  to  protect  them  against 
any  element  of  luck  or  chance  which  (if  the  total  premiums  of 
the  town  were  not  a  large  figure)  might  happen  to  enter  into  the 
business  of  the  town  or  city ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  a  reduction 
of  1  r'r  in  the  rate  of  premium  for  each  1  fo  that  the  loss  ratio  runs 
below  the  normal  55$  ought  to,  and  probably  would,  satisfy 
every  reasonable  property-owner. 

Under  such  a  system  competition  would  be  forestalled,  the 


200 


RA  TES. 


public  would  be  satisfied,  the  sympathies  of  property-owners 
would  be  with  the  companies,  impressed,  as  they  surely  would 
be,  with  their  fairness,  and  we  might  thenceforward  count  on 
their  hearty  co-operation  in  any  measures  which  tended  to  im- 
prove the  condition  of  a  city's  water  supply  or  fire  department, 
and  < 'specially  in  the  correction  of  those  faults  of  management, 
accumulation  of  rubbish  and  other  fire-breeders  in  cellars,  yards 
and  alleys,  such  as  caused  the  destruction  of  Fargo,  Dakota. 
We  would,  moreover,  have  their  hearty  and  helpful  co-operation 
in  the  jury  box  when  incendiaries  were  on  trial  and  unmistakable 
evidence  was  presented  of  the  guilt  of  the  accused. 

May  we  not  believe  that  with  such  a  broad  system  of  equitable 
adjustment  of  rates  there  would  be  a  new  era  in  the  business  of 
insurance?  Valued  policy  laws  and  adverse  legislation,  and 
even  taxation,  would  be  done  away  with. 

RATES  FOR  TERM  POLICIES. 

There  is  no  more  inconsistent  or  irrational  practice,  resulting, 
as  it  does,  in  inadequate  rates,  than  that  of  issuing  three-year 
policies  for  two  annual  premiums,  or  five-year  policies  for  three 
annual  premiums.  In  the  one  case,  the  premium  for  a  whole 
year  is  given  to  secure  the  risk  for  three  years ;  in  the  other,  the 
premium  for  two  full  years  is  thrown  off  to  secure  a  policy  for 
five. 

Aside  from  the  advantage  of  being  exempt  from  competition 
while  controlling  a  risk  for  a  longer  term  than  one  year  (an 
advantage  which  can  only  be  desirable  where  the  profit  on  the 
transaction  will  more  than  make  up  for  the  loss  of  premium 
thrown  off)  and  the  further  advantage  of  securing  the  interest 
on  premiums  collected  in  advance  (an  advantage  greatly  lessened 
of  late  years  by  the  reduction  in  the  rate  of  interest  from  six 
per  cent  to  four  per  cent,  or  even  less)  there  is  nothing  whatever 
to  excuse  the  practice,  except  in  those  rare  cases  where  the 
annual  rate  is  so  high  as  to  make  two  annuals  yield  a  fair 
premium  for  three  years,  and  three  annuals  for  five  years. 
Such  excessive  rates  are  things  of  the  past  and  ought  to  be. 

The  only  discount  which  should  be  made  for  a  term  policy  is 
that  of  simple  interest,  deducted  from  the  multiple  of  the  annual 


KATES  FOR  TERM  POLICIES. 


207 


premium  for  the  term  of  years.  Even  this  would  be  in  excess 
of  the  actual  advantage,  for  it  is  a  common  error  to  make  in- 
correct estimates  as  to  the  interest  obtainable  by  writing  in  ad- 
vance, and  to  overlook  the  fact  that  where  the  risk  is  kept  in 
force,  for  a  term  of  years,  by  annual  policies  renewed  each  year 
after  the  first,  the  interest  on  the  premium  for  the  first  year,  the 
first  fifth  of  the  term,  is  secured  for  the  whole  five  years  and, 
therefore,  in  advance;  that  for  the  second  year  for  four  years; 
that  for  the  third  year  for  three  years. 

The  following  table  showing  net  results  of  an  annual  premium 
of  $20  renewed  five  times  will  show  that  interest  is  calculated 
on  the  net  cash  received  by  the  company  each  year,  after  paying 
commission : 


ANNUAL  PREMIUM,  $20. 


Premiums. 

Com'n 
15 
per 
cent. 

Net 
premium. 

Interest  at  5  per  cent. 

1st  year,  $20 

$3. 

$17.00 

5  years'  interest,  $4.25 

2d  year,  20 

3. 

17.00 

4  3Tears'  interest,  3.40 

3d  year,  20 

3. 

17.00 

3  years'  interest,  2.55 

4th  year,  20 

3. 

17.00 

2  years'  interest,  1.70 

5th  year,  20 

3. 

17.00 

1  year's  interest,  .85 

$100 

$85.00 

$12.75 

It  will  be  seen 

that  the 

company 

receives  a  net  premium  of 

$85  and  interest  .< 

512.75— in  all.  $97/t 

'5. 

Let  us  now  suppose  that  the  company,  instead  of  writing 
annually,  accepts  a  five-year  risk  for  four  annual  premiums; 
the  amount  of  premium  received  by  the  company  will  be  $80 ; 
the  commission  paid  at  15  per  cent,  would  be  $12,  which  de- 
ducted therefrom  leaves  $68 — interest  on  which  at '5  percent, 
for  the  five  years  would  be  $17,  which  added  to  the  $G8  pre- 
mium makes  a  net  result  to  the  company  of  $85,  as  opposed  to 
$97.75  on  the  annual  plan — a  difference  of  $12.75  in  favor  of 
annual  policies,  even  on  a  basis  of  four  annual  premiums 
for  five  years,  instead  of  the  prevailing  basis  of  three  annual 
premiums. 

The  rate  of  interest  (5  per  cent.)  in  both  of  these  calculations 
is  a  higher  rate  than  companies  can  secure,  and  it  has  not  been 


308 


RATES. 


compounded  in  cither  case;  nor  has  account  heen  taken  of 
interest-hearing  balance  by  losses  incurred  each  year,  in  either 
case.  On  a  given  class  of  risks  these  would,  of  course,  average 
say  50  per  cent,  of  the  premiums  for  each  year  in  both  annual 
and  term  policies. 

It  is  true  the  argument  is  frequently  heard  that,  in  the  case 
of  a  five-year  premium  paid  in  advance,  the  company  has  so 
much  more  money  in  hand  in  case  of  loss,  but,  surely,  the  en- 
thusiasm with  which  this  argument  is  advanced  by  the  advocates 
of  term  policies  would  indicate  that  they  overlook  the  important 
fact  that  there  is  certainly  not  more  than  one  total  loss  on  every 
two  hundred  risks,  and  this  item  would  not  affect,  therefore, 
more  than  aboul  half  of  one  per  cent,  of  the  premiums.  To 
receive  the  full  premium  on  one-half  of  one  per  cent,  of  all  the 
premiums  would  be  equivalent,  on  a  five-year  business,  to  2/^ 
per  cent,  of  the  annual  premiums  in  the  case  of  losses  occurring 
in  the  first  part  of  the  first  year.  The  average  date  of  fire  would 
he  half  of  the  term,  however,  which  would  make  this  percentage 
1  1  (  per  cent,  of  a  single  year's  premiums — not  a  very  large 
figure ! 

It  is  claimed,  moreover,  by  term  policy  advocates  that  a  more 
thrifty  and  forehanded  class  of  customers  is  secured  on  a  five- 
year  plan,  and  therefore  a  safer  class.  This  may  be  true;  but 
rogues  have  been  known  to  take  out  term  policies,  with  the  ex- 
press intention  of  burning  and  as  a  cloak  to  such  intention. 

An  additional  argument  is  made  that  competition  does  not 
have  to  be  met  each  year  in  the  case  of  term  policies — once  on 
the  books,  the  risk  is  apt  to  stay  there  undisturbed  for  the  full 
term. 

Sum  up  all  of  these  claims  and  it  is  a  grave  question  how  far 
short  they  fall  of  the  difference  above  shown  in  dollars  and  cents 
of  nearly  14  per  cent,  less  premium,  even  where  four  annual 
premiums  are  secured. 

What  is  the  net  result,  however,  of  a  five-year  policy  written 
for  three  ((initial  premiums — the  prevailing  rate ?  On  such  a 
basis  the  company  receives  only  $60,  pays  *!>  commission,  leav- 
ing -S'Tl  net;  on  which,  interest  at  5  per  cent,  for  five  years 
amounts  to  $12.75 ;  in  all  $63.75,  or  more  than  333^  per  cent, 
less  than  the  $97.75  which  it  would  receive  an  an  annual 
business .' 


RATES  FOR  TERM  POLICIES. 


209 


This  is  discounting  the  future  with  a  vengeance.  It  seems 
to  us  a  repetition  of  the  folly  of  Esau,  and  that  any  company 
taking  business  on  this  hasis  is  selling  its  birthright  for  a  mess 
of  pottage. 

A  perfectly  fair  consideration  of  the  question  will  concede 
two  sides  to  it.  Term  business  unquestionably  has  some  advan- 
ages.  In  office  expense,  it  costs  no  more  to  write  a  policy  for 
five  years  than  a  policy  for  one.  If  an  adequate  rate  is  secured, 
the  company  will  be  exempt  from  competition  and  lower  prices 
for  the  full  term.  On  the  other  hand,  the  tendency  of  com- 
petitors is  toward  inadequate  rates  by  greater  deductions  from 
annual  prices  than  all  advantages  may  be  worth,  and  the  agent 
is  naturally  apt  to  lose  interest  in  a  husiness  on  which  he  cannot 
receive  a  commission  for  full  five  years.  It  behooves  an  under- 
writer to  be  careful  in  his  selection  of  risks  and  in  his  estimate 
of  rate.  If  he  fails  to  get  a  proper  price,  he  must  live  up  to  his 
bargain  for  the  full  term,  or  cancel  at  a  loss  and  disadvantage. 
Once  entered  in  his  books,  its  demands  upon  him  will  be  in- 
exorable, and  the  approach  of  death  is  not  more  certain  than 
that  misfortune  will  overtake  him  who  unduly  discounts  his 
future. 

The  subject  of  term  policies  is  a  very  important  one.  More 
insurance  companies  have  been  wrecked  on  this  rock  of  insuf- 
ficient estimates  for  unearned  premium  liability  than  on  any 
other. 

If  I  have  dwelt  with  what  seems  unnecessary  length  on  this 
subject  of  rates  it  is  because  it  is  an  important  matter — in  fact, 
the  most  important  matter  connected  with  the  whole  business, 
involving  not  merely  the  profitable  conduct  of  the  business  of 
fire  insurance,  but,  what  is  even  more  important,  the  enormous 
annual  drain  upon  the  resources  of  the  country  by  reason  of 
preventable  fires  and  controllable  fires.  If  underwriters,  those 
who  know  best,  through  their  opportunities  for  observation,  do 
not  conduct  their  business  on  lines  which,  by  charges,  indicate 
faults  of  construction  or  management,  and,  by  deductions, 
recognize  merits  of  appliances  for  extinguishing  fire,  but  extend 
the  protection  of  their  insurance  policies  over  the  risks  of  those 
property-owners  who  ignore  proper  construction  and  careful 
management  at  the  same  rates  that  are  charged  to  that  better 
class  of  citizens  who  conscientiously  guard  against  fire,  the 


210 


LINKS. 


business  of  fire  insurance  becomes  a  menace  to  the  public  safety. 

A  SYSTEM  OF  INSURANCE  RATING  WHICH  DOES  NOT  DIS- 
CRIMINATE BETWEEN  SAFE  CONSTRUCTION  AND  UNSAFE  CON- 
STRUCTION, AND  BETWEEN  CAREFULNESS  AND  NEGLIGENCE, 
IS  AN  INJURY  TO  THE  COMMUNITY. 

LINES. 

The  amount  which  should  be  written  on  any  risk  should 
vary,  of  course,  according  to  the  hazard  and  according  to  the 
probabilities  of  totality  or  salvage  in  losses.  If  the  rates  were 
properly  made,  there  could  be  no  better  gauge  of  what  the  line 
should  be  than  the  computed  amount  of  insurance  which  the 
average  premium  taken  by  the  company,  say,  $100,  would  pay 
for  at  the  rate  on  the  risk. 

W  hen  I  say  "average  premium"  I  do  not,  of  course,  mean 
the  total  premiums  taken  by  a  large  insurance  company  in  a 
year  divided  by  the  number  of  risks.  This  would  be  a  very 
small  figure.  But  I  mean  the  average  premium  which  it  would 
get  on  a  1  <fc  risk,  say  $100.  If  the  rate  on  all  classes  should  be 
computed  by  the  Universal  Schedule  and  the  company's  line  on 
a  1  %  risk  should  be  $10,000,  it  is  clear  that  on  a  risk  of  twice  the 
hazard,  paying  2  it  should  take  not  more  than  half  the  amount, 
$o,000,  and  at  i  %  should  take  not  more  than  82,500.  Therefore, 
the  rate  is  the  best  evidence  of  what  the  line  should  be,  always 
assuming  that  the  rate  has  been  properly  made.  The  rate, 
if  correctly  made,  would  measure  every  consideration  which 
should  enter  into  the  consideration  of  line — construction,  en- 
vironment or  exposure,  occupancy,  and  susceptibility  to  damage, 
indicating  the  probabilities  of  salvage. 

The  argument  has  been  made  that  some  underwriter-,  under 
a  system  of  rating  warehouses,  for  example,  would  be  tempted 
to  take  high  rated  risks,  because  they  would  yield  the  largest 
premiums ;  but  this  overlooks  the  fact  that  if  the  line  be  regu- 
lated by  the  rate,  the  latter  being  based  upon  accurate  methods 
of  measure,  the  liability  to  total  or  excessive  losses  of  particular 
risks,  and  the  frequency  of  fires,  which  enter  into  the  question 
of  line,  are  measured  in  the  rate,  and  the  rate  ought,  therefore, 
to  afford  the  best  evidence  of  what  a  line  should  be. 

An  underwriter's  line  in  a  particular  warehouse,  for  example, 


LINES. 


211 


would  be  said  to  be  full,  not  when  he  has  secured  $5,000  or 
$10,000  of  insurance,  but  when  he  has  secured  bis  premium, 
graded  according  to  the  classes  covered,  no  matter  what  the 
amount  of  the  insurance  may  be.  If  the  rates  are  properly 
graded,  his  line  would  not  be  full  if  be  bad  $5,000  on  a  50-cent 
class,  and  would  be  more  than  full  if  he  had  $12,000  on  a  1  % 
class.  His  loss  on  a  $20,000  policy  on  crude  rubber  would  not 
be  greater  than  on  a  $5,000  stock  of  toys.  //  is,  therefore, 
the  probable  amount  of  loss,  and  not  the  actual  amount  of 
insurance,  which  determines  what  a  line  should  be. 

Pursuing  this  reasoning  that  rates  correctly  made  are  the  best 
evidence  of  what  lines  should  be,  I  claim  that  an  underwriter 
in  determining  the  question  of  line  on  any  subject  of  insurance, 
should  take  into  consideration  three  features — ignitibility, 
combustibility  and  susceptibility.  He  should  write  less  on 
risks  which  are  peculiarly  liable  to  take  fire,  peculiarly  liable 
to  be  consumed  before  extinction  and  peculiarly  susceptible  to 
water  or  smoke  damage  than  on  subjects  of  insurance  which 
are  not  liable  to  take  fire,  are  easily  extinguished  and  are  not 
subject  to  water  or  smoke  damage.  In  other  words,  he  would 
write  more  on  crude  rubber  and  wool  than  on  hemp  or  flax, 
German  toys  or  leaf  tobacco.  If  his  rates  are  correctly  made, 
he  would  write  only  one-fourth  as  much  on  a  1  fc  risk  as  on  a 
2 5 -cent  risk. 

In  view  of  the  fact,  for  example,  that  most  of  the  losses  (over 
90$  in  fire  department  city  warehouses  other  than  fibre)  are 
partial,  it  follows  that  the  relative  susceptibility  to  damage  of 
the  various  kinds  of  contents  would  indicate  their  relative  salv- 
ages in  case  of  fire,  and  that  whatever  differences  exist  in  the 
goods  before  a  fire  would,  unless  they  were  totally  destroyed, 
be  found  reflected  in  the  differences  in  damage  and  salvage 
after  a  fire.  If  we  could  conceive  of  a  warehouse  filled  with 
all  kinds  of  merchandise,  subjected  to  exactly  the  same  amount 
of  heat  on  every  square  foot  of  floor  surface,  to  the  same  amount 
of  water  thrown  for  extinction  and  the  same  amount  of  smoke, 
it  would  be  found  that  the  relative  damage  and  salvage  of  each 
kind  of  merchandise  would  be  in  that  proportion  which  its  rate, 
if  correctly  made,  bears  to  the  other  rates. 

Average  Line.  Lines  also  depend  upon  the  average  number 
of  risks  which  can  be  obtained  of  a  class.    The  law  of  aver- 


\'  1  •» 


LINKS. 


age  approaches  certainty  in  proportion  as  the  number  of  sub- 
jects or  risks  liable  to  the  cont  ingency  of  fire  increase.  Nothing 
is  more  certain  than  that  no  more  than  tin-  average  number  of 
ten  thousand  risks  will  burn  through  a  series  of  years,  and 
nothing  is  more  uncertain  than  the  number  of  a  smaller  quan- 
tity which  will  escape  fire.  An  average  might  be  secured  by 
taking  a  small  number  of  risks  for  a  long  series  of  years,  as 
well  as  by  taking  a  large  number  of  risks  for  a  single  year, 
were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  the  statements  of  companies  to  the 
various  State  insurance  departments  require  to  be  made  uj» 
annually,  and  a  company  basing  its  average  on  a  series  of 
years  might  show  badly  in  the  reports  for  single  years.  The 
average  line  is  usually,  therefore,  adjusted  to  a  twelve  months' 
experience,  because  the  premiums  and  losses  of  a  single  class 
might  otherwise  result  in  an  exceptional  or  abnormal  loss  ratio 
which  would  affect  seriously  the  experience  of  the  company  for 
the  year.  This  difficulty,  however,  can  be  met  in  the  case  of 
those  classes  of  which  enough  cannot  be  obtained  to  make  an 
average,  hy  eoiitining  the  lines  assumed  on  such  classes  to  that 
sum  for  which  the  average  premium  on  all  classes  taken  by  the 
company  would  pay. 

If,  for  example,  the  company's  average  premium  should  be 
$50  (throwing  out  of  the  account  the  small,  so-called  "chicken- 
feed"  business  of  small  dwellings,  etc.,  which  are  annually 
assumed)  it  would  he  safe  to  write  $10,000  on  a  50-cent  risk  (the 
rate  being  accurately  computed)  or  $5,000  on  a  1  #  risk.  Let 
us  suppose  that  there  are  ten  classes  of  hazards  of  which  there 
are  only  100  specimens  of  each  in  the  country,  and  that  they 
range  in  proper  rate  from  25  cents  up.  Insurance  on  them 
would  be  theoretically  adjusted  as  per  the  following  table : 


No.  Risks. 

Rate. 

Line. 

Total  Premium. 

100 

.25 

$20,000 

$5,000 

100 

.50 

10,000 

5,000 

100 

5,000 

5,000 

100 

2,500 

5,000 

100 

4$ 

1,250 

5,000 

100 

5# 

1,000 

5,000 

100 

6# 

833 

5,000 

100 

7# 

714 

5,000 

100 

8$ 

625 

5,000 

100 

10$ 

500 

5,000 

1,000 

$50,000 

LINKS. 


213 


We  here  have  L,000  risks,  each  differing  from  the  others  in 
hazard,  but  with  lines  graded  according  to  hazard,  yielding  a 
premium  of  $50,000,  on  which  the  loss  should  be  5.V/,  or  $27,500. 
It  would  make  no  difference  which  of  the  risks  should  take  tire 
— those  of  greater  or  less  ignitibility,  combustibility  or  suscep- 
ibility — as  the  lines  are  graded  in  proportion  to  figures  which 
exactly  measure  relative  degrees  of  damage  and  salvage.  If 
fires  occur  in  the  risks  of  greater  hazard  the  amount  of  loss  will 
still  be  proportional  to  the  total  premium  obtained,  while  if  they 
should  occur  in  those  of  lower  rates  the  fires  would  be  more 
surely  partial.  Fifty  dollars  of  premium  buys  just  so  much 
hazard;  and  as,  in  adding  fractions,  it  is  necessary  to  reduce 
those  of  different  denominators  to  a  common  denominator,  so  in 
the  foregoing  example,  rate  may  be  regarded  as  the  common 
denominator  of  the  various  hazards  of  the  different  classes  of 
risks,  and  this  combination  of  them  would  be  as  safe,  from  a 
true  underwriting  standpoint,  as  would  a  group  of  a  thousand 
risks  of  any  one  of  the  classes. 

Of  course,  the  example  would  be  more  forceful  and  the  tabu- 
lation safer  if  the  f  risks  were  10,000  instead  of  1,000; 
and,  of  course,  while  this  proposition  is  scientifically  true  from 
the  viewpoint  of  arithmetical  computation  and  the  law  of  aver- 
age, it  would  not  be  in  actual  practice  necessary  to  lay  such 
strict  limitations  upon  acceptances;  for  no  great  risk  would  be 
run,  for  example,  by  taking  $2,500  lines  on  the  10$  hazards, 
because  the  burning  of  a  few  of  them  would  not  be  a  serious 
matter  and  might  meet  the  conveniences  of  the  business;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  might  not  be  advisable  to  accept  $20,000 
on  25-cent  risks. 

It  is,  probably,  unnecessary  to  add  that  it  would  be  perfectly 
safe  to  take  a  large  number,  say  1.0,000,  of  10$  hazards  for  a 
full  line  of  $10,000,  since  there  would  then  be  enough  of  the 
class  to  make  the  average  line,  though  large,  a  safe  one.  My 
contention  simply  being  that  where  there  is  not  enough  indi- 
viduals of  any  one  hazard  to  make  a  safe  class  by  itself,  it  being 
necessary  by  reason  of  the  small  number  of  such  class  to  rely 
on  the  general  average  of  others,  the  line  on  the  more  dangerous 
classes  must  be  graded  to  equalize  the  proper  proportion  of  losses 
on  all  classes. 


214 


LINES. 


This  whole  matter  may  be  made  clearer  still,  perhaps,  if  we 
take  only  two  classes,  peculiar  in  the  respect  that  they  are 
exactly  equal  in  "combustibility"  and  "susceptibility"  to  the 
extent  that  no  partial  losses  are  secured,  all  losses  being  total, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  one  is  exactly  twice  as  ignitible  as  the 
other,  in  which  case  there  would  be  just  twice  the  number  of 
fires  on  the  same  number  of  risks  in  a  year.  Let  us  assume, 
therefore,  two  such  hypothetical  classes,  one  rated  at  5$  and 
the  other  at  10$,  one  being  just  double  the  other  as  to  the  risk 
of  ignitibility.  There  would  be  just  twice  as  many  fires  and, 
consequently,  twice  as  many  total  losses  in  the  10$  class  as  in 
the  5$  class;  and  this  being  a  fact,  not  over  half  as  much  should 
be  accepted  on  the  !<>$  class  as  on  the  5$  class.  While  it  might 
be  perfectly  safe  to  take  a  thousand  risks  of  either  for  the 
maximum  line  of  the  5  $  class,  let  us  assume  that  we  can  only 
get  500  of  each,  the  example  would  then  stand  as  follows.  If 
the  rates  are  graded  for  a  60$  loss  ratio  of  premiums,  all  losses 
being  total,  there  would  be,  say,  15  losses,  amounting  to  $300,- 
000,  of  the  5  $  class,  and  30  losses,  amounting  to  $300,000,  of  the 
10$  class.  (I  have  assumed  a  60$  io^  ratio  to  premiums  in- 
stead of  55$  simply  to  make  computations  easier.) 

No.  Risks.  Line.  Rate.         Total  Prem.  No.  of  Fires.    Total  Loss.  %. 

500       $20,000       5$       $500,000      15       $300,000  60$ 
500         10,000      10$         500,000      30         300,000  60$ 
1,000  $1,000,000  $600,000  60$ 

If,  now,  on  the  other  hand,  with  the  rates  still  graded  as  in 
the  foregoing  example  for  a  60$  loss  ratio  to  premiums,  the 
number  of  risks  of  each  class  and  the  amounts  should  be 
changed,  we  could  easily  have  the  following  problem  as  a 
possibility : 

No.  Risks       Line.  Rate.  Total  Prem.   No.  Losses.      Total  amount  of  Losses. 

800  $20,000  5$  $800,000  20  -$400,000 

100  100,000  5$  500,000  7  700,000 

80  10,000  10$  80,000  1  10,000 

20  100,000  10$  200,000  5  500,000 

1,000  $1,580,000  $1,610,000  or  102$. 

It  will  be  observed  that  we  still  have  1,000  risks,  that  the 
rates  remain  the  same  (10$  and  5$  respectively),  the  number  of 


RATE  INDICATES  LINE. 


215 


losses  per  100  risks  has  not  changed,  being  at  the  rate  of  3  losses 
per  100  risks  of  the  5%  hazards,  (27  in  all)  and  at  the  rate  of  6 
losses  per  100  risks  for  the  1<K  hazards.  The  lines,  however, 
have  been  changed.  In  place  of  500  $20,000  lines  of  the  5$ 
class  we  now  have  800  $20,000  lines  and  100  $100,000  lines,  and 
on  the  10$  class  we  have  80  $10,000  lines  and  20  $100,000  lines. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  say  that  although  there  might  be  no  more 
or  no  less  losses  per  hundred  risks  than  before,  they  might  easily 
fall  on  the  $100,000  lines  instead  of  on  the  $10,000  lines,  and  if 
they  should,  as  in  the  table,  the  result  would  be  a  loss  of  over 
102  %  of  the  total  premiums  instead  of  60$  as  before,  because 
the  laws  of  average  have  been  violated.  When  those  laws  are 
observed,  the  business  of  insurance,  instead  of  being  a  wager 
and  an  uncertainty,  becomes  a  certainty  and  results  can  be 
counted  upon  with  greater  confidence  than  in  any  other  business. 

The  moment  the  number  of  risks  in  any  class  fall  below  the 
number  necessary  to  make  an  average  for  that  class,  the  number 
of  risks  accepted  must  lean  upon  those  of  other  classes,  and  there- 
fore the  line  must  be  lowered  to  meet  the  average  premium 
received  on  the  other  classes,  if  the  proper  loss  ratio  to  pre- 
mium is  to  be  maintained.  To  depart  from  this  law  is  simply  to 
gamble.  It  is  not  underwriting.  It  would  be  as  idiotic  to  con- 
duct the  business  of  insurance  on  such  lines  as  for  a  merchant 
to  say  to  a  customer  with  one  hundred  dollars  "You  may  go  into 
my  store  and,  for  your  hundred  dollars,  take  100  yards  of  any 
fabric  you  please,"  instead  of  saj-ing  to  him''  You  may  take  10 
yards  of  $10  velvet,  or  100  yards  of  $1  silk,  or  2,000  yards  of 
5-cent  calico." 

The  statement  is  frequently  heard  that  a  company  having  a 
large  premium  income  of,  say,  four  million  dollars  can  afford 
to  take  larger  lines  than  when  it  had  an  income  of  one  million. 
This  is  approximately  true  within  certain  limitations.  Theo- 
retically, it  is  untrue  in  every  respect ;  for  if  the  premium  in- 
come of  four  million  dollars  is  made  up  of  a  large  number  of 
non-hazardous  risks  there  will  be  no  margin  with  which  to  pay 
an  exceptional  loss  on  a  risk  of  high  ignitibility :  If  the  rates 
have  been  graded  properly,  all  of  the  four  millions  will  be 
needed  to  pay  the  $2,200,000  (or  55$)  of  losses  inevitably  due  to 
the  hazard  of  carrying  the  four  millions  of  risks,  and  the  excess 


210 


LINES. 


losses  will  have  to  be  paid,  not  out  of  premiums  but,  out  of  what 
would  have  been  and  ought  to  have  been  profit. 

The  underwriting  laws  deduced  from  these  propositions  are 
certainly  the  following : 

First.  At  least  one  thousand  risks  (better  ten  thousand) 
should  be  secured  of  a  class  to  make  an  average  on  the  class. 
If  ;i  sufficient  number  ran  bo  secured  the  class  will  take  care  of 
itsell  without  regard  to  the  other  writings  of  the  company. 

Second.  If  a  sufficient  number  of  a  class  cannot  be  secured 
for  an  average,  the  class  i  till  be  accepted,  but  only  for 

such  lines  as  would  be  /xii  with  the  average  premium 
of  the  company  on,  say,  a  safe  medium  class  of  risks — l  $ 
risks,  for  example. 

Third.  Kates  //'  correct/!/  made  would  always  indicate  the 
line  w  hich  might  safely  be  written,  for  they  would  measure 
accurately  the  three  features  of  a  risk — ignitibility,  combusti- 
bility and  susceptibility — which  must  always  be  taken  into 
account  in  determining  line,  in  addition  to  features  of  fire  de- 
partment protection  and  exposure  charges,  which  measure  the 
ignitibility.  combustibility  and  susceptibility  features  of  other 
risks  endangering  it. 

Fourth.  An  average  may  be  secured  either  by,  say,  1,000 
risks  of  a  single  class,  or  by  1,000  risks  of  different  classes  but 
for  no  greater  line  than  the  average  premium  of  the  class  will 
pay  for  at  the  rate  of  the  class;  or  by  1,000  risks  all  of  the  same 
rate  but  of  different  classes — in  which  case  the  line  would  be  the 
same  on  all.  It  would  clearly  be  as  safe  to  write  one  thousand 
■  >',  risks,  of  l,ooo  different  classes,  as  to  write  a  thousand  3 c'< 
risks  of  a  single  class. 

Fifth.  An  adequate  rate  does  not  involve — what  some  under- 
writers contend  it  does — that  any  line  may  be  written,  on  the 
supposition  that  because  the  rate  is  adequate,  it  will  pay  for  the 
line.  The  safe  line  depends  not  alone  on  the  adequacy  of  the 
rate,  but  upon  the  number  of  risks  of  the  class  written,  which 
must  be  sufficiently  large  to  secure  an  average. 

All  of  these  propositions  are  based  theoretically  upon  correct 
rates  and  ideal  conditions,  rather  than  on  practice  and  actual 
conditions.  It  might  not  be.  expedient  or  possible  to  get  a 
mimimum  line  on  each  of  the  most  hazardous  risks  or  to  write 


LINKS. 


217 


the  maximum  on  each  of  the  best  risks.  We  would  be  perfectly 
safe,  of  course,  to  take  $2,500  <>u  a  risk  as  a  mimimum;  much 
more  safe  (and  probably  in  five  years  out  of  six  it  would  result  in 
more  profit)  than  to  take  exceptionally  Large  lines  on  good  risks, 
unless  an  exceptionally  large  number  of  such  good  risks  could 
be  secured,  in  which  case  any  line  is  safe  if  the  number  be  large 
enough  to  reduce  to  a  certainty  the  possibilities  of  a  single  year. 

Companies,  however,  generally  give  their  agents  full  in- 
structions as  to  the  lines  to  he  written  and  tlie.se  instructions 
should  be  followed  to  the  tetter.  I  inter  no  ci rcn instances 
should  the  agent  deviate  from  them  to  act  on  his  own  theo- 
ries as  to  lines,  or  on  the  views  I  hare  expressed  in  this 
article. 


UNEARNED  PREMIUM. 


WHAT   IS   THE   REINSURANCE   FUND,  OR  UNEARNED  PREMIUM 
LIABILITY  OF  A  FIRE  INSURANCE  COMPANY  ? 

There  are  diverse  opinions  upon  the  subject.  Some  under- 
writers contend  that  it  is  a  fund  which  would  be  sufficient  to 
pay  the  fire  losses  on  policies  in  force,  and  that  it  will  prove 
adequate  or  inadequate  according  to  the  sufficiency  of  the  rate 
obtained.  Others,  that  it  is  a  fund  which  should  be  sufficient 
to  induce  another  company  to  assume  the  executory  contracts 
and  relieve  the  first  from  all  obligation  under  them.  In  the 
light  of  numerous  instances  of  the  assumption  of  such  obliga- 
tions at  from  sixty  to  seventy  per  cent,  of  the  reserve  of  the 
retiring  company,  it  is  with  no  little  complacency  that  some 
underwriters  contend  that  their  reserve  is  from  thirty  to  forty 
per  cent,  too  high,  holding  that  the  company  could  "reinsure" 
its  entire  business  and  retain  that  percentage  of  the  reserve 
charged  as  ;i  liability,  counting  il  as  nei  surplus. 

Neither  supposition  is  the  correct  one.  The  Reinsurance 
Fund  of  a  company  should  represent  the  exact  sum  required  to 
pay  to  the  holders  of  its  policies  the  pro  rata  unearned  premium 
for  their  unexpired  terms,  and  thus  relieve  the  company  of  all 
liability  under  them.  In  case  of  bankruptcy,  the  law  requires 
that  a  receiver  shall  immediately  relieve  the  company  of  all 
executory  contracts,  holding,  with  much  reason,  that,  as  the 
company's  failure  must  be  due  to  the  unprofitableness  of  its  bus- 
iness, growing  out  of  inadequate  rates  or  bad  risks,  it  is  for  the 
interest  of  all  concerned,  as  creditors,  that  running  contracts 
should  be  at  once  terminated  and  the  estate  relieved  from  possi- 
ble further  claims.  In  this  light,  it  obviously  makes  no  differ- 
ence whether  the  rates  be  adequate  or  inadequate  for  carrying 
the  risk,  or  whether  the  fund  be  ample  or  insufficient  for  paying 
subsequent  losses.    If  it  be  sufficient,  under  the  terms  of 


REINSURANCE  OR  UNEARNED  PREMIUM  FUND. 


each  policy,  as  a  tender  to  the  assured  to  relieve  the  com- 
pany from  all  obligation  to  him,  it  is  ample  for  the  purpose 
which  the  law  contemplates.  <  hie  dollar  per  one  hundred 
dollars  per  annum  may  be  a  grossly  inadequate  rate  for  a 
planing-mill;  but  if  that  he  the  rate  at  which  the  policy  was 
issued.  50  cents  per  one  hundred  dollars,  at  the  end  of  six 
months,  will  he  sufficient  return  premium  to  cancel  the  policy 
and  discharge  the  company  from  all  liability  to  the  holder  of  it. 
It  is,  of  course,  true,  however,  that  the  Reinsurance  Fund  will 
prove  a  valuable  asset  if  the  risks  have  been  selected  with  judg- 
ment and  at  adequate  rates.  Inasmuch  as  the  experience  of  all 
companies  shows  that  a  larger  percentage  of  the  fire  loss  occurs 
in  the  earlier  part  of  the  term  for  which  the  policy  is  written, 
than  in  the  latter  years  of  the  term,  due,  probably,  as  a  matter 
of  theory,  to  the  fact  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  moral  hazard 
and  also  of  the  physical  hazard,  faults  of  construction,  defects 
in  flues,  etc.,  naturally  develop  themselves  early  in  the  life  of 
the  risk,  it  follows  that  the  percentage  of  loss  upon  the  unearned 
premium  fund  must,  of  necessity,  be  lower  than  that  of  the  year 
in  which  the  policies  were  taken. 

To  assume,  as  has  been  by  some  contended,  that  the  Reinsur- 
ance Fund  of  a  company  should  be  computed  on  the  basis  of 
adequate  rates  to  measure  the  hazards  covered,  and  that  the  full 
amount  of  unearned  premium  necessary  to  carry  each  particular 
risk  should  be  reserved,  no  matter  what  the  Company  may 
have  accepted  as  the  price  for  its  policy,  would  be  to  assume 
that  the  State,  to  enforce  the  law,  could  provide  a  sufficient 
force  of  experts  competent  to  pass  upon  the  adequacy  of  rates 
— an  assumption  which  would  be  preposterous,  since  the  re- 
serve of  a  single  company  could  not  be  examined  by  the  most 
diligent  expert  in  a  year's  time,  if  at  all.  Such  examination 
could  not  be  made  from  the  books  of  the  Company,  according  to 
rides  for  classes,  since  risks  exposed  by  others  would  seldom 
present  the  same  conditions  and  each  would  have  to  be  decided 
on  its  own  merits  by  taking  into  account  exposures,  locality,  fire 
departments  and  all  other  factors  which  enter  into  the  consider- 
ation of  price,  the  rate  of  each  risk  being  as  much  a  matter  of 
expert  judgment  and  as  independent  of  set  rules  as  is  the  grading 
of  qualities  of  corn,  wheat,  flour,  tobacco  or  tea  by  experts  in 
those  respective  commodities.     Any  law,  therefore,  requiring 


UNEARNED  PREMIUM. 


adequacy  of  rates  in  the  unearned  premium  fund  which  did  not 
contemplate  examination  by  experts — a  physical  impossibility — 
and  punishment  lor  noncompliance,  would  be  simply  mandatory 
and,  therefore,  inoperative.  It  would  have  the  effect  only  of 
binding  honorable  companies,  who  would  make  honest  returns, 
and  of  leaving  unbound  dishonorable  companies,  who  would 
disregard  ils  provisions,  knowing  that  detection  and  punishment 
were  alike  impossible. 

Most  property -owners,  legislators  and  not  a  few  under- 
writers, seem  to  overlook  the  fact  that  the  unearned  premium 
reserve  of  an  insurance  company  represents  all  actual  con- 
tractual debt  to  the  holder  of  each  policy  for  his  pro  rata 
share  of  the  pre  in  i  it  in  nica.su  riiaj  ihc  unexpired  time  His 
policy  provides  this,  and  a  premium,  therefore,  is  not  the 
property  of  the  company  when  paid  to  it ;  for  the  company  is 
simply  in  the  position  of  a  trustee  who  has  given  a  receipt  for 
it  and  is  under  agreement  to  return  a  proper  portion  of  it  if  he 
wishes  to  be  relieved  of  his  liability.  The  term  "reinsurance 
reserve,"  therefore,  has  always  been  a  misnomer;  a  better  name 
for  the  fund  would  be  Unearned  Premium  Liability. 

Some  years  ago  a  bill  was  introduced  into  the  legislature  of 
the  State  of  New  York  excusing  a  company  from  holding  in 
hand  more  than  the  net  amount  of  unearned  premium,  after 
deducting  any  sum  which  may  have  been  paid  to  the  agent  or 
broker  as  commission  or  brokerage.  This  bill  never  became  a 
law.  Its  advocates  overlooked  the  important  fact  that  an 
amount  paid  by  a  company  to  an  agent  or  broker  for  rendering 
it  a  service  could  not  be  regarded  as  an  offset  against  the  claim 
of  the  policyholder,  who  was  entitled  to  the  pro  rata  unearned 
portion  of  the  premium  paid  by  him,  without  regard  to  what 
disposition  the  company  may  have  made  of  it. 

The  principle  upon  which  the  New  York  Insurance  Depart- 
ment very  properly  requires  that  the  imearned  premium  liability 
shall  be  computed  on  annual  and  term  policies  is  one  of  equation 
of  dates.  An  annual  policy  written  on  the  first  day  of  January 
would  have  only  one  day  to  run  on  the  31st  of  December,  while 
one  written  on  the  31st  of  December  would  have  364  days  to 
run.  The  two  would  exactly  equate  each  other,  and  the  average 
earning  of  the  two  would  be  six  months,  or  one-half.    A  com- 


HYPOTHETICAL  BUSINESS  TABLE 


221 


pany,  therefore,  accepting'  business  through  each  of  the  twelve 
months,  for  an  equal  amount  each  month,  would,  on  its  annual 
business  have  earned,  at  the  close  of  the  year,  one-half  of  its 
premiums  on  annual  policies  and  a  pro  rata  portion  of  all  term 
policies. 

For  example,  the  earned  portion  of  a  two-year  policy  at  the 
end  of  the  first  year  would  be  that  proportion  of  the  premium 
which  the  equated  time  bears  to  the  full  term,  viz:  six  months 
to  twenty-four,  or  one-fourth.  Three-fourths,  therefore,  of  a 
two-year  policy  should  he  reserved  as  unearned  at  the  close  of 
the  year  in  which  it  is  written.  In  like  manner,  a  three-year 
policy  would,  in  the  year  of  its  issue,  earn  one-sixth,  or  that 
proportion  which  six  months  hears  to  three  years,  or  thirty-six 
months,  and  would  have  remaining  unearned,  at  the  close  of  the 
year,  five-sixths  of  its  premium.  A  four-year  policy,  in  like 
manner,  would  earn  one-eighth  and  have  seven-eighths  un- 
earned at  the  close  of  the  year;  and  a  five-year  policy  would  earn 
one-tenth  and  have  nine-tenths  unearned  at  the  end  of  the  year. 
Terms  exceeding  five  years  are,  of  course,  computed  on  the 
same  basis.  During  the  second  year,  the  remaining  half  of  the 
first  year's  writings  of  annual  policies  (in  addition  to  one-half  of 
the  new)  would  be  earned,  and  a  full  twelve  months  of  all  term 
policies,  viz.,  one-half  of  the  two-year  writings  of  the  previous 
year,  one-third  of  the  three-year  writings,  one-fourth  of  the 
four-year  writings,  one-fifth  of  the  five-year  writings,  &c,  &c. 
It  will  be  seen  in  the  case  of  a  five-year  policy,  that  it  is  not 
until  the  close  of  the  sixth  3Tear  that  the  company  has  earned  all 
of  the  writings  of  the  first  year,  there  remaining  unearned,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  year,  one-tenth  of  the  premiums  received 
in  the  first  year  of  the  six. 

Hypothetical  Business  Table.  The  following  table  shows  the 
progress  of  a  hypothetical  business  of  $200,000  per  month, 
amounting  to  $2,4(10,000  per  annum,  divided  as  follows :  $1,000,- 
ooo  of  annual  business,  $200,000  of  two-year  business,  $300,000 
of  three-year  business,  $400,000  of  four-year  business,  and 
$5<  K  »,<  K  M )  of  five-year  business.  In  actual  practice,  these  amounts 
would  be  diminished,  year  by  year,  by  the  cancellations  taking 
place,  from  various  causes;  but  omitting,  for  purposes  of  illus- 
tration, this  disturbing  influence,  and  assuming  that  the  bus- 
iness is  maintained  for  the  exact  amount,  year  by  year,  through 


222 


l '  N  B ARNED  I'KKMIUM. 


a  period  of  six  years — each  policy  being  renewed  bo  soon  as  it 
expires,  the  proportions  of  animal  and  term  business  being  the 
same,  the  acceptances  each  month  a  pro  rata  portion  of  the 
annual  receipts  and  divided  according  to  terms  of  policies  in 
the  same  manner — it  must  be  clear,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  table, 
that  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  year,  and  during  the  seventh  and 
every  subsequent  year,  the  amount  written  each  month  would 
exactly  balance  the  amount  expiring,  and  the  unearned  premium 
liability  would  remain  unchanged  at  the  close  of  each  3'ear,  an;1, 
indeed,  on  any  one  day  of  the  year.  The  writer  computed 
this  table  for  the  purpose  of  testing  the  accuracy  of  his  Tabic 
"B"  and  believes  it  will  present  interesting  features  for  the  con- 
sideration atid  study  of  underwriters. 

Let  us  assume  that  a  company  commenced  business  in  the 
year  1882,  receiving  premiums  of  $2,400,000,  divided  in  one, 
1  wo,  three,  four  and  five  year  policies  as  per  the  table.  At  the 
end  of  that  year  it  had  earned  one-half  of  its  annual  business, 
8500,000,  and  had  an  equal  amount  unearned;  it  had  earned 
one-quarter  of  its  two-year  business,  850,000,  and  had  unearned 
three-quarters,  or  $150,000;  it  had  earned  one-sixth  of  its  three- 
year  business,  $50,000,  and  had  unearned  five-sixths.  $250,000; 
it  had  earned  one-eighth  of  its  four-year  business,  $50,000,  and 
had  unearned  seven-eighths,  $350,000;  it  had  earned  one-tenth 
of  its  five-year 'business,  $50,000,  and  had  unearned  nine-tenths, 
$450,000.    Total  earned,  $700,000.    Total  unearned,  $1,700,000. 

At  the  end  of  the  second  year,  having  transacted  identically 
the  same  amount  of  business  in  each  of  the  terms,  it  would  have 
earned  the  remaining  half  of  the  first  year's  annual  business 
$500,000,  and  also  one-half  of  the  1883  business.  On  its  two- 
year  business  written  in  1882,  it  would  have  earned  a  full  year, 
$100,000  and  one-fourth  of  the  current  year's  policies,  $50,000. 
(  >n  its  three-year  business  it  would  have  earned  a  full  year,  or 
one-third  of  the  writings  of  1882,  $100,000,  and  one-sixth  of  the 
writings  of  1883,  the  current  year,  $50,000;  total,  $150,000.  On 
its  four-year  business  it  would  have  earned  a  full  year  or  one- 
fourth  of  the  writings  of  1882,  $100,000,  and  also  one-eighth  of 
the  writings  of  the  current  year,  $50, 000 ;  and  on  its  five-year 
business  it  would  have  earned  a  full  year  or  one-fifth  of  the 
writings  of  1882.  8100,000,  and  one-tenth  of  the  writings  of  the 


TABLE  A. 

(HYPOTHETICAL  BUSINESS.    $2,400,000  OF  PREMIUMS  ANNUALLY.) 

G)£ueci/t-ne&  tyrvmiuni  Sia&ilUH^. 
1st  YEAR.  1882. 


T£KM. 

PREMIUM. 

Earned. 

UNEARNED. 

i  Year 

*  " 

4  " 

5  " 

1 ,000,000 
200,000 
300,000 
400,00c 
500,000 

i 
i 

\ 

ft 

500,000 
50,000 
50,000 
50,000 
50,000 

500,000 
50,000 
50,000 
50,000 
50,000 

i 
1 

! 

a 

500,000 
150,000 
250,000 
350,000 
450,000 

500,000 
150,000 
250,000 
350,000 
450,000 

2,400,000 

700,000 

700,000 

1,700,000 

1,700,000 

2nd  YEAR.  1883. 


i  Y 


i  ,000,000 
200,000 
300,000 
400,000 
500,000 


2,400,000 


i 

i  of  "82 

i 

i  of  '82 

J  of  '82 
i 

i  of  '82 
ft  , 
jot  8* 


500,000 
500,000 

50,000 
100,000 

50,000 
100,000 

50,000 
100,000 

5O,000 
IO0.000 


1,600,000 


1,000,000 
150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
150,000 


r,  600,000 


i  of 

■83 

J  of 

•83 

iof 

'8a 

*  of 

"S3 

iof 

'82 

iof 

"S3 

iof 

'8a 

ft  of 

'83 

ft  of 

V.: 

150,000 

50,000 
250,000 
150,000 
350,000 
250,000 
450,000 

350,000 


2,500,000 


3rd  YEAR.  1884. 


1  Year 

2  M 

3  11 

4  " 

5  " 


1,000,000 
200,000 


500,000 


i 

iof 

i 

i  of 
iof 

iof 

iof 

i 

iof 
iof 

*  c 

io 
i°f 


500,000 
500,000 

50,000 
100,000 

50,000 

50,000 
100,000 
100,000 

50,000 
100,000 
100,000 

50,000 

100,000 

100,000 


1 ,000,000 
200,000 


250,000 


i.95c 


+ 

of 

■84 

500,000 

i 

of 

■84 

150,000 

of 

■83 

50,000 

of 

■84 

250,000 

j 

of 

'83 

150,000 

of 

'8a 

50,000 

of 

'84 

350,000 

: 

of 

250,000 

8 

of 

'8a 

150,000 

ft 

of 

■84 

450,000 

>\ 

of 

'83 

350.000 

ft 

of 

'8a 

250,000 

2,950,000 

4th  YEAR.  1885. 


Year 


5  " 


,000,000 
200,000 


500,000 


£  of 
i 

4  of 
i  of  '83 

iof 

*  of  '83 

l  Of  '8: 

iof 
i  of  '83 

i  Of  *82 

"  of  '84 
of  '83 
of  '82 


500,000 
500,000 
50,000 
100,000 
50,000 
50,000 
100,000 
100,000 
50,000 
50,000 
100,000 

100,000 

100,000 
50,000 
100,000 
100,000 
100,000 
2,200,000 


1,000,000 

200,000 

300,000 
350,000 

35°>000 
2.200,000 


i  of  '85 

500,000 

f  of  '85 
i  of  '84 

150,000 
50,000 

*  of  '85 

*  of  '84 
i  of  '83 

250,000 
150,000 
50,000 

iof  '85 
i  of  '84 
f  of  '83 
$  of  '82 
ft  of  '85 
ft  of  '84 
ft  of  '83 
ft  of  '82 

350,000 
250,000 
150,000 
50,000 
450,000 

350,000 

250,000 
150,000 

3,150.000 

3,150,000 


OTcrJ 


5th  YEAR.  1886. 


1  Year 

2  " 


4  " 


5  M 


1,000,000 
200,000 

300,000 


500,000 


i 

500,000 

4  of 

■85 

500,000 

i 

50,000 

4  of 

'85 

100,000 

iof 

•84 

50,000 

i 

50,000 

iof 

'85 

100,000 

iof 

100,000 

iof 

'83 

50,000 

1 

50,000 

i  of 

S5 

100,000 

iof 

'84 

100,000 

iof 

'83 

100,000 

iof 

'82 

50,000 

ft 

50.000 

iof 

■8S 

100,000 

i°f 

'84 

100,000 

i°f 

'83 

100,000 

iof 

'8; 

100,000 

2,350,000 

450,000 


2,350,000 


4  of 

'86 

i  01 

'  IS  6 

iof 

'S5 

|  of 

'86 

1  of 

'85 

iof 

'84 

iof 

'86 

t  01 

'85 

t  01 

84 

S  Ot 

83 

ft  °f 

'86 

ft  of 

'85 

ft  of 

•84 

ft  of 

'83 

ft  of 

'S2 

150,000 
50,000 

250,000 
150,000 
50,000 

350,000 

250,000 
150,000 
50.000 

450,000 
350,000 
250,000 
150,000 
50,000 


3,200,000 


500,000 


450,000 


1,250,000 
3,200,000 


6th  YEAR.  1887. 


000,000 
200,000 


3  " 


5  " 


500,000 


4 

4  of 

i 

4  of 

iof 

I  of 
iof 
iof 

i 

iof 
iof 
iof 

4  of 

i°f 
i  ot 
iof 
iof 
ft  of 


500,000 
500,000 
50,000 
100,000 
50,000 
50,000 
100.000 
100,000 
50,000 
50,000 
100,000 
100,000 
100,000 
50,000 

50  000 
100,000 

1 00, 000 
100,000 

100,000 

50,000 


1,000.000 


500,000 


4  of  '87 


2  of  '87 
1  of  '86 


I- of 
I  of 
*of 

I  of 
f  of 
I  of 
iof 

A  01 

A  of 

A  of 
A  of 
A  of 


500,000 

150,000 
50,000 

250,000 
150,000 
50,000 

350,000 

250,000 
150,000 
50,000 

450,000 

350,000 

250,000 
150,000 
50,000 


500,000 


450,000 


800,000 


1,250,000 


UNEARNED  PREMIUM. 


223 


current  year,  $50,000.  The  total  earnings  would  be  $1,  GOO, 000, 
and  the  total  unearned.  $-.2,500,000. 

It  will  Ik  observed  that,  during  the  second  year,  the  earnings 
on  one-year  business  are  equal  to  the  writings.  This  will  be  the 
case  thenceforward.  During  the  third  year  the  earnings  on  the 
two-year  business  will  also  equal  the  writings,  and  this  will  be 
the  case  thenceforward.  During  the  fourth  year  the  earnings 
on  the  three-year  business  will  equal  the  writings.  But  in  the 
case  of  five-year  business,  it  is  not  until  the  sixth  year  that  the 
earnings  equal  the  writings,  $500,000. 

The  Table  for  Computing  Monthly  Unearned  Liability.  This  table 
(see  Table  "B")  is  the  result  of  careful  thought  and  study  of  the 
conditions  of  the  hypothetical  business  above  explained.  It  was 
devised  by  the  writer  for  the  purpose  of  simplifying  the  work  of 
computing  the  unearned  premium  on  the  current  business, 
month  by  month,  equating  it  with  the  expirations  on  the  old 
table  of  policies  in  force  written  in  previous  years.  All  com- 
panies, probably — certainly  all  of  the  larger  companies — find  it 
necessary  to  classify  the  writings  each  month,  according  to 
term.  It  will  require  little  additional  labor  to  post  the  result  of 
a  month's  writings  in  the  proper  column  of  the  table  assigned  to 
the  month.  The  footing  of  this  column  will  show  the  progress 
of  the  unearned  premium  liability  and  enable  an  officer  to  de: 
termine  the  drift  of  the  company,  whether  in  the  direction  of  an 
increasing  or  decreasing  liability,  in  this  important  item.  The 
table,  moreover,  will  save,  by  division  of  labor  throughout  the 
year,  much  of  the  confusion  and  hurry  incident  to  the  accumu- 
lation of  work  at  its  close,  when  the  results  of  the  entire  business 
are  necessary  in  order  to  make  up  statements,  either  for  Boards 
of  Directors  or  for  State  departments. 

It  will  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  table  is  arranged  to  com- 
pute the  progress  of  the  Company  in  unearned  premium  liability 
in  accordance  with  the  New  York  State  law.  A  precise  com- 
putation of  unearned  premium  would  be  by  averaging  the  earn- 
ings of  months,  viz,  by  twenty-fourths.  For  example,  the 
annual  business  written  in  January  would  be  15  days  or  ^  un- 
earned on  the  31st  of  December;  and  February  business  2?j  un- 
earned. The  five  year  business  written  in  January  would  be 
TV()  unearned  on  the  31st  of  December,  etc.,  etc., the  calcu- 


■>■>  I 


I  NKAHXKl)  I'KKMIUM. 


lations  hv  fractions  hcing  more  easily  made  by  their  reciprocals 
or  decimal  equivalents.  The  New  York  law,  however,  equating 
each  year's  writings  as  six  months  earned,  is  practically  correct, 
and  the  computations  hv  months,  although  practiced  hv  a  few 
companies,  would  he,  in  the  case  of  large  companies  especially, 
so  laborious  and  expensive  in  clerk  hire  as  to  be  not  worth  the 
cost.  In  the  absence  of  any  abnormal  increase  of  the  business 
during  the  closing  months  of  the  year,  for  example,  the  equation 
by  yearly  writings  is,  for  all  practical  purposes,  accurate;  and 
in  case  of  any  abnormal  increase  of  business,  allowance  can 
easily  be  made  for  the  fact  by  any  intelligent  underwriter. 

Explanation  of  Table  B.  In  the  upper  left  corner  of  the  table  is 
inserted  the  unearned  tahle  of  the  Company  at  the  close  of  the 
preceding  year.  In  this  case  the  unearned  table  of  the  sixth 
and  last  year  of  Table  A  has  been  inserted.  The  amount  earn- 
able  during  the  current  year  in  this  table  is  obtained  in  the 
following  manner:  There  being  $500,000  of  one-year  husiness 
unearned  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  the  whole  of  it  will  be 
earned  during  the  current  year.  On  the  two-year  business  there 
heing  $150, 000  unearned  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  a  full 
year,  or  one-half  of  the  writings  of  1887;  viz,  $100,000,  would 
be  earned  during  the  current  year,  and  also  the  $50,000  remain- 
ing of  the  two-year  business  written  in  1886 — there  being  only 
one-quarter  of  the  writings  of  1880  remaining  unearned  at  the 
beginning  of  the  year,  the  first  quarter,  or  six  months,  having 
been  earned  during  the  year  in  which  it  was  written. 

In  like  maimer  in  the  case  of  three-year  business,  a  full  year 
or  one-third  of  the  writings  of  each  of  the  previous  years  will 
be  earned,  with  the  exception  of  1885,  in  which  only  six  months, 
or  one-sixth,  remains  unearned  at  the  beginning  of  the  year, 
the  remaining  one-sixth  having  been  earned  during  the  year 
1885.  And  on  the  five-year  business,  a  full  $100,000,  or  one 
year's  premiums,  will  be  earned  on  each  of  the  year's  writings, 
except  that  of  1883,  of  which  only  $50,000,  or  one-tenth,  remains 
unearned  at  the  beginning  of  the  year. 

In  other  words,  a  full  year  will  be  earned  of  the  writings  of 
previous  years  except  as  to  those  years  of  which  only  six  months' 
business  remains  in  force  at  the  beginning  of  the  year.  It  will 
be  seen  that  $1,700,000  premium  will  be  earned  during  the 
current  year,  1888,  and  that  of  this  sum  y1^,  or  $141,667,  will  be 


Table  B. 


TABLE  SHOWING  UNEARNED  PREMIUM  LIABILITY  EACH  MONTH. 


UNEARNED  PREMIUM  AT  BEGINNING  OF  YEAR. 

January  31st. 

February  28th. 

March  31st. 

April  30th. 

May  31  st. 

June  30th. 

TEAH 

TERM 

PREMIUMS 

Eamable 
During  Year 

Unearned  at 

Beginning 

Earned 

Unearned 

Earned 

Unearned 

Earned 

Unearned 

Earned 

Unearned 

Earned 

Unearned 

Earned 

Unearned 

IS87 
lSS6 
lSS7 
ISS5 
ISS6 
I8S7 
I884 
I8S5 
ISS6 
I887 
IS83 
18S4 
ISS5 
ISS6 
1887 

Long 

1  year 

2  " 

2  " 

3  " 

3  " 
3 

4  " 
4  " 

4  " 
4 

5  " 
S  " 
5  " 
5  " 
5  " 

1,000,000 
200,000 
200,000 
300,000 
300,000 
300,000 
400,000 
400,000 
400,000 
400,000 
500,000 
500,000 
500,000 
500,000 
500,000 

500,000 

50,000 
100,000 

50,000 
100,000 
100,000 

50,000 
100,000 
100,000 
100,000 

50,000 
100,000 
100,000 
100,000 
100,000 

500,000 
50,000 
150.000 
50,000 
150,000 

2y  >,u»i 
50,000 
150,000 
250,000 
350,000 
50,000 
150,000 
250,000 
35O.OOO 
450,000 

6,400,000 

1,700,000 

3,200,000 

141,667 

3.058,333 

283,333 

2,916,667 

425,000 

2,775,000 

566,666 

2,633.334 

708,333 

2,491,666 

850,000 

2,350,000 

WRITINGS  OF  CURRENT  YEAR. 

MOXTH 

PBEM. 
TTRJTTEX 

Eamable 
During  Year 

Unearned  at 
End  of  Year 

Jan. 

Short 

1  year 

2  11 

3  " 

4  " 

5  " 
Long 

83.334 
16,666 
25,000 
33,333 
41,667 

41,667 
4,l66 
4,167 
4,l66 
4,167 

41,667 
I2,500 
20.833 
29,167 

37.500 

Total  for  mo. 

200,000 

58,333 

141,667 

58,333 

141,667 

58,333 

141,667 

58,333 

141,667 

58,333 

141,667 

58.333 

141,667 

58.333 

141,667 

Feb. 

Short 

1  year 

2  " 

3  " 

4  " 

5  " 
Long 

83,334 
16,666 
25.OO0 

33.333 
41,667 

41,667 
4.167 
4,167 
4,167 
4,166 

41,666 
12,500 
20,833 
29,  l6- 
37.500 

Total  for  mo. 

200,000 

58,334 

141,666 

58,334 

141,666 

58,334 

141,666 

58,334 

141,666 

58,334 

141,666 

58,334 

141,666 

Mch. 

Short 

1  year 

2  " 

3  " 

4  " 

5  " 
Long 

83,334 
16,667 
25,000 
33.333 
41,667 

41,667 

4,1 66 
4,167 
4,166 
4,167 

41,667 
I2,5O0 
20,833 
29,167 
37.500 

Total  for  mo. 

200,000 

58,333 

141,667 

58.333 

141,667 

58,333 

141,667 

58,333 

141,667 

58,333 

141,667 

April 

Short 

1  year 

2  11 

3  " 

83.334 
16,666 
25,000 

41,667 
4,167 
4.167 

41,666 
I2,500 
20,833 

4  " 

5  " 
Long 

33.333 
41,667 

4,167 
4,l66 

29,167 
37.500 

Total  for  mo. 

200,000 

5S.334 

141,666 

58-334 

141,666 

58,334 

141,666 

58,334 

141,666 

May 

Short 

1  year 

2  *' 

3  " 

4  " 

5  " 
Long 

83.334 
16,666 
25,000 
33,333 
41,667 

41,667 
4.166 
4.167 
4,166 
4,l67 

41,667 
I2,500 
20,833 
29,167 
37,500 

Total  for  mo. 

200,000 

58,333 

141,667 

58,333 

141,667 

58,333 

141,667 

June 

Short 

1  year 

2  " 

3  " 

4  " 

5  " 
Long 

83,334 
16,666 
25,000 
33,333 
41,667 

41,667 
4,l67 
4,l67 
4,166 
4,166 

41,667 
12,500 
20,833 
29,167 
37.500 

Total  for  mo. 

200,000 

58,333 

141,667 

58,333 

141,667 

Forward-6  mos. 

1,200,000 

350,000 

850,000 

Deduct— (each  month)  CANCELLATIONS— to  dato— 
untxplrti  portion. 

200,000 

3,200,000 

400,000 

3,200,000 

600,000 

3,200,000 

S,  N.  I..  «  H  , 

3,200,000 

1,000,000 

3,200,000 

1,200,000 

3,200,000 

«   Ooduet-Aiaoh  month)  RE-INSI/RANCE—te  iati~ 
unexpired  portion. 

(over.) 

Brought  Forward— earned  and  unwarned  on  old  table. 


Brought  Forward— earned  and  unearned  on  wrltlngt  of 
turrent  year— January  to  July. 


PREMIUMS 

Earnable 
During  Year 

Unearned  al 
End  of  Year 

Brought  Forward. 
Total  8  months. 

1 , 200,000 

350,000 

850,000 

July 

Short 

1  year 

2  " 

3  " 

4  " 

5  " 
J.,  mi; 

83.334 
16,666 
25,000 
33.333 
41,667 

41,667 
4,l66 
4,167 
4,l66 
4,167 

41,667 
12,500 
20,833 
29,167 
37.500 

Total  for  mo. 

200,000 

58,333 

141,667 

Aug. 


Short 
I  year 


3 

4  " 

5  " 
Long 


83.334 
16,666 
25,000 
33.333 
41,667 


Sept. 


Short 
1  year 


3 

4  " 

5  " 
Long 


83,334 
16,666 
25,000 
33.333 
41,667 


41,667 
4,167 
4.167 
4,167 
4,166 


58.334 


41,666 
12,500 
20.833 
29,167 
37,500 


141.666 


41,667 
4,166 
4,167 
4,166 
4.167 


58,333 


Oct. 

Short 

1  year 

2  '* 

3  " 

4  " 

5  " 
Long 

83.334 
16,666 
25,000 
33.333 
41.667 

41.667 
4,167 
4,167 
4,167 
4,166 

41.666 
12,500 
20,833 
29,167 
37,5oo 

Total  for  mo. 

200,000 

58,334 

141,666 

Nov. 

Short 

1  year 

2  " 

3  " 

4  " 

5  " 
Long 

83,334 
16,666 
25.000 
33.333 
41,667 

41,667 
4,166 
4.167 
4,166 
4,167 

41,667 
12,500 
20,833 
29,167 
37,5oo 

Total  for  mo. 

200,000 

58,333 

141,667 

Dec. 

Short 

1  year 

2  " 

3  " 

4  " 

5  " 
Long 

83.334 
16,666 
25,000 
33.333 
41,667 

41,667 
4,167 
4,167 
4,166 
4,166 

41,667 
12,500 
20,833 
29,167 
37,5oo 

Total  for  mo. 

200,000 

58,333 

141,667 

Total — 12  mos. 

2,400,000 

700,000 

1,700,000 

41.667 
12,500 

20.833 
29,167 
37,500 


141,667 


991.667 


Une. 


2,208,333 
850,000 


58,333 


141,667 


August  31st. 


Earned 


1.133,333 

350,000 


58,333 


Unearned 


1,066,667 
850,000 


141,667 


58,334  141,666 


September  30th. 


Earned 


1,275,000 
350,000 


58,333 


58.334 


1,925,000 
850,000 


141,667 


141 .666 


October  31st. 


58,333  141.667 


1,800,000 


1,416,666 


58,333 


58,334 


Unearned 


1,783.334 
850,000 


141,667 


141,666 


58.333  '41.667 


58.334 


November  30th. 


'.558  333 


141,666 


2,000,000  3,200,000 


58,333 


58,334 


58.333 


58.334 


58.333 


1,641,667 
850,000 


141,667 


141,666 


141,667 


141,666 


141,667 


December  31st. 


Unearned 


58,333 


58,334 


58.333 


58,334 


5S.333 


1,500,000 
850,000 


58,333  141.667 


2,400,000  3,200,000 


Deduet-ieaeh  month)  CANCELLATIONS— to  dato- 
unoxplrod  portion. 


DiHutt-ieaoH  month)  HE-INSURANCE-to  dato- 
unoxplrtd  portion. 


EXPLANATION  OF  TABLE  B. 


225 


earned  each  month.  This  sum  is  entered  in  the  earned  column 
of  January,  and  in  the  unearned  column  of  that  month  is  in- 
serted the  amount  of  unearned  premium  liability  at  the  close  of 
the  month  obtained  by  deducting  the  $141,667  earned  in  Janu- 
ary from  the  unearned  on  December  31st,  $3,200,000.  In  like 
manner,  at  the  close  of  February  $28:5,33:5  will  have  been  earned, 
and  the  unearned  liability  will  stand  $2,916,667 — the  unearned 
premium  on  policies  in  force  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  de- 
creasing each  month  at  the  rate  of  $141,667  per  month. 

Having  carried  the  figures  of  earned  and  unearned  premium 
on  the  old  table  through  each  of  the  months  to  the  close  of  the 
year,  the  writings  of  each  month  are  inserted  in  the  small  tables 
to  the  left,  and  the  earned  and  unearned  premiums  are  carried 
into  the  column  for  that  month,  computed  on  the  basis  of  the 
earned  and  unearned  as  it  would  stand  at  the  close  of  the  year. 
The  footing  of  the  column  of  unearned,  each  month,  will  show 
the  unearned  premium  liability  as  of  that  date,  from  which 
should  be  deducted  the  unearned  premium  of  all  cancellations 
and  reinsurance;  the  cancellations  and  reinsurance  being  each 
kept,  month  by  month,  on  the  same  form  of  table. 

That  the  table  is  correctly  arranged  for  showing  accurate 
results  is  proven  by  the  hypothetical  business  which  has  been 
applied  to  it.  It  is  clear  that  a  business  which  has  completed 
its  sixth  year,  the  same  amount  being  written  each  year,  and  a 
pro  rata  or  one-twelfth  portion  each  month,  divided  in  the  same 
manner  as  to  terms,  would  show  the  same  amount  of  unearned 
premium  on  any  day  or  at  the  end  of  any  month  of  the  seventh 
year,  exactly  the  same  amount  of  renewal  business  going  on  the 
books  each  day,  to  balance  the  amount  of  old  business  expiring, 
and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  table  shows  the  same  amount  of 
unearned  premium,  $3,200,000,  at  every  point. 

In  case  of  delayed  reports  from  agents  or  other  causes  prevent- 
ing the  entering  of  the  entire  business  of  a  month  upon  the  table, 
allowance  can  be  readily  made  for  the  fact,  although  the  table 
will  correct  itself  when  these  reports  are  subsequently  entered ; 
and  as  all  outstanding  monthly  reports  of  agents  are  required 
in  June  and  December  of  each  year  the  adjustment  of  the 
figures  will  take  place  in  the  table  itself, 

Perhaps  a  word  of  further  explanation  is  necessary  to  show 
why,  in  Table  B,  a  table  designed  to  show  the  amount  of  un- 


226 


UNEARNED  PREMIUM. 


earned  liability  each  month,  and,  especially,  at  the  half-year 
period  of  June  30th,  the  business  written  in  the  current  year  is 
entered — earned  and  unearned — as  it  will  stand  at  the  end  of 
the  l/car,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  old  business  in  force  at 
the  beginning  of  the  year  is  entered  in  the  Table  as  a  pro  rata, 
one-twelfth  earned,  each  month,  of  the  total  sum  earned  in  the 
twelve,  which  would  show  one-half  of  the  total  earnings  of  the 
year  as  earned  on  June  30th.  Of  course,  in  the  case  of  the 
current  years  business  there  would  be  only  an  average  of  three 
months  earned  on  June  30th,  instead  of  six;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  of  the  total  amount  earned  dining  the  twelve  months, 
out  of  the  old  business  brought  forward  as  unearned  of  previous 
years'  writings,  a  greater  portion  than  one-half  will  be 
earned  on  June  30th,  the  difference  being  exactly  equal  to  the 
excess  of  earnings  claimed  for  the  current  business,  the  two 
thus  compensating  or  equating  each  other. 

This  arrangement  of  the  Table  not  only  simplifies  the  work  of 
entering  the  current  business  so  as  to  enable  the  Company  to 
make  the  computation  as  of  the  end  of  the  year,  for  the  annual 
statement,  but,  also,  economizes  the  time  and  labor  of  comput- 
ing the  earnings  on  the  old  business — which  would  be  a  much 
more  difficult  task — and  herein  lies  the  chief  merit  of  the  Table. 

Take  the  case  of  annual  business,  for  example,  written  in  the 
previous  year,  of  which  one-half  would  remain  unearned,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  new  year;  instead  of  one-half  of  this  remainder 
being  earned  June  30th,  for  example,  as  entered  in  Table  B, 
three-fourths  of  it  will  be  earned,  and  the  entry  of  it  as  only 
one-half  earned  exactly  balances  the  entry  of  the  current  annual 
business  as  six  months  earned  instead  of  three  months.  It 
should  be  remembered  that,  in  the  case  of  annual  policies,  the 
average  date  of  commencement  is  July  1st  of  the  year  of  writ- 
ing, and  the  average  date  of  expiration  is  July  1st  of  the  second 
year.  The  following  Table  will  explain  this  more  clearly.  Let 
us  suppose,  for  example,  that  an  annual  premium  of  $24  was 
written  in  each  of  the  twelve  months  of  the  year  1887  and  re- 
newed in  each  of  the  first  six  months  of  the  current  year  1888. 
The  average  earning  of  the  premiums  written  in  a  month  is  one- 
half  of  the  month,  or  one-twenty-fourth  of  a  year.  At  the  end 
of  1887,  therefore,  23-21  of  the  January  business  will  have  been 
earned  and  1-24  will  be  carried  to  the  new  year  as  unearned. 
In  like  manner,  of  the  business  written  in  February,  21-21  will 


EXPLANATION  OF  TABLE  P>. 


22? 


be  earned  at  the  end  of  the  year  and  3-24  will  remain  unearned. 
It  will  be  observed  in  the  table  that,  of  the  total  premiums 
written  during  the  previous  year,  ($288.)  one-half,  or  $144,  will 
be  unearned  at  the  beginning  of  the  new  year.  On  J une  30th 
of  the  new  year  there  will  have  been  six  months,  or  12-24, 
earned  of  the  writings  of  the  previous  year.  There  being  less 
than  12-24  remaining  unearned  of  business  written  in  the  first 
six  months  of  the  previous  year,  all  of  the  unexpired  writings 
of  January  to  June  30th  will  have  been  earned,  and  12-24  of  the 
writings  of  each  of  the  months  from  July  to  December  inclusive. 
This  will  make  $108,  or  three-fourths  of  the  amount  ($144.), 
brought  forward  as  unearned  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  in- 
stead of  one-half,  $72.,  the  difference,  $30.,  being  exactly  equal 
to  the  excess  of  earnings  claimed  in  Table  B  on  the  writings 
from  January  to  June  (inclusive)  of  the  new  year,  which  would 
be  entered  as  $72.  earned  instead  of  $36.  Of  course,  this  being 
true  of  "one-year"  business  it  will  be  proportionally  true  of  the 
business  of  other  terms.  This  simple  arrangement  of  Table  B 
thus  accurately  equates  the  old  business  with  the  new  and  saves 
tedious  and  unnecessary  calculations. 

EARNINGS  IN  FIRST  HALF  OF  YEAR  ON  THE  ANNUAL 
BUSINESS  WRITTEN  IN  PREVIOUS  YEAR. 


MONTH 
WRITTEN 

PREM. 

Earned  Dunng 
the  Year  1887. 

Unearned  at 
end  of  1887. 

Earned  in  First 
Half  of  1888. 

1887 

Frac'n. 

Amt. 

■  Frac'n 

Amt. 

Frac'n. 

Amt. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mch. 

April. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct, 

Nov. 

Dec. 

$  24. 
24. 
24. 
24. 
24. 
24. 
24. 
24. 
24. 
24. 
24. 
24. 

2  3 
24" 
2  1 
24 
1  0 
24 
1  7 
2¥ 
1  5 
24 
1  3 
24" 

1  1 
24" 

9 

24 

24 
5 

24 

3 
24 

1 

2  4" 

$23. 
21. 
19. 
17. 
15. 
13. 
11. 

9. 

7. 

5. 

3. 

1. 

1 
24 

& 

5 
24" 

7 
24" 

9 

24 
1  1 
24 
1  3 
24 
1  S 
24" 
1  7 
2T 

1  9 
24 

2  1 
2T 
2  3 
24 

$  1. 

3. 

5. 

7. 

9. 
11. 
13. 
15. 
17. 
19. 
21. 
23. 

1 

24" 
3 

24 
5 

24 

7 
24" 

9 
2T 
1  1 
24 
1  2 
24 
1  2 
24 
1  2 
24 
1  2 
24 
1  2 
24 
1  2 
24 

$  1. 

3. 

5. 

I . 

9. 
11. 
12. 
12. 
12. 
12. 
12. 
12. 

$288 

$144 

$144 

$108 

228 


UNEARNED  PREMIUM. 


Popular  errors  as  to  increase  and  decrease  of  Unearned  Premium 
Liability.  It  is  quite  common  for  underwriters  to  assume  th;tt 
the  unearned  premium  liability  of  a  Company  will  be  increased 
or  decreased  at  the  end  of  the  year  in  proportion  as  the  amount 
of  premiums  written  by  the  Company  through  the  year  are 
greater  or  less  than  the  writings  of  the  previous  year.  Under 
the  same  conditions — the  same  amount  of  premium  receipts 
divided  proportionally  in  the  same  manner  as  the  premium 
receipts  of  the  six  previous  years — this  would  be  the  case.  In 
term  policies,  however,  the  proportion  of  the  annual  receipts 
written  in  each  term  should  be  the  same  for  all  previous  years, 
as  to  policies  in  force,  to  secure  proportionate  results. 

As  an  illustration  of  how  fallacious  such  estimates  of  unearned 
premium  liability  may  be,  let  us  suppose  that  during  the  sixth 
year  (1887)  of  the  hypothetical  business  (Table  "A")  exactly  the 
same  amount  of  premiums  ($2,400,000)  had  been  written,  but 
that,  instead  of  being  divided  as  in  the  table,  it  had  been  divided 
as  follows: 

$1,300,000  of  one-year  business, 
200,000  of  two-year  business, 
270,000  of  three-year  business, 
320,000  of  four-year  business, 
310,000  of  five-vear  business, 

$2,400,000 

Computing  the  unearned,  the  problem  would  stand  as  in  table 
"C"  on  following  page.  Thus  showing  that  although  the  pre- 
miums do  not  exceed  the  writings  of  the  previous  year,  being 
exactly  equal  in  amount,  the  unearned  premium  liability,  in- 
stead of  being  $3,200,000,  has  been  actually  reduced  $116,000, 
and  at  the  close  of  1887  would  have  been  only  $3,084,000. 

Right  here  we  have  a  convenient  illustration  of  the  utter  un- 
reliablility  of  the  average  insurance  chart  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  the  comparative  conditions  of  Companies.  The  pre- 
mium written  by  the  Company  during  this  year  is  $2,400,000 
but  the  premium  earned  is  $2,510,000,  or  $116,000  more  than  the 
premium  written ;  let  us  now  suppose  that  the  losses  incurred 
are  $1,464,000 ;  the  percentage  to  written  premium  would  be  61$. 
Let  us  suppose  the  expenses  are  $960,000,  the  percentage  of 
expense  to  written  premium  being  40  <fo.  The  Company's  figures 
would  be  paraded  in  the  charts  as  follows:  Expenses,  40$; 


UNEARNED  PREMIUM. 


229 


o  o 
o  o 

<3  O 
10  in 


O 
O 
0 
Q 


o 

O 

O 

O 

o 

o 

o 

O 

o 

o 

O 

O 

O 

o 

0 

O 

O 

0 

o 

o 

O 

o 

o 

0 

o 

O 

o 

C5 

o 

0 

o 

O 

o 

o 

O 

cf 

o* 

o~ 

o~ 

o~ 

o~ 

d\ 

o 

Q 

6 

d 

4 

tsl 

10 

in 

00 

m 

m 

in 

I  - 

<r, 

m 

m 

in 

00 

M 

N 

CSI 

N 

Csl 

t^so        r^o  m 

CO  OO         CO  00  00 


r-  o  in  ~t 

oo  co  00  oo 


i^-so  m  -+  to 

00  00  00  00  00 


o 


o  o 

«Hi~h> 


O  O  O 

u"       X  -  —  - 


o  o  o  o 

i-tx«t»«|x-t» 


O  O  O  O  O 


o 

o 

0 

o 

o 

0 

0 

0 

o 

0 

o 

0 

0^ 

0 

0^ 

o 

0^ 

<D 

o" 

d 

in 

o' 

M 

o 

LO 

0 

ON 

Os 

oo 

M 

Csl 

Cs) 

to 

"* 

LO 

tf 

^- 

-  

o 

o 

O 

o 

O  0 

O 

o 

o 

0 

0 

o 

o 

o  o 

o 

o 

o 

•o 

o 

o 

0 

o 

o 

o 

0  0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

o 

o 

0  0 

o 

0 

0 

0 

o 

o 

o 

0 

o 

o 

0  0 

o 

0 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o  o 

0 

0 

0 

o 

0 

0 

o 

o 

o 

0 

O  lo 

0 

o 

o 

o 

o 

0 

o 

O  M 

o 

o 

0 

o 

o 

SO 

lo 

o 

LO 

o 

in 

0 

o 

in 

o 

o 

o 

in  to 

o 

o 

o 

o 

LO 

so 

m 

M 

M 

M 

M 

M 

<o 

M 

00 


SOLO       Olo^I-       SO    lo  -i"  to       SO    lO  "t  N 

0000        00O0O0        OO  00  CO  M        00  00  00  00  00 


o     oo      ooo  oooo 

— — |n  — |-f  —  (n  — hf        1»  — |k  r-iso— po  — H<  —H<  -+» 


o  o  o  o  o 


r  —l-         <-'Ci  j-'Vi  '- 


■■>:*<» 


UNEARNED  PREMIUM. 


Losses  incurred,  61  Total,  101  ^  of  premiums;  and  the  im- 
prcssii  in  conveyed  would  be  thai  the  Company  had  gone  bi -hi ad 
in  its  profit  and  loss  account.  On  the  contrary,  the  correct  state- 
ment of  the  Company's  business  for  the  year  would  be  as  follows : 

Premiums  earned,  $2,516,000 
Losses  incurred  (58}i</<,  of  earned  Prem.)  $1,464,000 

Expenses,  (38$  of  earned  Premiums)           960,000  2,424,000 

Excess  of  earned  Premium  over  loss  and  expense,  92,000 

showing  a  net  profit  on  the  Premium  account  of  ninety-two 
I  house  iid  dollars.  To  this  should  be  added  the  interest,  at  4% 
per  cent.,  on  the  unearned  premium  reserve,  $3,084,000  (less, 
say,  10  fo  of  premiums  written  for  premiums  unpaid,  leaving  an 
interest-bearing  balance  of  $2,844,000)  or  $127,980,  which  added 
to  the  excess  of  earned  premiums  over  losses  and  expenses  before 
stated  of  $92,000,  would  show  a  trade  profit  of  $219,980. 

Could  a  clearer  instance  be  presented  of  the  misleading 
character  of  tables  published  year  after  year  for  the  instruction 
of  the  public  by  compilers  who  do  not  understand  their  own 
statistics.  A  correct  comparative  table  is  one  which  shows  the 
earned  premium  of  each  company,  the  expenses  and  losses  in- 
curred, and  the  interest  at  the  average  rate  per  cent,  obtained 
for  the  year  on  the  unearned  premium  fund  after  deducting 
therefrom  the  unpaid  premiums.  Such  a  table  would  place  all 
companies  on  the  same  basis,  and  show  the  exact  trade  profit  of 
the  year  from  an  underwriting  standpoint.  It  is  the  only  basis 
on  which  companies  should  be  compared.  It  is  the  only  account 
which  would  correctly  show  whether  they  have  made  or  lost 
money  on  the  year's  transactions.  And  yet,  who  ever  saw  such 
a  table,  either  in  writing  or  print ! 

Now  let  us  suppose  that  the  business  of  1887  instead  of  being 
$2,400,000,  the  exact  amount  of  the  previous  year,  had  been 
$10,000  less,  or  $2,390,000,  the  natural  assumption  would  be 
that  the  unearned  premium  liability  would  be  less.  If  the 
business,  however,  were  divided  as  follows : 

$800,000  of  one-year  business, 

200,000  of  two-year  business, 

330,000  of  three-year  business, 

440,000  of  four-year  business, 

620,000  of  five-year  business, 

$2,390,000 


TRADE  PROFIT. 


231 


the  problem  would  stand  as  per  table  "D",  which  shows  that 
with  a  decrease  in  writings  of  $10,000  from  the  previous  year, 
the  unearned  premium  fund  has  actually  increased  nearly 
seven  times  that  amount,  or  $68,000. 

On  the  contrary,  owing  to  a  different  division  of  the  business 
as  to  terms,  a  premium  income  materially  larger  than  that  of  a 
preceding  year  may  actually  show  a  decrease  in  unearned  pre- 
mium liability;  for  example,  let  us  suppose  that  the  premiums 
for  1887,  instead  of  being  $2,400,000,  were  $2,530,000,  a  larger 
writing  by  $130,000,  divided  as  follows: 

$1,400,000  of  one-year  business, 
2(l0,()0o  of  two-year  business, 
270,000  of  three-year  business, 
360,000  of  four-year  business, 
300,000  of  five-year  business, 

$2,530,000 

The  problem  would  stand  as  in  table  "E": 

And  it  will  be  seen  that  while  the  premiums  written  are  $130,- 
000  more  than  for  the  previous  year,  the  unearned  premium 
liability  at  the  close  of  the  year  is  actually  $40,000  less  than  at 
the  beginning  of  the  year. 

It  requires  only  a  careful  examination  of  the  term  tables  to 
see  the  explanation  of  this.  Take  the  five-year  table,  for  ex- 
ample, in  the  last  mentioned  problem.  The  five-year  business 
written  is  $300,000,  but  owing  to  the  fact  that  $500,000  a  year 
had  been  written  in  each  of  the  five  previous  years,  one-fifth  of 
which  would  be  earned  in  1887,  the  earnings  (including  the 
remaining  tenth  of  1882)  would  be  $480,000 — an  excess  of  earn- 
ings over  writings  of  $180,000. 

In  like  manner,  the  earnings  on  the  three  and  four  year  tables 
exceed  the  writings  on  those  terms,  and  the  combined  gain  in 
earnings  on  these  three  terms  exceeds  the  increased  unearned  on 
the  one-j7ear  business,  the  difference  being  $40,000 — the  amount 
of  reduction  in  the  reinsurance  fund. 

These  illustrations  will  suffice  to  show  that  the  increase  or 
decrease  of  a  Company's  business  is  not  a  safe  test  of  the  con- 
dition of  its  unearned  premium  liability,  and  that  the  most 
careful  scrutiny  should  be  kept  of  a  Company's  business,  month 


2:32 


UNEARNED  PREMIUM. 


LU 
-I 
CD 
< 
I- 


00 
00 


cc 

< 

Hi 

> 

■H 


0 

0 

0 

0 

O 

o 

o 

o 

0 

0 

o 

o 

0 

0 

0_ 

0^ 

q_ 

o" 

o" 

lo 

lO 

CO 

00* 

0 

0 

C5 

to 

vO 

t 

t 

00 

N 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

0 

0 

o  o 

o 

o 

o 

O 

o 

O 

0 

0 

0 

0 

o 

o 

o 

0 

O  0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

O 

o 

q 

0 

or 

q 

q 

0_ 

0^ 

o  o 

0^ 

<q 

O 

q 

6 

d 

o" 

lO 

o" 

o" 

vo 

d 

d  d 

00~ 

0*" 

d 

o" 

cf 

oo* 

o 

LO 

I  ~ 

LO 

00 

LO 

VO  LO 

LO 

LO 

LO 

LO 

lo 

■o 

t 

i-t 

N 

ro> 

N 

LO 

CO 

M 

«l 

f*5 

O         Is*  O  LO 

00  CO         CC  00  00 


O    lo  -t 

00  00  CO  CO 


1^  O     LO  <*5 

00  CO  CO  CO  CO 


o  o 


o  o  o 


o  o  o  o 


O  O  O  O  O 


o 
o 

o* 
o 

Cv 


o 
o 

LO 

o 

fO 


oooooooooooooooooooo 
oooooooooooooooooooo 
oooooooooooooooooooo 


O  O  O  O  O  lo  o 

O  O  LO  O  LO  LO  O 
-I"  LO          M  - 


O  0  lo  O  o  o 
O   lo  lo  0    O  0 


0  N 
LOO 


o  o  o  o  o 

0   O   O   0  lo 


00 


VO     LO  VO  LO 

00  00         00  00  00 


VO    lo  -t  ro 

00  cc  CO  CO 


VO  lo  rO  £i 
CC  CO  CC  cc  cc 


o  o  o 


o  o  o  o 


o  o  o  o  o 


^(ri  tH»-^  H»  ^jo     H10  H*°  H*°  ^J- 


o 
o 
q. 
o* 
o 

JZ 


o 
o 
o^ 
o* 

ro 
fO 


0 

o 
o^ 
o* 


o 
o 
o 
o" 

VO 


UNEARNED  PREMIUM. 


233 


o  o 
o  o 

°.  ° 
d  6 

LO  LO 


o  o  o 
o  o  o 

°-.  °-  °~ 

10  0~  0~ 
m  lo  lo 

<M  M 


O  O  O  O 

o  o  o  o 
or 

ui  O*  O  0~ 

n    LT)  LO  LO 

ro  N  w 


~b  o  o  o  o 

o  o  o  o  o 

o  o 

o~  o"  o~  o~  o~ 

r^.  lo  lo  lo  LO 

N  rO  CM  M 


o 

0 
O 

d 


r^vO 

00  00 


<~~0  LO 

00  00  00 


t-~  -o  lo  -1- 

00  00  O0  00 


00  00  00  00  OO 


o 


o  o 


o  o  o 


o  o  o  o 


o  o  o  o  o 

,J=J=„JcrJ=J= 


o 
o 
o^ 

LO 

Os 


o 
o 
o 
o" 

00 


ooooooooooooooooooo 
ooooooooooooooooooo 
ooooooooooooooooooo 


o  ,  o 
o  o 
o  o 


o  O  O  O  O  lo  o 
o  o  lo  o  lo  o 

LO  «  -> 


0   O  lo  O 

o  into 


oooooooo 

OOioroOOOO 


O  O 

LO 


vO  "Olo  sOLOt  MOLorJ-ro  O  io  t  1  H 
00       0000       oooooo       oooooooo  oooooooooo 


O      OO      ooo      oooo  ooooo 

l-^N  — I*  t-^T  -jCC  —  |K  t-^SD^QO  f-^  — |-t  ~]X     I©  H»A  ^«  r-[>»  1« 

1—  1— 


o 
o 
o 

o' 
o 

«*5 


•2:5-1 


UNEARNED  PREMIUM. 


by  month,  through  each  department  of  its  territory,  since  a 
change  of  the  Company's  business  into  term  policies  in  any  one 
department,  might  be  seriously  increasing  the  unearned  pre- 
mium liability  at  the  very  moment  when  the  fact  that  the  total 
business  of  the  Company  was  not  in  excess  of  the  previous  year's 
writings  might  lead  its  officers  to  suppose  that  its  reinsurance 
fund  was  keeping  even  pace  with  its  income.  The  five-year 
business,  for  example,  although  less  than  the  writings  of  the 
previous  year  would  show  an  increase  of  unearned  premium 
liability  unless  an  equal  amount  had  been  written  in  each  of  the 
previous  years,  and  other  terms  in  proportion.  It  is,  therefore, 
only  in  the  case  of  an  annual  business  that  the  unearned  pre- 
mium fund  is  proportionately  increased  or  decreased  according 
as  the  writings  of  the  year  are  greater  or  less  than  those  of  the 
previous  year. 

Is  term  business  profitable?  That  depends  entirely  upon  the 
rate  obtained,  it  being  assumed  that  the  same  care  is  used  in 
selection  as  in  the  case  of  annual  business.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  inspections  are  naturally  less  frequent  on  long  term 
risks  than  in  the  case  of  annual  business,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  risks  do  not  come  up  for  renewal  annually.  For  this  reason, 
mercantile  and  manufacturing  risks  ought  not  to  be  written  for 
terms  of  three  and  five  years  unless  a  Company's  system  of 
supervision  secures  the  same  scrutiny  annually  as  in  the  case  of 
one  year  policies.  In  the  case  of  dwellings  and  farm  property 
of  permanent  occupation — a  class  of  property  not  liable  to 
change  in  use  or  occupancy — there  is  less  objection  to  a  term 
policy. 

The  operation  of  a  five-year  business  is  to  show  an  apparent 
loss  during  the  first  half  of  the  term  and  an  accumulation  of 
unearned.  An  examination  of  a  five-year  business  will  show, 
as  before  explained,  that  a  larger  percentage  of  losses  occur  in 
the  earlier  years  of  the  term  than  in  the  later  years.  Assuming 
the  loss  for  the  full  term  to  be  50  fo  of  the  premium  written,  for 
example,  it  will  be  found  that  this  50^  loss  will  be  distributed 
throughout  the  five  years  of  the  term  in  about  the  following 
percentages : 


PROFIT  AND  LOSS  ACCOUNT. 


•235 


16* 

in  the  1st  year, 

or  8  *  o 

24* 

2nd 

12* 

18* 

3rd 

9* 

17* 

4th 

8K* 

16* 

5th 

8* 

9* 

6th 

4K* 

100* 

50* 

As  the  earned  premium  of  the  first  year  is  only  j\-t  of  the 
premium  written,  and  as  16*  of  a  50*  loss  incurred  in  this  year 
would  equal  8  *  of  the  premium  written,  the  loss  in  the  first 
year  is  80*  of  the  earned  premium. 

Table  "F11  will  show  the  operation  of  a  five-year  business, 
taking  into  account  the  expenses,  estimated  at  37*  for  com- 
missions, salaries,  taxes,  etc.,  and  the  losses  distributed  as 
above,  viz: 

Earned  Prem.  Loss. 

Loss  1st  year  80*  of  earned  premium,  $10.00    $  8.00 


2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 
6th 


60  " 
45  " 

42M  " 
40  " 
45  " 


20.00 
20.00 
20.00 
20.00 
10.00 


12.00 
9.00 
8.50 
8.00 
4.50 


$100.00  $50.00 

Cancellations  between  the  first  year  and  expiration  would 
slightly  modify  these  figures. 

Of  course  on  a  term  business  extending  over  six  years,  the 
lower  percentages  of  previous  years  would  balance  the  higher 
percentages  of  later  years,  and  the  percentage  of  50  *  loss  to 
earned  premium,  carrying  policies  to  expiration,  would  be  main- 
tained by  the  average.  In  the  case  of  a  Company  commencing 
a  term  business,  or  of  one  unduly  increasing  its  term  business, 
however,  this  peculiar  feature  of  term  business  would  prove 
expensive. 

Profit  and  loss  account  of  a  five-year  business.  The  following 
table  "F"  shows  the  practical  working  of  a  five-year  term  busi- 
ness applying  to  it  the  feature  of  excessive  losses  in  the  earlier 
years  of  the  policies  as  above  explained.  Assuming  that  a 
),000  five-year  business  should  be  commenced  in  1888,  one- 


UNEARNED  I  KKMIUM. 


o 
o 

o' 

OO 


o 
o 

o' 

m 


t 


E 

3 

E 


O 

o 

o 

o 
os 

o 
o 
o 


o 
o 

O 

o* 
o 

o 
o 


o 

0 
(3 

o' 


o  o 
o  o 

lCoO~ 


rO  o 
>.oO 

x  o 


o  o 
o  o 
°.  0. 

oo" 

If) 

r!  c 


D  On  co 
i-  oo  oo 
Ph  oo  oo 


o 

—  ^ 
o  o 

f3  r/l 


tn 

rs  ■« 

—  [/] 

X  o 


o 
o 

<3 

o 


o  o 
o  o 
o  o 


oj  be 


>  1-1 


<U  O  Os  OO 
1-  Os  OO  00 
fL|  oo  oc  oo 


^  O    O  O 

\R, 

O    O  u-> 


X  o 


o  o  o  o  o 

o  o  o  o  o 

0_  O  O   0_  in 

t-»  do  cf  OsOC* 


u  C  S  3  3 

B  u 

D  H  O  CsOO 
1-    Cs  CsOO  00 

P_,  00  CO  00  >h 

IfcH  *»-t 

c  <—  c 

1*3  O    O  us  M 

>^oo  vo  -r  -r 

SI  S 

X  C 

W  - 


o 

o 

0 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

0 

0 

o 

o 

m 

o 

o 

0 

q 

°, 

sC 

0^ 

o 

o_ 

o_ 

o" 

rO 

CO 

d 

SO 

i: 

o~ 

Os 

Os 

f5 

to 

o 

o 

o 

0 

O 

o 

o 

0 

O 

o 

0 

O 

o 

o 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

o 

o 

0 

o 

o 

0 

0 

0 

0 

o 

0 

3 

<3 

o' 

6 

o" 

d 

o" 

o~ 

d 

o" 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

00 

0 

-pi 


o 


Osoo  E 

00  00  ° 

00  00  s^ 

H  M  -n 

'—  v.  •+ 

O  O  . 


O    OSOO  2 

Csoo  oo  sj 

00  00  00  s^ 

H     H     M  ^ 

U~>  "f 

O  O  C  . 

~  r^O  r^«3  r+O  — 


«  oo' 

K«  OO 

00 


rt 

>  CO 

T3  h 
C 


03 

«  o 

>H  Cs 
00 


OiH  Cs 


UNEARNED  PREMU'M. 


237 


tenth,  or  $10, 000,  would  be  earned  at  the  end  of  that  year.  The 
expenses  at,  say,  37  per  cent,  of  premiums,  would  be  $.'57,000. 
The  losses,  80  per  cent,  of  the  earned,  would  be  $8,000.  Total 
outgi >,  $4  5,01  M  > ;  total  income,  $10,000 ;  deficit,  $35,000.  The  un- 
earned premium  fund  would  stand  at  the  end  of  the  year  $90,- 
000;  from  which  deduct,  say,  10  per  cent,  of  premiums  written 
for  premiums  unpaid,  would  leave  $80,000  of  quick  assets,  on 
which  it  may  be  supposed  the  Company  would  receive  in  the 
following  year,  say  4%  per  cent,  interest,  $3,600.  During  that 
year  it  would  write  another  $100,000  of  premiums,  and  would 
earn  one-tenth  of  the  amount,  $10,000 ;  also  one-fifth  of  the  previ- 
ous year,  $20,000;  the  total  income  would  be  $33,600,  as  against 
an  outgo  of  $57,000  calculated  as  follows: — $37,000  for  expenses; 
losses,  80  per  cent,  of  the  earnings  on  policies  written  that  year, 
$8,000,  and  60  per  cent,  of  the  earned  of  the  previous  year, 
($20,000)  $12,000— Total  outgo,  $57,000,  as  against  $33,600  of 
income;  leaving  a  deficit  at  the  end  of  the  year  of  $23,400,  with 
the  unearned  increased  to  $160,000  and  an  interest-bearing, 
quick  asset  balance  of  $1 5(  >,  <  u )( I.  Of  course,  to  be  more  accurate, 
the  interest-bearing  balance  would  be  diminished  by  the  cash 
payments  for  losses  and  expenses  for  average  time  from  date  of 
payments,  but  in  table  "F"  the  five-year  business  has  been 
given  the  full  benefit  of  an  unearned  premium  fund  intact. 

At  the  end  of  the  third  year,  computed  on  the  same  basis,  as 
will  be  seen  by  the  table,  the  company  will  have  a  deficit  of 
$9,200.  It  is  not  until  the  end  of  the  fourth  year,  it  will  be 
observed,  that  the  account  begins  to  change  and  a  gain  of  $4,- 
500  of  income  over  outgo  is  realized.  It  is  evident  that  a  com- 
pany must  draw  upon  its  net  surplus  to  purchase  a  five-year 
business  for  the  first  three  years  of  the  term,  and  until  it  has 
sufficient  business  upon  its  books  to  reach  the  point  where  the 
earned  premium  and  interest  income  exceeds  the  loss  and  ex- 
pense outgo. 

It  will  be  observed  that  it  is,  therefore,  not  until  the  fourth 
year  that  the  company — aside  f rom  the  value  of  its  accumulated 
unearned  premium — begins  to  show  any  profit ;  and  whether  it 
can  show  any  profit  then  or  thereafter  depends  entirely  on  the 
adequacy  of  the  rate.  In  the  above  table  the  premium  is  com- 
puted at  a  rate  double  the  fire  loss.    If  the  rate  be  so  low  that 


238       TRADE  PROFIT  OF  A  FIRE  INSURANCE  COMPANY. 


the  fire  loss  is  above  50  per  cent.,  a  correspondingly  less  favor- 
able result  will  be  reached. 

Many  underwriters,  without  reflection,  fall,  not  unnaturally, 
into  the  error  of  supposing  that,  in  writing  a  term  business,  the 
company  has  an  advantage  from  collecting  the  entire  premium 
for  the  term  in  advance,  and  a  much  larger  amount  of  interest 
than  in  the  case  of  annual  policies.  This  assumption,  however, 
is  an  incorrect  one.  It  loses  sight  of  the  important  fact  as 
already  stated  that  as  the  premiums  of  annual  policies  are  paid 
each  year,  in  advance,  the  interest  account  is  but  little  less  than 
that  received  on  the  five-year  plan.  The  following  (written  by 
me)  appeared  in  the  New  York  Daily  Commercial  Bulletin  in 
March,  188G,  shows  the  fallacy  of  the  argument. 

It  seems  to  us  that  the  companies  making  an  effort  to  secure 
term  business,  especially  on  the  basis  of  two  annual  premiums 
for  three-year  policies,  and  of  three  annual  premiums  for  five- 
year  policies,  are  not  making  proper  estimates  as  to  the  interest 
account,  which  is  supposed,  in  the  case  of  term  policies,  to  make 
up  for  the  substantial  reduction  in  rate.  Companies  doing  a 
term  business,  for  example,  are  apparently  assuming  that  the 
interest  account  runs  only  in  favor  of  term  policies — at  least 
this  is  the  only  supposition  on  which  we  can  account  for  their 
readiness  to  accept  such  policies  at  the  material  discounts  from 
annual  rates.  While  the  risk  is  kept  in  force  for  a  term  of  five 
years,  by  annual  policies  written  each  year,  is  it  not  clear  that 
the  interest  on  the  premium  for  the  first  year,  the  first  fifth  of 
the  term,  is  secured  for  the  whole  five  years ;  that  for  the  second 
year,  for  four  years ;  that  for  the  third  year  for  the  three  years 
etc.,? 

Trade  Profit  of  a  Fire  Insurance  Company.  The  Trade  Profit  of 
a  Fire  Insurance  Company  for  any  given  year  is  calculated  in 
the  following  manner : 

From  the  Premiums  earned  during  the  year  are  deducted  the 
Expenses  and  Losses  incurred  during  the  year,  and  to  the 
remainder  is  added  the  interest,  at  the  average  rate  received 
during  the  year,  on  the  unearned  premium  fund,  deducting  first 
therefrom  the  unpaid  premiums.  An  illustration  of  the  problem 
will  be  found  on  pages  228  and  230.  Practically  all  of  the  in- 
terest income  received  on  net  surplus  of  the  Company  and 


I '  N  K ARNED  PREMIUM. 


239 


especially  that  on  the  unearned,  excepting  legal  interest  on 
the  cash  capital,  belong  to  the  "trade  profit  ;"  but  as  the  net 
surplus  is  the  accumulation  of  previous  years,  the  interest  upon 
it  ought  not  to  enter  into  the  "trade  profit"  of  a  single  year. 

While  it  is  not  the  practice  of  Companies,  owing  to  require- 
ments of  State  Departments,  to  take  credit  for  such  expenses  as 
commissions  paid  to  agents,  &c,  on  the  amount  of  premiums 
carried  to  the  unearned  premium  fund,  such  expenses,  paid  on 
unearned  premiums  on  desirable  business  and  at  adequate  rates, 
may  justly  be  regarded  by  the  Company  itself  as  a  judicious 
investment,  notwithstanding  their  exclusion  from  the  profit  and 
loss  account. 

Let  us  suppose,  for  example,  that  a  Company  writing  term 
business,  on  desirable  risks  at  full  rates,  should  increase  its 
unearned  premium  fund,  say  $200,000,  paying  to  agents  a  com- 
mission, at  15  per  cent.,  or  $30,000,  such  cash  outlay  might 
certainly  be  taken  into  account  as  of  the  nature  rather  of  an  in- 
vestment, being  recoverable  when  the  risks  have  been  carried 
to  expiration.  As  no  provision,  however,  can  be  made  by  State 
Departments  to  determine  the  value  of  such  unexpired  risks, 
any  expenses  paid  on  them  are  properly  excluded  from  an  asset 
statement. 

It  seems  incomprehensible  that,  to  this  date,  all  insurance 
charts,  department  reports  and  advertisements  of  companies 
persist  in  exhibiting  the  percentage  of  incurred  loss  to  received 
premium.  Indeed,  in  many  of  the  charts  the  columns  headed 
"Premiums"  and  "Losses"  fail  to  indicate  whether  the  compiler 
means  premiums  written  or  collected,  (they  never  mean  premi- 
ums earned )  or  whether  he  means  losses  incurred  or  paid. 
Surely  the  day  cannot  be  far  distant  when  all  reports  will  concur 
in  showing  what  alone  tells  the  story  of  a  company's  profit  or 
loss — the  percentage  of  incurred  loss  to  earned  premium  and 
expense  to  written  premium. 

It  will  require  but  a  moment's  demonstration  to  show  that 
absolutely  nothing  definite  can  be  determined  from  the  usual 
tables,  which  ignore  the  different  quantities  of  old  and  new 
business  and  of  annual  and  term  policies.  Let  us  take  a  sup- 
posable  and  simple  case  in  point.  Company  A,  with  a  business 
of  a  million  dollars  of  one-year  premiums,  at  the  end  of  a  term 


240 


UNEARNED  PREMIUM. 


of  four  years,  stops  writing  five-year  policies,  of  which  it  has 
taken  in  each  of  the  four  years,  five  hundred  thousand  dollars 
in  premiums.  At  the  commencement  of  the  fifth  year  it  would 
have  in  its  unearned  premium  fund  (not  taking  into  account  the 
small  percentages  of  cancellations)  twelve  hundred  thousand 
dollars  of  unearned  five-year  premiums.  During  the  fifth  year 
it  would  receive  one  million  dollars  from  one-year  policies,  and 
would  earn  four  hundred  thousand  dollars  of  the  premiums  of 
its  five-year  business,  making  a  total  earned  premium  of  $1,400,- 
000.  If  the  losses  incurred  during  the  year  should  amount  to 
seven  hundred  thousand  dollars,  all  the  wiseacres  of  the  business 
would  comment  upon  a  loss  ratio  of  seventy  per  cent,  of  its 
premium  receipts,  whereas  its  loss  ratio  as  to  earned  premiums 
would  be  only  fifty  per  cent. ,  and  it  would  be  in  an  exceedingly 
healthy  condition. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  Company  just  commencing  a  five-year 
business  might  show  a  larger  annual  income  and  a  smaller 
apparent  percentage  of  loss,  and  yet,  by  all  the  rules  of  arith- 
metic, be  actually  on  the  road  to  destruction  and  bankruptcy  at 
a  hand  gallop.  Let  us  take  a  case  in  point.  Company  B,  doing 
a  business  of  one  million  dollars  annually  in  one-year  policies, 
commences  a  five-year  business  and  secures  five  hundred  thou- 
sand dollars  of  premiums  on  this  class  the  first  year.  Its 
premium  receipts  for  the  year  will  be  $1,500,000.  If  its  losses 
incurred  are  $750,000,  all  of  the  aforesaid  wiseacres  will  express 
themselves  as  satisfied  with  a  result  which  shows  a  loss  of  only 
50  per  cent,  of  its  receipts  in  premiums;  whereas  the  portion  of 
its  premiums  earned — the  only  portion  which  belongs  to  the 
Company  and  not  to  its  policyholders — is  $1,050,000;  its  losses 
are  clearly  over  seventy-one  per  cent,  and  its  business  is  an  un- 
profitable one.  And  yet,  in  every  Insurance  Report  and  Chart 
throughout  the  country,  Company  A  and  Company  B  will  be 
compared  on  a  basis  favorable  to  the  latter  and  unfavorable  to 
the  former.  Could  there  be  a  more  stupendous  farce  than  this 
column  in  the  charts  showing  the  percentages  of  incurred  loss 
to  received  premium  as  the  true  test  of  successful  management ! 

An  instance  in  point  happened  within  a  few  years.  A  com- 
pany commenced  a  five-year  dwelling  and  farm  business  in  a 
certain  State,  and  received  fifty  thousand  dollars  in  premiums 
on  this  class.    Its  losses  were  only  seve  i  thousand  dollars,  and 


UNEARNED  PREMIUM. 


241 


it  was  held  up  as  an  example  of  intelligent  management  and 
successful  enterprise,  whereas  the  portion  earned  of  its  fifty- 
thousand  dollars  was  only  one-tenth  of  the  amount,  or  five 
thousand  dollars,  and  its  losses  were,  in  fact,  140  per  cent,  of  its 
premiums.  Making  all  due  allowance  for  the  well-known  fact 
that  a  large  portion  of  the  physically  and  morally  bad  risks  of 
a  class  burn  during  the  first  year  of  its  term,  the  company  in 
question  is  not  to  be  envied  its  task  of  carrying  these  policies 
to  expiration.  It  may  safely  be  assumed  that  if  the  losses  on 
the  first  year  of  a  five-year  business  exceed  90  per  cent,  of  the 
earned  premium,  the  rate  at  which  the  business  has  been  taken 
is  inadequate. 

Some  underwriters  rely  on  the  percentage  of  fire  loss  to  the 
amount  of  unearned  premiums.  This  popular  test  is  approxi- 
mately reliable  only  in  the  case  of  a  Company  at  least  five  years 
old,  doing  an  even,  steady  business,  and  not  materially  increas- 
ing its  term  acceptances.  Such  a  Company's  annual  losses 
ought  not  to  be  above  80$  of  its  unearned  fund ;  if  they  are,  the 
reserve  is  probabl}'  not  large  enough,  although  this  depends, 
as  before  explained,  largely  upon  the  manner  in  which  its  pre- 
mium writings  are  divided  as  to  terms. 

Ingenious  attempts  are  made  from  time  to  time  to  demonstrate 
the  unprofitableness,  in  the  past,  of  Fire  Insurance  as  a  business, 
by  tables  of  statistics  which  cover  the  business  of  all  Companies, 
and  in  which  the  compiler  is  careful  to  include  all  of  the  Com- 
panies who  have  lost  money  or  failed  through  mismanagement 
or  otherwise.  It  is  only  a  small  percentage  of  those  engaged  in 
any  business  who  succeed ;  and  it  is  as  unfair  to  the  business  of 
Fire  Insurance  to  include  in  tables  intended  to  show  the  results 
of  the  business  those  Companies  that  have  failed  for  want  of 
judgment,  knowledge  or  ability,  as  it  would  be  to  claim  that 
the  Dry  Goods  business,  in  which  such  houses  as  Claflin  &  Co., 
Marshall  Field  &  Co.,  and  others,  have  accumulated  fortunes, 
is  an  unprofitable  business  because  of  the  failures  of  thousands 
who  have  lost  money  in  that  calling.  It  may  safely  be  assumed 
that  the  business  of  Fire  Insurance  is  a  legitimate  business ;  the 
indemnity,  which  is  the  commodity  dealt  in,  being  a  necessity 
to  the  property-owner;  and  that  the  business  of  insurance  con- 
ducted by  expert  underwriters,  over  a  large  territory,  which 
makes  them  independent  of  the  fluctuations  of  prices  in  any 


•>  12 


PROFITS  OF  THE  INSFRANCE  BUSINESS. 


given  locality,  is,  and  always  will  be,  a  profitable  one.  If 
competition  should  result,  for  ;i  period,  in  low  prices,  the  sur- 
vivors of  the  contest  will  reap  a  harvest,  after  the  weak  are 
disposed  of,  which  will  bring  the  profits  to  a  fair  average. 

PROFITS  OF  THE  INSURANCE  BUSINESS. 

In  view  of  the  very  simple  process  of  determining  the  excess 
of  "earned  premium"  over  ''incurred  loss  and  expense,"  or  the 
deficit,  as  already  explained,  it  seems  strange  to  me  that  some 
State  Insurance  Departments  should  pursue  the  roundabout, 
tedious  and  unnecessary  process  of  reaching  it  through  the 
ledger  accounts  of  insurance  companies  reporting  to  them.  As 
well  might  a  grocer  go  into  quantitative  and  qualitative  analysis 
in  selling  sugar,  instead  of  weighing  it  upon  his  counter  scales. 

Anyone  taking  the  annual  Insurance  Report  for  a  State — that 
of  New  York,  for  example — can  quickly  determine  just  how 
much  any  company  has  made  or  lost  on  its  business  proper, 
irrespective  of  its  interest  income  account.  To  determine  the 
"premium  written,"  it  is  only  necessary  to  take  the  premiums 
received  during  the  year  and  add  any  excess  of  the  "unpaid 
premiums  in  course  of  collection,"  to  be  found  in  the  "Asset" 
paragraph,  or  deduct  any  decrease  of  this  item  at  the  end  of  the 
year  as  compared  with  its  beginning. 

For  example,  suppose  a  company  collects  during  the  year  in 
premium  81,000,000,  and  has  $200,000  "gross  premiums  in  due 
course  of  collection"  at  the  close  of  the  year  as  compared  with 
$100,000  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  its  "premiums  written" 
would  be  just  $1,100,000.  If,  now,  it  has  increased  its  "un- 
earned premium  liability" — a  fact  which  may  be  determined  by 
comparing  the  amount  of  its  reserve  for  "unearned  premiums" 
with  the  amount  at  the  beginning  of  the  year — the  excess  should 
be  deducted  from  the  written  premiums.  This  would  give  the 
"earned  premiums."  If  the  "unearned  premium  liability"  has 
decreased,  the  amount  of  decrease  should  be  added  to  the  written 
premium,  to  obtain  the  "earned  premium." 

For  example,  suppose  the  company  writing  $1,100,000  pre- 
mium increases  its  "unearned"  $200,000  as  compared  with  the 


UNEARNED  PREMIUM. 


243 


beginning  of  the  year  (This  it  might  easily  do  when  writing  a 
term  business)  its  "earned  premium"  would  be  $900,000.  If, 
however,  it  had  reduced  its  "unearned  premium  liability"  $200,- 
000,  its  "earned  premium"  would  be  $1,300,000. 

In  like  manner  the  "losses  incurred"  (and  these  may  be  more 
or  less  than  the  "losses  paid")  can  be  determined  by  adding  to 
the  "losses  paid"  any  increase  in  the  amount  of  "unpaid"  at  the 
end  of  the  year  as  compared  with  the  amount  unpaid  at  the 
beginning  of  the  year ;  deducting,  on  the  other  hand,  any  de- 
crease in  the  liability  for  "unpaid  losses."  For  example,  if  the 
"losses  paid"  are  $500,000,  and  the  "losses  unpaid"  are  $100,000 
as  compared  with  $50,000  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  the 
company  has  clearly  incurred  losses  during  the  year  of  $550,000. 

To  the  "incurred  losses"  should  be  added  the  "incurred  ex- 
penses," which  may  be  determined  in  the  same  manner,  by  add- 
ing to  the  amount  paid  for  expenses  during  the  year,  the  increase 
of  the  "reserve  for  unpaid  expenses,"  or  deducting  any  decrease. 

The  sum  of  the  two,  "incurred  loss"  and  "incurred  expenses," 
will  indicate  a  profit  if  it  is  less  than  the  "earned  premiums," 
and  will  indicate  a  loss  if  in  excess  of  the  "earned  premiums." 

Every  insurance  agent  can  easily  demonstrate  to  property- 
owners  that  the  rates  of  the  past  five  years  (1896-1902  have  not 
been  as  high  as  the  increase  in  assets  and  net  surplus  of  com- 
panies as  shown  by  statements  would  indicate.  The  increases 
in  these  two  items  have  been  largely  (in  the  year  1901  entirely) 
due  to  the  amount  received  for  interest  on  invested  assets,  and 
to  the  increase  in  the  market  values  of  securities  owned  by 
the  companies,  such  as  real  estate,  stocks,  bonds,  etc.  It  is 
quite  probable  that  much  of  the  unfounded  opposition  to  rates 
of  insurance  companies  and  much  of  the  burdensome  legislation 
imposed  upon  them  is  due  to  assuming  that  rates  are  exorbitant 
because  of  increases  of  surplus,  which  may  have  been  obtained 
entirely  from  what  might  be  called  the  banking  or  financial  side 
of  the  account;  and  the  companies  are  themselves  largely  to 
blame  for  this  natural  misconstruction  placed  upon  their  ad- 
vertised statements. 

Percentage  of  Expense.  The  percentage  of  expense  to  premium, 
when  intended  to  show  the  cost  of  securing  business  or  for  com- 
parison of  the  expense  ratios  of  various  companies,  should  be 


244 


PERCENTAGE  OF  EXPENSE. 


computed  on  the  premiums  written,  rather  than  upon  the  pre- 
miums collected  or  premiums  earned,  for  the  very  ohvious 
reason  that  the  expense  of  getting  business,  especially  in  broker- 
age and  commissions  to  agents,  increases  in  proportion  to  the 
policies  written  or  issued,  rather  than  upon  the  premiums 
collected  or  earned.  The  collections  for  a  given  year  may  not 
be  greater  than  those  of  the  previous  year,  whereas  the  amount 
written  may  largely  exceed  that  of  the  preceding  year — a  fact 
which  is  also  true  of  the  earned  premium,  winch  on  a  term 
business  may  be  much  less  than  the  written  premium.  All  of 
the  expenses  on  the  written  premium  have  to  be  charged  off, 
under  the  insurance  laws  of  the  various  States,  and  might,  on  a 
business,  as  already  explained  under  "Unearned  Premium,"'  in- 
dicate an  actual  loss,  whereas  if  the  business  purchased  is  profit- 
able, and  the  investment  of  advanced  commission  and  brokerage 
a  good  one  the  company  might  really  be  in  the  most  profitable 
condition  while  showing  a  loss  of  net  surplus.  It  would  be  as 
unjust  to  claim  that  a  company  had  lost  money  because  it  had 
thus  accumulated  unearned  premium  on  desirable  property,  at 
adequate  rates,  by  paying  for  it  in  advance,  as  to  claim  that  a 
farmer  had  lost  money  whose  entire  crop  remained  unsold  in 
his  barns. 


WATER  WORKS  AND  PIPE  DISTRIBUTION. 


(The  following  pages  have  been  printed  in  pamphlet  form  for  the  use  of 
citizens  contemplating  the  introduction  of  water  works.) 


The  best  system  of  water- works  for  fire-extinguishing  pur- 
poses is  a  gravity  system,  with  the  reservoir  at  a  sufficient 
elevation  to  ensure,  with  full  draught,  an  effective  head  or 
pressure,  at  the  hydrants,  of  80  lbs.  to  the  square  inch  or  not 
less  than  40  lbs.  to  the  square  inch  at  the  base  of  the  nozzle  with 
250  feet  of  hose. 

The  force  of  gravity  acting  with  an  ample  reservoir  differs 
from  pump  pressure  for  forcing  water  through  pipes,  in  the 
important  respect  that  it  is  always  ready  for  instant  use  without 
notification  by  means  of  electric  wires,  telephones,  etc.,  and  is 
not  liable  to  break  down  or  get  out  of  order  like  pumps  or  other 
direct  pressure  appliances.  It,  moreover,  exerts,  at  all  times, 
a  steady  pressure  on  the  pipe  system,  reducing  the  liability  of 
breakage  to  a  minimum.  A  gravity  system,  if  pipes  are  of 
proper  size,  has  a  decided  advantage  over  a  direct  pressure 
pumping  system  in  that  the  full  volume  of  flow  is  instantly 
available  without  waiting  to  fire  up  extra  steam  boilers. 

To  secure  an  effective  head  or  pressure,  the  reservoir  should 
be  elevated  about  200  feet  above  the  general  level  of  the  city 
and  near  enough  to  prevent  serious  loss  of  head  by  friction  in 
long  lines  of  supply  mains.  Such  an  elevation  is,  of  course,  not 
often  found  near  a  city ;  where  it  is,  no  other  system  should  be 
considered  as  a  substitute  for  pressure  purposes.  There  should 
be  two  force  or  delivery  mains  of  heavy  cast-iron  pipe  leading 
into  the  general .  network  of  pipes  within  the  city,  so  that  at 
least  one  pipe  will  always  be  available  in  case  workmen  are  re- 
pairing the  other  or  cutting  branches  upon  it  ;*  and  these  mains 
should  be  of  such  ample  size  that  not  more  than  twenty  feet 

*They  should  be  separated  by  twelve  feet  or  more,  so  that  one  breaking 
could  not  undermine  and  break  the  other. 


246 


WATER  WORKS. 


head  will  be  lost  by  friction  even  when  the  full  number  of 
hydrant  streams  are  in  play.  A  single  line  of  Supply  main  is 
especially  objectionable  if  of  the  so-called  cement  lined  variety, 
which  consists  of  a  thin  sheet  of  wrought  iron,  covered  with 
cement  mortar,  and  which  after  ten  or  fifteen  years  is  liable  to 
be  broken  by  rust  and  is,  at  any  time,  liable  to  be  instantly 
ruined  by  a  stroke  of  lightning. 

Four  important  but  simple  considerations  need  to  be  kept  in 
mind  for  understanding  the  dynamics  of  water  pressure,  or  what 
is  known  as  Hydrodynamics,  and  also  for  understanding  the 
science  of  the  flow  of  water  through  pipes  and  the  raising  of 
water  to  various  heights,  which  is  known  as  Hydraulics.  The 
science  which  treats  of  quiet  water  or  water  at  rest  as  in  a 
reservoir  being  the  science  of  Hydrostatics.  These  consider- 
ations are  as  follows: 

First.  Water  like  other  liquids,  exerts  equal  pressure  in  all 
directions,  owing  to  the  fact  that  its  molecules  move  freely  over 
and  upon  each  other.  Pressure  exerted  upon  water  in  a  hollow 
ball  with  numerous  perforations  would  expel  the  water  from  all 
of  the  perforations  with  equal  force.  This,  it  need  not  be  ex- 
plained, is  the  principle  of  the  hydraulic  press,  where  the  pres- 
sure of  a  small  pipe  of  water  exerted  over  a  wide  surface  shows 
the  same  pressure  for  every  square  inch  of  such  wider  surface. 
It  is  the  principle  upon  which  an  inch  pipe  inserted  tightly  in  a 
barrel  full  of  water  will  burst  the  barrel  when  the  water  reaches 
a  certain  height  in  the  pipe,  although  the  weight  of  water  in  the 
pipe  ma}T  be  trifling. 

Second.  Water,  like  any  solid,  has  a  known  weight  for  a 
given  quantity. 

Third.  Water  will  flow  with  greater  or  less  velocity  through 
pipes  according  to  the  pressure  exerted  upon  it,  which  pressure 
may  be  simply  that  of  its  own  weight,  due  to  its  elevation  above 
the  point  of  escape  from  the  stored  body,  or  the  pressure  exerted 
by  a  force  pump. 

Fourth.  Water,  like  a  solid,  in  motion  is  subject  to  the 
retardant  effect  of  friction  of  its  surface  against  the  surfaces 
rubbed  against.  Consequently,  water  flowing  through  a  pipe  is 
retarded  in  its  flow  by  the  friction  of  its  particles  on  the  sides  of 
the  pipe — what  is  known  as  "skin  friction,"  naturally  greater 
in  rough  interiors  of  pipes  than  in  new,  smooth  pipes. 


WATER  WORKS. 


247 


The  law  of  equality  of  pressures,  known  as  Pascal's  Law,  is 
as  follows :  Pressure  exerted  anywhere  upon  a  mass  of  liquid 
is  transmitted  undiminished  in  all  directions  and  acts  with  the 
same  force  on  all  equal  surfaces  and  in  a  direction  at  right  angles 
to  those  surfaces. 

The  pressure  upon  water  due  to  the  elevation  of  the  supply 
as  in  a  reservoir,  or  in  a  standpipe,  is  the  pressure  exerted  by 
the  weight  of  the  water  and,  therefore,  corresponds  to  its  height 
as  already  explained. 

Water  would  issue  from  an  orifice  one  hundred  inches  below 
the  surface  with  ten  times  the  velocity  with  which  it  would 
issue  from  an  orifice  one  inch  below  the  surface;  but  this  maxi- 
mum pressure  would  be  exerted  only  at  exactly  the  foot  of  the 
column,  i.  e.  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir.  If  the  pressure  should 
be  tested  at  any  point  distant  from  the  reservoir  it  would  be 
found  to  be  diminished  according  *to  the  distance  and  according 
to  the  size  of  the  pipe  conveying  it  to  that  distance,  for  it  would 
lose  head  by  reason  of  the  retardant  effect  of  friction  on  the  sides 
of  the  pipe,  which  is  greater  in  small  pipes  than  in  large  pipes, 
and  greater  where  the  flow  of  the  water,  or  its  velocity,  is  rapid 
than  where  it  is  slow  and  greater  also  in  rough  than  in  smooth 
pipes.  This  loss  of  head  is  known  among  engineers  as  the  loss 
by  "frictional  head." 

A  familiar  illustration  of  the  whole  matter  would  be  that  of 
a  barrel  full  of  water.  If  a  hole  should  be  bored  at  the  bottom 
of  the  barrel,  water  would  run  from  it  with  greater  force  than 
from  a  hole  bored  near  the  top,  the  difference  in  pressure  being 
due  to  the  weight  of  the  water  above  the  centre  of  the  hole. 

Obviously  water  would  flow  with  less  loss  of  pressure  through 
a  large  pipe  than  through  a  smaller  one  just  as  it  would  through 
a  three-inch  hose  as  compared  with  an  inch  hose  of  the  same 
length,  the  difference  being  due  to  the  greater  friction  in  the 
smaller  of  the  two  pipes. 

Liquids,  like  solids,  are  affected  in  their  motion  by  friction, 
as  already  explained.  The  inertia  of  a  body,  or  its  tendency  to 
remain  at  rest  or  to  continue  in  motion  unless  acted  upon  by 
some  force  is,  in  the  case  of  its  being  in  motion,  affected  by 
friction. 

The  head  of  a  body  of  water  at  rest  in  a  reservoir  is  known 


248 


WATER  WORKS. 


as  the  "static  head"  and,  of  course,  is  the  maximum  head  or 
pressure  which  it  would  show  the  instant  the  reservoir  is  tapped 
and  before  any  force  is  lost  by  friction  in  pipes.  It  must,  there- 
fore, be  always  greater  than  the  head  or  pressure  in  the  pipes 
at  various  distances  from  the  reservoir  and  always  greater  than 
after  a  number  of  streams,  like  hose  streams,  have  been  set  in 
flow. 

As  water  weighs  O'iA  lbs  per  cubic  foot,  hereafter  explained, 
this  fact  being  known,  the  ''head"  or  pressure  of  water  may  be 
ci mi j iiitctl  fur  any  point  when  the  height  < it  the  water  above  that 
point  and  the  intermediate  lateral  distance  are  known. 

For  example,  a  reservoir  80  feet  high  would  exert  a  pressure 
in  pounds  per  square  inch  at  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir  of  34.65 
lbs.  per  square  inch.  At  a  point  one  mile  from  the  bottom  of 
the  reservoir  the  pressure  would  be  reduced  I >v  the  loss  in  fric- 
tions! head  at  the  rate  hereinafter  explained. 

Any  discussion  of  water-works  for  fire-extinguishing  purposes 
would  waste  time  in  treating  of  those  matters  which  usualby, 
from  the  standpoint  of  potableness,  occupy  so  much  space  in 
engineering  works  on  hydraulics,  such  as  filtration,  etc.,  etc. 
It  makes  little  difference  by  what  means,  natural  or  artificial, 
by  springs  or  rainfall  or  water-sheds  or  pumps,  the  water  is 
impounded  at  the  elevation  needed.  If  ground  at  200  feet 
elevation  is  not  available,  or  if  the  elevated  reservoir  is  neces- 
sarily at  considerable  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  town,  so 
that  but  50  lbs.  pressure,  from  the  gravity  supply,  for  instance, 
is  available,  then  it  may  happen  to  be  a  decided  advantage  to 
have  the  supply  pumped  to  the  reservoir  from  some  neighboring 
river  or  lake,  for  then,  in  case  of  a  great  fire,  the  pumps  can 
supplement  the  reservoir  supply  by  direct  pumping  at  a  higher 
pressure.  The  pumps  being  connected  with  the  street  mains 
with  a  check- valve  to  prevent  backward  flow  to  the  reservoir,  a 
combined  ''gravity"  and  "direct-pressure"  system  would  be 
secured.  Where  drainage  or  water  shed  area  is  relied  upon, 
the  impounding  reservoir  should  be  of  sufficient  capacity  to 
supply  the  maximum  domestic  demand  and  fire  draft  during 
a -season  of  drought.  The  distributing  reservoir,  also,  should 
be  large  enough  for  several  days'  domestic  consumption,  and 
with  a  sufficient  reserve  in  addition  for  fire  purposes.    In  some 


WATER-HAMMER. 


249 


instances  distributing  reservoirs  are  large  enough  only  to  supply 
a  day's  average  demand  for  domestic  purposes,  and  a  break  in 
one  or  both  of  the  supply  mains,  or  stoppage  for  necessary 
repairs,  may  leave  the  city  w  ithout  water. 

Where  a  gravity  supply  is  insufficient  and  the  system  is  re- 
inforced by  direct  pumping  from  a  neighhoring  river  or  lake,  it 
should  he  remembered  that  while  this  reserve  may  be  excellent 
for  purposes  of  domestic  supply  it  may  prove  unreliable  in  case 
of  an  extensive  conflagration  unless  such  pumping  system  is  so 
arranged  and  managed  as  to  bring  the  reserve  plant  into  full 
action  whenever  needed — a  feature  of  such  duplex  systems 
which  should  always  be  carefully  investigated. 

Where  the  lay  of  the  land  does  not  permit  of  an  elevated 
reservoir  and  reliance  is  necessarily  placed  upon  direct  pumping 
systems  and  standpipes,  direct  pumping,  or  the  so-called  Holly 
system,  has  given  excellent  service  in  many  cases;  in  other  cases 
it  has  failed  to  respond  properly,  and  since  of  necessity  it  must 
depend  upon  some  device  to  transmit  the  alarm  of  fire  and  a 
notification  that  extra  pressure  is  needed,  and  relies,  moreover, 
on  there  being  a  surplus  of  steam  and  a  pump  capacity  available 
instantly,  it  cannot  compare  with  first-class  reservoir  service  in 
point  of  security. 

If  the  pumping  station  on  the  Holly  system  is  in  close  prox- 
imity to  the  city  (but  not  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  a  conflagration) 
it  is  more  reliable  than  when  several  miles  distant.  There 
should  be  duplicate  pumping  engines — three  would  be  better 
still — with  at  least  three  force  mains. 

The  pumping  station  should  be  connected  electrically  with  the 
Fire  Department,  so  that  when  an  alarm  of  fire  is  received  at 
the  engine-house  the  intelligence  will  reach  the  pumping  station 
at  the  same  moment. 

Water-hammer.  There  should  be  a  liberal  distribution  of  relief 
valves  to  prevent  water-hammer. 

The  simplest  method  of  preventing  shocks  of  water  pipes  or 
what  is  known  as  "water-hammer,"  according  to  Prof.  Thurston, 
of  Cornell  University,  is  to  introduce  devices  compelling  the 
slow  opening  and  closing  of  valves  and  cocks.  For  this  purpose, 
he  contends,  the  time  required  to  close  the  valve  would  be  pro- 
portional to  the  length  of  tne  pipes.    Air  chambers,  if  placed  in 


■.'.-><■ 


W  ATER  WORKS. 


the  line  of  the  pipe  near  the  valve,  will  prevent  the  shock  almost 
entirely,  but  it  is  difficult  to  keep  them  filled  with  air.  If  a 
safety-valve  is  placed  upon  the  pipe  to  resist  the  pressure  it 
leaves  a  shock  depending  upon  the  strength  of  the  spring. 

Head  or  Pressure.  The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water,  (7% 
gallons*)  the  equivalent  of  a  column  of  water  1 2  inches  square 
and  12  inches  high,  would  be  62.4lbs.  This  divided  by  144  (the 
number  of  square  inches  in  the  base  of  the  column)  would  give 
a  pressure  of  .433  lbs.,  or  nearly  %  lb.  per  square  inch  of  base 
surface  for  each  foot  of  vertical  depth,  which,  if  the  loss  by 
"frictional  head"  hereafter  explained,  be  say  15  feet,  would 
yield,  for  a  "static  head"  of  200  feet,  an  "effective  head"  or 
pressure  of  18G  feet  at  the  hydrant,  or  say  80  lbs.  (186  X  .433)  to 
the  square  inch.  The  effective  head  for  fire  purposes  in  the 
absence  of  steamers,  whether  reliance  is  placed  upon  the  '  'direct 
pressure"  system  or  a  gravity  reservoir  system,  should  be  at  least 
40  pounds  per  square  inch  at  the  base  of  the  nozzle,  and  the 
static  hydrant  pressure  must  be  enough  greater  to  allow  for 
friction  in  the  pipes  and  for  friction  in  the  hose. 

This  pressure  of  4a  lbs.  will  force  a  \%  inch  stream  for  ef- 
fective work  to  the  top  of  a  four-story  building  of  usual  height 
— say  60  feet- — and  from  230  to  300  gallons  per  minute  will  be 
discharged.  A  1^  inch  nozzle  under  like  pressure  would  dis- 
charge 20$  more,  but  a  \%,  inch  nozzle  is  usually  regarded  as 
the  most  practical  for  general  use.  To  force  the  main  body  of 
a  1)4,  inch  stream  80  feet  vertically  would  require  a  pressure  of 
the  main  body  of  50  pounds  per  square  inch  or  a  head  of  about 
130  feet  at  the  nozzle.  The  extreme  drops  may  go  40$  higher, 
but  could  not  put  out  any  noteworthy  fire  at  that  elevation. 
And  we  may  here  remark  that  the  height  and  distance  reached 
by  fire  streams  as  measured  at  firemen's  musters  are  sometimes 
wholly  misleading  as  applied  to  practical  work,  for  in  such  cases 
they  measure  the  extreme  point  touched  by  the  farthest  drop. 

Among  firemen  and  engine  men  pressure  is  commonly  stated 
in  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  following  table  gives  the  equiva- 
lent in  pounds  per  square  inch  of  pressure  stated  in  feet  head  or 
vertical  height  of  an  equivalent  water  column  in  feet.  It  will 
be  observed  that  the  popular  estimate  that  two  feet  of  head  are 

*One  cubic  foot  of  water=7.48  U.  S.  gallons. 


HEAD  OR  PRESSURE. 


251 


equal  to  one  pound  of  pressure  will  lead  to  serious  error;  for  in- 
stance, on  that  basis  80  pounds  hydrant  pressure  would  call  for 
only  160  feet  head,  whereas  it  would  actually  need  an  elevation 
of  185  feet  of  water  column  to  produce  the  same  pressure. 
Eighty  pounds,  or  1 85  feet  head,  at  the  h ydrant  may  he  regarded 
as  the  least  pressure  giving  strictly  good  fire  service,  and  with 
this  head  it  is  still  imperative  that  the  pipe  be  large  enough  so 
that  this  pressure  will  not  be  drawn  down  greatly  when  fire 
streams  are  flowing.  A  few  feet  less  would  make  the  difference 
between  a  good  fire  department  and  an  inefficient  one. 

The  friction  in  300  feet  length  of  the  best  and  smoothest  hose 
will  absorb  about  one-half  of  the  available  fire  pressure  at  the 
hydrant.* 

TABLE  FOR  CONVERTING  PRESSURE  GIVEN  IN  FEET  HEAD  OF 
WATER  INTO  PRESSURE  IN  POUNDS  PER  SQUARE  INCH. 


Feel  Head. 

Pounds  per  Square  Inch. 

1  Ft. 

0.43 

5  " 

2.17 

10  " 

4.33 

15  " 

6.50 

20  " 

8.66 

30  " 

12.99 

40  " 

17.32 

50  " 

21.65 

60  " 

25.99 

70  " 

30.32 

80  " 

34.65 

TABLE    FOR    CONVERTING    PRESSURE    GIVEN   IN    POUNDS  PER 
SQUARE  INCH  INTO  FEET  HEAD  OF  WATER. 


Pounds  per  Square  Inch.  Feet  Head. 


1 

Lbs. 

2.31 

10 

23.09 

20 

1 . 

46.18 

'40 

1 1 

92.36 

50 

£  i 

115.45 

60 

(  I 

138.54 

70 

i  I 

161.63 

80 

I  i 

184.72 

100 

U 

230.90 

*This  loss  may  be  reduced  by  Siamesing  two  lines  of  hose  into  one  nozzle, 
which  would  save  a  large  proportion  of  the  pressure  usually  wasted  in  friction 
between  the  hydrant  and  the  nozzle. 


252 


WATER  WORKS. 


Test  of  Water  Pressure.  The  head  exhibited  by  a  pressure 
gauge  attached  to  a  hydrant  or  to  a  fire  pipe  within  a  building 
may  often  be  very  misleading  as  to  the  pressure  available  for 
projecting  ;i  fire  stream  from  a  hose  nozzle.  There  are  towns 
where  the  static  pressure,  or  pressure  with  the  water  at  rest, 
may  be  90  pounds  per  square  inch,  but  if  two  hose  streams  be 
put  in  play  the  pressure  will  be  pulled  down  to  1  ~>  or  2U  pounds 
per  square  inch  or  scarcely  sufficient  to  send  water  into  a  second 
story  window.  In  one  such  instance  the  town  had  a  gravity 
supply  from  a  reservoir  about  five  miles  distant,  and  it  was  the 
friction  in  this  long  line  which  made  the  hydrant  pressure  practi- 
cally worthless  when  sufficient  water  for  one  or  two  good  fire 
streams  was  added  to  the  domestic  consumption.  In  many 
towns  the  result  of  drawing  simultaneously  half  a  dozen  fire 
streams  from  the  public  mains  is  never  found  out  until  a  dis- 
astrous conflagration  occurs.  Both  citizens  and  underwriters, 
relying  upon  the  static  pressure  without  taking  the  trouble  to 
investigate  what  the  flowing  pressure  will  be  when  a  large 
number  of  streams  are  drawn,  learn  of  the  inadequacy  of  the 
fire  department  only  after  millions  of  dollars  have  been  de- 
stroyed. 

No  general  statement  can  be  made  as  to  the  amount  of  the 
loss  of  pressure  by  friction  per  mile  of  pipe,  although  it  can  1  ><  ■ 
readily  computed  for  any  particular  case.  At  the  present  day 
there  is  little  excuse  for  ignorance  of  these  matters,  when  a 
practical  test  by  a  number  of  fire  streams  at  once  will  answer 
the  whole  question  in  so  certain  and  satisfactory  a  manner. 
Engineering  science  is  competent  to  answer  questions  as  to 
pressure  when'  a  diagram  showing  the  length  and  diameters  of 
the  pipes  and  their  condition  regarding  rust  is  at  hand,  but  the 
practical  test  is  more  convincing  and  reliable.  The  best  test, 
therefore,  of  effective  pressure  of  hydrants  for  any  city  level  is 
to  attach  Hues  of  hose  and  turn  on  the  water;  and  this  is  the 
test  which  inspectors  of  water-works  and  underwriters  fixing 
rates  and  hydrant  deductions  for  any  section  should,  in  my  judg- 
ment, rely  upon. 

Frictional  Head.  What  is  known  as  the  "static  head,"  or  the 
head  of  a  body  of  quiet  water  at  rest,  as  stated,  is  diminished 
by  the  "frictional  head'*  or  loss  of  pressure  from  friction  in 


TEST  OF  WATER  PRESSURE,  ETC. 


253 


flowing  through  the  pipes,  which  increases  proportionally  to 
the  square  of  the  velocity  of  the  water  and  is  increased  greatly, 
also,  by  the  smallness,  roughness  or  tuberculation  of  pipes.  For 
a  similar  reason  pipes,  where  located  in  undulating  ground, 
causing  the  collection  of  sediment,  should  be  "blown  off" 
frequently. 

"Dead  ends"  should  be  avoided,  if  possible,  by  completing 
the  parallelograms  and  connecting  the  ends  by  an  additional 
sub-main  or  pipe — a  comparatively  inexpensive  precaution  in 
the  line  of  a  true  economy,  since  the  growth  of  a  city  would 
eventually  require  such  additional  pipe.  It  is  not  always  possible 
to  connect  dead  ends  by  cross  sections  of  pipe  to  complete  paral- 
lelograms, since  the  uneven  growth  of  a  city  may  carry  one  main 
for  blocks  beyond  parallel  mains,  and  there  must  of  necessity, 
therefore,  be  some  dead  ends  in  such  a  system.  In  the  city 
of  Detroit  an  admirable  system  is  followed,  that  of  placing  a 
cistern  at  the  end  of  each  street  where  water  pipes  are  laid. 
This  reservoir  serves  not  only  as  a  "blow  off"  for  the  main,  but 
enables  the  engines  to  do  effective  service  by  pumping  from  the 
reservoir,  which  they  could  not  do  from  a  hydrant  on  such  a  dead 
end,  as  with  the  latter  they  would  soon  "run  away"  from  the 
water  in  the  main. 

Loss  of  Head  per  1000  Feet.  There  is  a  material  loss  of 
"head"  whare  the  water  main  is  not  of  proper  capacity  and 
where  the  water  has  to  travel  great  distances.  The  loss  of  head 
for  each  thousand  feet  of  travel,  in  a  new,  straight,  clean,  water 
main  14  inches  in  diameter,  is  about  7%  feet  per  thousand  feet 
of  length  of  pipe,  the  velocity  of  flow  being  5  feet  per  second,  or 
say  a  loss  of  40  feet  head  per  mile.  Pipes  are  seldom  or  never 
laid  straight,  and  they  do  not  long  remain  new  and  free  of  rust, 
and  where  the  reservoir  is,  say,  two  miles  distant  from  the  oper- 
ating hydrant  it  may  safely  be  assumed  that  if  the  domestic 
draft,  plus  the  fire  draft,  amounts,  at  any  moment,  to  2400 
gallons  per  minute,  then  even  with  a  nearly  new  pipe  the  pres- 
sure at  the  hydrant  will  be  at  least  a  hundred  feet  less  head,  or 
fully  4:>  pounds  less  pressure,  than  at  the  reservoir. 

"  The  rule  that  the  loss  of  head  by  friction  is  proportional  to  the  square  of  the 
velocity,  applies  not  only  to  a  simple  pipe,  but  is  substantially  true  for  com- 
binations of  pipes  of  different  sizes  joined  either  by  taper  reducers  or  by  sudden 
contractions,  or  for  pipes  containing  obstructions  and  curves.  It  is  also  useful 
to  keep  in  mind  that  for  cases  of  a  pipe  system  in  combination  with  a  discharg- 


254 


WATER  WORKS. 


ing  orifice  or  with  a  series  of  discharging  orifices,  so  long  its  all  the  discharging 
orifices  lie  at  substantially  the  same  elevation,  the  opposite  of  the  above  pro- 
position is  true  and  of  wide  application:  viz.,  the  quantity  discharged  through  a 
given  pipe  system  and  the  orifices  in  connection  therewith  is  very  nearly  proportional 
to  the  square  root  of  the  pressure  measured  at  any  convenient  point  anywhere 
along  the  pipe  system,  providing  the  pressure  !»•  reckoned  from  the  level  of 
the  orifices." 

Capacity  or  Relative  Discharge  of  Pipes.  There  is  ;i  popular 
misapprehension  among  mechanics  in  supposing  that  the  carry- 
ing capacity  of  a  pipe  increases  exactly  in  proportion  to  its  area 
or  to  the  square  of  its  diameter.  Really  the  carrying  capacity 
increases  faster  than  this,  by  reason  of  the  lessened  influence  of 
skin  friction  in  a  larger  pipe,  or,  stated  in  mathematical  lan- 
guage, the  capacity  to  convey  water  is  proportional  to  the 
square  root  of  the  fifth  power  of  tlie  diameter. 

For  example,  the  relative  capacity  of  a  5-inch  pipe  as  com- 
pared with  a  10-inch  pipe  would  be  in  the  proportion  that  the 
square  root  of  the  fifth  power  of  5  inches  (55.9)  is  to  the  square 
root  of  the  fifth  power  of  10  inches  (316.23.)  In  other  words, 
the  discharge  of  a  Kt-inch  pipe,  instead  of  being  double,  would 
be  nearly  six  times  that  of  a  5-inch  pipe. 

The  following  table  and  those  commonly  given  in  the  text-books 
for  friction  loss  in  pipes  are  apt  to  be  misleading  for  the  reason 
that  they  state  the  friction  loss  per  hundred  feet  in  new,  clean 
pipe.  The  actual  loss  in  practice  will  often  be  found  double  the 
loss  as  tabulated  for  new,  clean  pipe,  by  reason  of  the  bunches 
of  rust  which  forms  on  the  interior  surface  even  of  the  best  pipe 
with  nearly  all  waters.  Careful  experiments  on  corroded  pipe 
as  compared  with  clean  pipe  have  shown  that  a  very  moderate 
amount  of  corrosion  will  nearly  double  the  f  rictional  loss,  and  to 
prepare  the  table  on  page  256,  the  frictional  loss  as  stated  in  the 
excellent  and  convenient  table  prepared  by  Mr.  Edmund  B. 
Weston,  Civil  Engineer  in  charge  of  the  Water  Supply  of 
Providence,  R.  I. ,  has  been  doubled. 


CAPACITY  OR  RELATIVE  DISCHARGE  OF  PIPES.  255 


TABLE    SHOWING    CAPACITY    OR    DISCHARGE    OF    PIPES  OF 
DIFFERENT  DIAMETERS  FOR  VARIOUS  VELOCITIES  OF 
FLOW  AND  FRICTIONAL  HEAD  IN  FEET  PER 


1000  FEET  OF  LENGTH, 

for  new.  clean,  straight  pipe. 


Diameter 
op  pipe  in 

Velocity 
op  plow  in 

LOSS  BY  FRICTIONAL 
HEAD  PER  1CO0  FEET  L'TH. 

CAPACITY  OR  DISCHARGE 

INCHES. 

FEET  PER 

SECOND. 

IN  FEET 
III  W> 

IN  LBS.  PER 
SQ.  INCH. 

IN  GALLONS 
PER  MIN. 

IN  GALLONS  PER 
DAY  (24  HOURS. ) 

4 
6 

3 
4 

3 

A 
~t 

10 

1  7 
1 1 

7 

11 

4.33 
7  31 

3.01 
4.76 

113 

1  OKJ 

260 
340 

165,000 

l  o,  \j\J\ ' 

375,000 
485,000 

8 
10 

3 
4 
3 

A 
•± 

5.4 

g 

4 

iy 
t 

2.32 

•).Ol 

1.73 
30.1 

490 

750 
975 

700,000 

1,075,000 
1,450,000 

12 
14 

3 
5 
3 

0 

3 

Q 

y 
3 

7.3 

1.29 

o.iS  I 
1.29 
3.14 

1,050 

1    Q  A  A 
1 ,  800 

1,500 
2,400 

1,500,000 
4,  oUO,OUO 

2,150,000 
3,500,000 

16 
18 

3 
5 
3 
5 

2.5 

6 
2 

5.5 

1.07 
2.58 
.86 
2.36 

1,875 
3,200 
2,400 
4,100 

2,700,000 
4.600,000 
3,500,000 
5,925,000 

20 
24 

3 
6 
3 
5 

1.7 
7 

1.3 
4 

.73 
3.01 

.56 
1.73 

3,000 
6,000 
4,125 
7,125 

4,300,000 
8,600.000 
5,900,000 
10,240,000 

36 

6 

6 
8 

5.5 
1 
3 

5.6 

2.36 
.43 
1.29 
2.40 

8,625 
11,250 
19,000 
27,250 

12,340,000 
16,150,000 
27,200,000 
37,500,000 

N.  B.  The  number  of  streams  which  a  pipe  would  supply  can  easily  be 
determined  by  dividing  the  quantities  of  above  table  by  300  or  500,  according 
to  the  size  or  number  of  gallons  per  minute  of  the  stream,  it  being  remembered 
that  under  the  gridiron  system,  or  where  the  pipe  is  supplied  at  both  ends, 
double  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  above  table  may  be  secured. 


256 


WATER  WORKS. 


Friction  loss  per  one  thousand  feet  in  length  of 
ordinary  water-pipes  after  corrosion  by  10  to  20  years 

of  average  practical  use. 


Gallons  per 

DIAMETER  OF  PIPE  IN  INCHES. 

Minute 

4  in. 

6  in. 

8  in. 

10  in. 

12  in. 

14  in. 

1 6  in. 

Discharged. 

PRESSURE  LOST  IN  POUNDS  PER  SQUARE  INCH. 

250 

41. 

5. 

1. 

.37 

500 

168. 

20. 

4.6 

1.45 

.58 

750 

44. 

10.8 

3.3 

1.3 

1000 

76. 

19. 

5.9 

2.3 

1.1 

1250 

29. 

10. 

3.6 

1.7 

.8 

1500 

42. 

14. 

6. 

2.7 

1.2 

1750 

19. 

3. 

3.3 

1.6 

2000 

25. 

10. 

4.3 

2.2 

2250 

13. 

6. 

3. 

2500 

15. 

;. 

4. 

3000 

22. 

10. 

5. 

The  number  of  500  gallon  fire  streams  supplied  can  be  determined  by  divid. 
ing  the  quantities  of  the  first  column  by  500. 

It  may  be  assumed  that  3.000  population,  at  their  hour  of 
maximum  draft  (as  at  10  A.  M.  Monday),  will  draw  for  domestic 
purposes  the  equivalent  of  one  fire  stream. 


It  is  not  generally  understood  how  great  is  the  loss  of  head  by 
reason  of  roughness  in  the  pipes  or  of  sharp,  right  angle  bends. 
By  the  use  of  curves  of  moderately  long  radius,  the  loss  caused 
by  elbows  may  be  made  practically  insignificant.  Pipers  do  not 
commonly  use  them,  because  they  cost  a  little  more. 

If  the  diameter  or  capacity  of  the  main  should  be  increased 
the  loss  of  head  would  be  less;  a  16-inch  main,  for  example, 
would  show  a  loss  of  not  much  more  than  half  the  frictional 
loss  of  a  14-inch  main,  the  number  of  gallons  per  minute  carried 
being  the  same  in  each  case. 

We  have  thus  far  been  speaking  of  variations  between  the 
carrying  capacity  of  pipes  of  different  sizes.  Another  problem 
is  the  variation  of  friction  loss  with  the  same  pipe  when  different 
quantities  are  drawn  through  it.  Then  the  friction  loss  varies 
as  the  square  of  the  velocity. 


STAND  PIPES. 


257 


Taking  a  6-inch  pipe  for  our  unit,  this  being  the  smallest  that 
should  ever  be  used  for  a  hydrant  main,  and  comparing  pipes 
on  the  basis  of  their  carrying  capacity,  we  find : 

One  8-inch  pipe  is  equivalent  to   2.05  6-inch  pipes. 
.<  1Q   «       «     «         «         cc  358 

"  12   "       "     "         "         "  5.65 

(<  tx        ti      "  "  it    g  g2       "  " 

'•  16    "       "     "         "         "  11.60  " 

If  we  compare  the  pipes  on  the  basis  of  cost  complete,  as  laid 
in  large  quantity  (with  cast  iron  and  lead  at  the  low  prices  of 
to-day)  the  relation  will  stand  as  follows: 


Cost  per  lineal 

Cost  compared 

Carrying  capacity 

DIAMETER. 

COMPARED  TO 

FOOT  COMPLETE  * 

WITH  6-INCH. 

6-INCH. 

6 

$0.52 

8 

0.70 

1.35 

2.05 

10 

0.90 

1.73 

3.58 

12 

1.20 

■i.'M) 

5.65 

14 

1.45 

2.79 

8.32 

16 

1.65 

3.18 

11.60 

In  other  words,  an  8-inch  pipe  costs  1%  times  as  much  as  a 
6-inch  pipe  and  will  carry  two  times  as  much  water;  or,  again, 
a  16-inch  pipe  costs  three  times  as  much  as  a  6-inch  and  will 
convey  eleven  times  as  much  water. 

Stand-Pipes.  In  the  absence  of  a  sufficient  elevation  to  secure 
a  gravity  head,  a  "stand-pipe"  of  the  tank  kind  is  used  to  secure 
needed  pressure  and  also  a  supply  in  case  the  pumps  should 
break  down.  A  stand-pipe  of  the  tank  form,  24  feet  in  diameter 
by  100  feet  high  (and  there  are  some  larger  ones  throughout  the 
country),  would  hold  a  quarter  of  a  million  gallons  of  water, 
which  (providing  the  last  drop  could  be  drawn  out  and  give  good 
pressure,  and  providing  all  was  used  for  fire  and  none  for 
domestic  supply  meanwhile)  would  supply  five  hydrant  streams 
of  250  gallons  each  for  3%  hours.  A  good  ordinary  steamer 
would  average  500  gallons  per  minute,  and  one-quarter  million 
gallons  would  supply  two  steamers  about  four  hours ;  but  while 
such  a  supply  would  be,  in  many  instances,  sufficient  for  extin- 


*1902  prices  are  somewhat  higher. 


258 


WATER  WORKS. 


guishing  an  ordinary  fire,  especially  if  the  stand-pipe  or  reservoir 
could,  in  an  emergency,  be  fed  by  reserve  pumps — in  which  case 
the  supply  could  be  regarded  as  margin  enough  to  cover  the 
interval  while  starting  the  reserve  pumps  and  boilers — it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  thai  stand-pipes  ace  seldom  of  sufficient  diame- 
ter to  afford  an  ample  fire  supply.  Their  capacity  to  supply  a 
number  of  hydrant  streams  is  a  subject  of  widespread  popular 
misapprehension.  It  takes  volume  of  water  to  put  out  a  fire 
—pressure  ah  me  will  not  do  it,  and  it  does  not  follow  that  a 
stand-pipe  20  feet  in  diameter  which  exhibits  say  80  pounds 
static  pressure  on  a  gauge  when  full,  will  afford  good  fire  service. 
Ten  feet  in  depth  of  a  stand-pipe  2<>  feet  in  diameter  will  supply 
five  hose  streams  only  18  minutes,  and  a  single  fire  stream  will 
draw  off  as  much  water  as  the  average  domestic  consumption 
of  6,000  people  or  the  maximum  consumption  for  3,000  people. 

It  should  always  be  remembered  that  the  water  in  the  lower 
part  of  a  stand-pipe  is  practically  useless  for  fire  purposes  so  far 
as  pressure  is  concerned,  and  serves  only  to  fill  mains  for  suction 
by  steam  engines,  if  there  be  any. 

In  small  towns  stand-pipes  are  often  supplied  by  pumping  for 
a  few  hours  during  the  morning  or  evening  on  alternate  days, 
after  which  the  fires  are  banked  or  extinguished  and  the  water 
allowed  to  draw  down  under  domestic  draft.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  suggest  that  if  a  fire  should  happen  to  break  out  when  the 
pipe  has  been  drawn  down,  the  boilers  cold  and  the  engineer 
asleep  or  absent,  a  conflagration  is  not  likely  to  be  extinguished. 

Ice  in  Stand-pipes.  Stand-pipes  are  liable  to  rupture  in  the 
winter-time  by  the  falling  of  ice,  which  forms  at  low  temper- 
atures, and  which  when  the  water  is  drawn  down  for  consump- 
tion is  liable  to  fall  through  perhaps  twenty  or  thirty  feet  of 
intervening  space.  The  hydraulic  shock  of  a  cake  of  ice  weigh- 
ing hundreds  of  pounds  and  falling  through  twenty  or  more  feet 
of  space  is  tremendous,  and  the  wonder  is  that  a  greater  number 
of  stand-pipes  are  not  ruptured  each  year  in  this  manner.  The 
pressure  on  the  volume  of  water  when  the  ice  strikes  it  is  more 
than  sufficient  to  rupture  a  strong  iron  pipe. 

On  March  1-4,  1900,  the  steel  stand-pipe  of  the  Elgin  water 
works,  30  feet  in  diameter  and  95  feet  high,  burst  at  8  o'clock 
A.  M.    About  one  hundred  thousand  gallons  of  water  had  been 


AIR  AND  VACUUM  VALVES,   BLOW-OFF  VALVES,   ETC.  259 

drawn  out  that  morning,  and  it  was  found  after  the  pipe  had 
fallen  that  ice  to  the  extent  of  several  hundred  pounds  had 
formed  in  the  upper  portion  in  a  thick  cake,  which  when  it 
struck  the  water  below  forced  out  the  iron  sheets  and  resulted 
in  an  entire  collapse  of  +he  structure,  after  which  the  city  had 
to  rely  upon  the  direct  pressure  of  the  water  pumps. 

This  is  a  serious  danger,  and  local  underwriters  should  always 
have  it  in  mind  and  investigate  the  condition  of  the  stand-pipe 
in  winter,  to  ensure  proper  precautions  against  such  catas- 
trophies.  If  the  failure  of  the  stand-pipe  should  happen  to  occur 
at  a  time  when  the  pumps  should  be  disabled  the  city  would  be 
entirely  without  supply. 

Air  and  Vacuum  Valves.  Blow-off  Valves.  Etc.  When  water  is 
forced  into  delivery  mains  more  or  less  air  is  taken  along  with 
it,  and  where  the  pipes  undulate  to  conform  with  the  contour  of 
the  ground  this  air  accumulates  in  the  summits,  and  in  the 
course  of  time  interferes  seriously  with  the  flow.  As  a  means 
of  relief,  air  valves  should  be  located  at  such  points.  These 
valves  are  now  combined  in  the  same  piece  of  mechanism  with 
vacuum  valves,  which  are  required  at  the  same  points  for  the 
reason  that  when  the  pipes  are  drained  for  repairs  or  other  pur- 
poses there  is  a  tendency  to  form  vacuums  at  the  summits, 
which  will  cause  collapse  unless  relief  is  given  or  the  pipes  and 
joints  are  strong  enough  to  stand  the  pressure.  It  may  be  added 
that  hydrants  when  properly  located  can  be  made  to  perform 
the  offices  of  both  air  and  vacuum  valves. 

Caution  must  be  exercised  when  filling  the  pipes  to  see  that 
air  valves  are  opened  and  the  water  admitted  no  faster  than  the 
air  can  escape,  as  otherwise  the  compressed  air  sets  up  an 
aggravated  form  of  water  hammer  causing  the  water  to  rush 
back  and  forth  violently  and  the  weak  parts  will  suffer. 

Attention  is  again  called  to  the  desirability  of  providing  blow- 
off  valves  at  suitable  points.  Sediment  will  accumulate  at  the 
low  points  of  the  pipe  system  and,  after  a  while,  will  seriously 
impede  the  flow  unless  removed.  By  having  blow-off  valves  at 
these  points  the  proper  remedy  is  provided. 

Hydraulic  Grade  Line.  An  essential  condition  which  is  some- 
times overlooked  is  the  necessity  of  keeping  the  elevation  of  the 
mains  below  the  Hydraulic  Grade  Line.    Often  the  contour  of 


260 


WATER  WORKS. 


the  ground  is  followed  without  regard  to  this  all  important 
feature.  Where  this  point  is  not  considered,  not  only  is  there  a 
tendency  towards  the  formation  of  air  pockets  at  the  summit  hut 
the  pressure  conditions  in  the  pipe  are  entirely  changed.  The 
water  in  that  part  of  the  pipe  between  the  reservoir  and  the  point 
of  elevation  above  the  hydraulic  grade  line  has  a  velocity  due 
only  to  the  head  given  by  their  difference  of  elevation.  Beyond 
that  point  if  there  is  a  greater  difference  of  elevation  to  the  point 
of  outlet  the  velocity  will  be  greater  and  hence  the  supply  from 
the  first  part  will  not  be  equal  to  the  capacity  of  the  other  part, 
and  the  water  in  the  latter  part  will  not  be  under  pressure  at  all 
but  will  flow  as  though  in  a  gutter. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  because  of  the  nature  of  the  ground 
to  go  above  the  hydraulic  grade  line.  In  this  event,  the  dim- 
inution of  flow  caused  by  reduction  of  velocity  in  the  section 
between  the  reservoir  and  the  point  of  elevation  above  the 
hydraulic  grade  line,  may  be  compensated  for  by  making  the 
pipe  larger  in  this  section  than  beyond  it. 

High  and  Low  Service.  In  the  case  of  cities  having  different 
levels  and  consequent  "high  and  low  service,"  such  as  Kansas 
City,  Albany,  Brooklyn,  Cleveland  and  others,  it  is  important 
that  the  two  systems  should  be  connected  by  means  of  check 
and  gate  valves,  which  can  nearly  always  be  arranged  at  slight 
additional  cost  so  as  to  make  the  high  service  available  for  the 
lower  levels  in  case  of  fire.  They  can  be  disconnected  at  any 
time  when  the  exigency  is  removed. 

The  difference  in  elevation  may  be  so  great  in  a  town  that 
while  the  service  in  the  lower  part  is  entirely  satisfactory  the 
pressure  in  the  higher  portion  is  so  reduced  as  to  become  practi- 
cally valueless.  It  is  desirable  in  such  cases  to  provide,  by  some 
means,  for  increasing  the  pressure  at  the  higher  elevation. 
When  this  district  is  small  and  will  not  permit  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  high  service  system,  or  even  the  maintenance  of  a 
steam  pump,  a  device  which  is  now  in  successful  operation  in 
the  city  of  New  London,  Ct.,  may  be  introduced  with  advantage. 
This  consists  of  a  tank,  having  sufficient  elevation  to  give  the 
requisite  pressure,  which  is  supplied  by  a  hydraulic  water  motor. 
While  it  is  not  the  intention  to  describe  this  motor  in  detail  it 
may  be  stated  that  it  is  operated  by  the  water  consumed  in  the 


HIGH  AND  LOW  SERVICE,  ETC. 


261 


lower  part  of  the  town.  It  is  located  on  a  supply  main,  and 
receives  the  power  to  operate  it  from  the  passing  water,  which, 
after  performing  its  work,  is  carried  on,  with  but  slightly  dim- 
inished pressure,  to  be  used  in  the  low  service  system.  By  in- 
genious automatic  arrangements  the  two  systems  are  made 
communicating  as  occasion  arises.  It  is  claimed  for  the  motor 
that  it  possesses  advantages  of  cheapness,  of  consuming  no  fuel, 
of  working  day  and  night,  and  of  requiring  but  little  attention. 
The  reduction  in  pressure  above  the  motor  and  below  it  is  in- 
considerable, the  figures  in  the  one  to  which  we  refer  being 
found  from  actual  test  to  be  34.62  lbs.  above  the  motor  and 
31.46  lbs.  below.  Its  cost  was  $5000  and  it  has  proven  amply 
sufficient  for  the  needs  of  a  district  requiring  from  100,000  to 
150,000  gallons  per  day.  It  may  be  remarked  again  that  it  is 
claimed  the  cost  of  maintenance  is  very  small,  that  it  requires 
but  little  care  and  that  the  initial  cost  is  practically  all  that  has 
to  be  considered. 

A  full  description  of  this  motor  will  be  found  in  a  valuable 
paper  read  before  the  New  England  Water- Works  Association 
Dec.  14.  1892.  by  Mr.  Walter  H.  Richards,  C.  E.,  Junior  Editor 
of  the  Association. 

Water  Mains  and  Pipe  Distribution.  That  system  of  pipe  distri- 
bution is  best  where  the  street  mains  run  at  right  angles  to  each 
other  throughout  the  city  or  town  connecting  at  every  street 
intersection — "'gridironed".  so  to  speak.  This  arrangement 
insures  that  each  pipe  will  be  fed  practically  at  both  ends  and 
will  double  the  feeding  capacity. 

Size.  The  subsidiary  mains  passing  through  the  various 
streets  should,  in  the  business  or  compact  portion,  be  not  less, 
in  any  case,  than  8  inches  in  diameter,  and  in  the  dwelling 
section  not  less  than  6  inches  in  diameter.  This  size  should  be 
liberal  in  the  compact  mercantile  portion,  for  the  reason  that 
existing  conditions  of  low  or  small  buildings  may.  with  the 
growth  of  the  town,  be  radically  changed  by  the  subsequent 
erection  of  more  dangerous  structures.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  faults  in  the  placing  of  hydrants  may,  at  any  time, 
be  remedied,  but  mistakes  in  the  size  of  street  mains  are  not 
easy  of  correction  and,  keeping  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  cost  of 
excavation,  leading  of  joints  and  labor  is  very  nearly  as  great 


\\  A.TEE  WORKS. 


in  the  case  of  small  mains  as  in  the  case  of  larger  ones,  it  is 
poor  economy  to  lay  an  inadequate  pipe  in  the  first  instance.  * 
Where  the  district  is  a  large  one,  containing  large  buildings 
and  values,  12-inch  mains  should  be  used,  at  intervals  of  say  a 
thousand  feet,  as  feeders.  The  Boston  engineers  are  at  present 
working  toward  a  system  of  L2-inch  mains,  aboui  a  fourth  of  a 
mile  apart,  crossing  by  gridiron  distribution  between  these  with 
Sand  10  inch  pipes,  in  the  business  section,  and  6  and  8  inch 
pipes  in  the  outlying  district. 

Boston  already  has  28$  of  its  service  in  12  inch  mains  and 
New  York  25$. 

The  feeders  or  larger  mains  should  supply  the  "gridiron" 
from  the  outside,  instead  <  it'  extending  through  the  cent  re.  Not 
only  will  this  insure  better  service,  but  the  arrangement  will 
respond  to  future  demands  upon  it  as  the  city  increases  in  size 
— an  important  consideration. 

In  a  seaport  city  the  water  main  on  the  water  front  should  be 
at  least  1(5  inches,  with  numerous  hydrants. 

I  quote  from  one  of  the  many  valuable  treatises  on  water 
supply  by  Mr.  John  R.  Freeman,  of  Boston,  the  well-known 
and  able  engineer,  as  follows : 

"  Within  a  crowded  and  valuable  metropolitan  district,  a  diameter  of  eight  inches 
is  the  smallest  that  can  be  recommended  for  the  general  network  or  gridiron  of  inter- 
secting pipes,  having  in  view  the  deterioration  in  water  carrying  capacity  which 
occurs  in  time  with  nearly  all  waters. 

*Cast-iron  water-pipe  may  be  purchased  at  §19.50  per  ton,  freight  added. 
Four-inch  cast-iron  water-pipe  weighs  20  pounds  to  the  foot,  6-inch  30  lbs., 
8-inch  45  lbs.  and  12-inch  80  lbs.  The  difference  in  price,  therefore,  between 
6-inch  and  8-inch  pipe  would  be,  roughly,  about  15  cents  per  foot,  and  the 
cost  of  laying  5  cents  more,  in  all  a  difference  of  20  cents  per  foot,  or  $20  per 
hundred  feet.    (See  page  257.) 

The  difference  in  insurance  rates  in  favor  of  property  on  the  line  of  8-inch 
mains  as  compared  with  6-inch  mains,  in  the  Universal  Schedule,  (see  Nos.  155, 
156.  190,  192)  is  7%%  on  buildings  and  5%  on  stocks.  There  would  be  eight 
25- foot  buildings,  counting  both  sides  of  the  street,  on  100  feet  length  of  pipe. 
It  would  be  a  low  estimate  of  value  to  assume  $50,000  insurance  on  each  lot, 
or  400,000  in  all.  If  the  average  insurance  rate  should  be  80  cents  per  $100 
on  a  6-inch  main,  it  would  be  5£,  or  4  cents  per  $100  (40  cents  per  $1000)  less 
on  an  8-inch  main,  making  an  annual  saving  to  property-owners  in  insurance 
premium  of  $160  for  the  extra  cost  of  $20  in  a  pipe  which  would  last  for  fifty 
years  and  which  the  property-owners  would  save  eight  times  over  in  a  single 
year.  Could  any  civic  policy  be  more  stupid  or  shortsighted  from  an  economic 
standpoint  than  the  laying  of  6-inch  pipes  in  the  compact  mercantile  portions 
of  cities! 

There  is  a  greater  difference  still  between  8-inch  pipe  and  4-inch  pipe,  the 
insurance  rate  being  15$  higher  on  buildings  and  10  $  on  stocks  on  the  line  of 
4-inch  mains  as  compared  with  8-inch  mains. 


WATER  WORKS. 


263 


For  valuable  metropolitan  districts  a  pipe  so  small  as  eight  inches  is  suitable  only 
when  forming  part  of  a  general  network  whose  intersections  are  not  far  apart,  say 
not  more  than  300  feet  in  one  direction,  by  800  feet  in  the  other.  When  the 
cross  connections  are  smaller  than  eight  inches  or  farther  than  800  feet  apart, 
a  ten  inch  pipe  may  be  needed.  Along  the  borders  of  the  gridiron  the  size 
should  be  larger.  This  reinforcement  by  cross  connections  is  of  the  utmost 
importance,  and  if  absent  it  may  require  a  16  inch  pipe  to  afford  the  same  de- 
livery as  a  gridiron  of  six-inch  pipes. 

Within  almost  any  suburban  residence  district  where  there  are  frequent 
cross  connections,  also  within  compactly  built  cities  of  medium  size  and  even 
those  of  large  size  and  of  medium  hazard,  excellent  protection  may  be  afforded 
by  a  gridiron  of  six-inch  pipes  along  each  of  those  streets  running  in  one 
direction,  intersecting,  at  500  feet  intervals,  with  pipes  eight  inches  in  diameter, 
in  each  transverse  street.  The  maximum  of  economy  in  pipe  will  be  secured 
if  the  six-inch  pipe  runs  lengthwise  of  the  blocks. 

For  small  cities  in  which  the  streets  run  so  that  frequent  cross  connections 
are  possible,  very  satisfactory  protection  can  be  had  by  a  network  of  pipes 
none  of  which  exceeds  six  inches  in  diameter;  but  along  the  margin  of  the 
gridiron  there  should  be  a  few  main  arteries  of  larger  sizes  and  the  size  of  a 
few  of  the  pipes  near  any  large  hazardous  building,  as  a  valuable  factory  or 
warehouse,  may  need  to  be  increased. 

This  use  of  six-inch  pipe,  however,  presupposes  that  the  six-inch  pipe  makes  a 
complete  circuit  about  each  street  block  which  is  to  be  protected,  so  that  the  water  will 
flow  in  toward  the  point  of  heavy  draft  from  nearly  all  directions . 

A  block  located  in  the  midst  of  a  network  of  0-inch  pipes  may  sometimes 
be  much  more  efficiently  served  than  one  past  which  runs  a  single  line  of  12- 
inch  pipe. 

Four  inch  pipe  should  never  be  used  for  a  hydrant  main,  unless  it  be  to 
protect  scattered,  detached  dwellings  in  situations  similar  to  a  country  village 
or  where  the  closest  economy  of  first  cost  must  be  practiced  in  order  to  get  any 
general  water  works  pipe  system  at  all,  and  in  these  cases  it  should  be  clearly 
understood  that  starting  with  say  73  lbs.,  a  line  of  four-inch  pipe  one-half  mile 
long  so  soon  as  it  becomes  old  and  roughened  by  rust  can  only  deliver  water 
enough  for  a  single  100  gallon  fire  stream  three-fourths  inch  in  diameter,  which 
is  too  small  to  extinguish  anything  more  than  a  dwelling  house  fire  or  to  do 
more  than  protect  the  neighbors,  while  the  original  fire  is  left  to  burn  itself 
out. 

In  many  New  England  towns  the  hills  and  valleys  have  compelled  a  growth 
radiating  outward  in  narrow  strips  or  in  ways  which  forbid  any  such  reinforce- 
ment of  the  flow  as  we  have  been  considering,  and  in  these  cases  much  larger 
pipes  will,  on  computation,  be  found  necessary  to  give  an  equal  delivery  at 
the  hydrants." 


264 


WATKR  WORKS. 


1 

£1-  /  AT// 

t 

— * 

-4  - 

Elevation  2oc 

|p  1  i 
— * 

F 

3-6 

.  \ 

© 

»  / 
i  6  

;? 

r- 

■ 

® 

3  

L  oo-J 

/ 

■  1 

2 

'  6  -i 

a  fi  

r 

2 

i 

D 

w 

Business 

Sect /on 

J  6  

® — 

*—G  

■ 

g 

J  6  

i 

h—l.g — _ 

I 

■ 

F 

;  |e 

 6  * 

:  € 

'  ® 

Dwelling 

Section 

Plan  of   l  1  1 
Waterworks 

\  B 

-=B  1 

and  pPE  Distribution 

Where  a  city  is  unwilling  to  pay  for  8-inch  mains  they  should 
be  supplied,  at  least  in  part,  to  carry  water  from  the  outside 
feeders,  the  6-inch  being  used  only  for  lengthwise  of  the  blocks, 
as  shown  in  the  foregoing  diagram. 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  the  gridiron  form  of  distribution 
shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram,  every  pipe  is  supplied  at 
both  ends  and,  in  case  of  fire  and  a  draft  upon  any  hydrant, 
water  would  run  to  it  from  all  directions. 


SIAMESIXG  HOSE,  ETC. 


265 


Concentration  of  water  for  fire  at  a  given  point  is  of  the 
utmost  importance,  and  under  the  gridiron  system  this  can  be 
secured  no  matter  where  that  point  may  be. 

It  may  safely  be  assumed  that  while  hose  lines  500  feet  in 
length  can  be  used  with  steamers  to  force  the  water,  it  is  prefer- 
able to  have  short  hose  lines,  not  exceeding,  in  any  case,  300 
feet  in  length.  An  examination  of  the  preceding  diagram  will 
show  that  with  the  gridiron  system  and  a  "2- way"  hydrant  at 
each  corner,  and  street  blocks  500  by  200,  it  would  be  possible 
to  supply,  in  case  of  a  fire  in  the  middle  of  any  block,  12  streams, 
each  with  less  than  350  feet  of  hose,  and  a  still  larger  number 
with  600  feet  of  hose.  Boston  can  place  52  steamers  within  500 
feet  of  a  fire  and  supply  them  with  water. 

Siamesing  Hose.  The  loss  by  friction  through  greater  lengths 
of  hose,  as  already  stated,  may  be  largely  saved  by  connecting 
the  two  lines  of  hose,  through  a  Siamese  coupling,  into  a  single 
line  at  a  point  50  to  100  feet  back  from  the  nozzle.  Strange  as 
it  may  seem,  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  there  is  less  friction 
and  a  greater  supply  of  water  can  be  secured  in  this  way  than 
by  the  use  of  two  steamers,  one  pumping  into  the  other.  In 
this  way,  a  Siamese  placed  50  feet  back  from  the  nozzle  so 
lessens  the  loss  by  friction  that  with  the  same  steamer  pressure 
a  jet  will  be  thrown  with  exactly  the  same  force  through  a 
thousand  feet  of  hose  as  if  the  steamer  were  only  287  feet  from 
the  nozzle  on  a  single  line  of  hose.  So  important  a  fact  should 
be  understood  by  Fire  Departments. 

The  reason  for  the  difference  in  results  is  obvious.  Where 
the  water  is  carried  through  two  lines  of  hose  instead  of  being 
forced  through  one  the  velocity  will  be  only  half  as  great, 
and  the  loss  of  pressure  only  one-fourth  as  much,  as  where  a 
single  line  of  hose  is  used ;  and  it  is  unfortunate  that  fire  depart- 
ments so  frequently  overlook  the  use  of  a  Siamese  coupling  to 
connect  two  lines  of  hose  from  a  single  steamer,  especially  where 
the  steamer  has  to  be  distant  from  the  fire.  Two  steamers  may 
be  frequently  seen  endeavoring  to  do  with  great  difficulty  what 
a  single  steamer  with  a  double  line  of  hose  could  easily  accom- 
plish. 

Cast-iron  pipe,  well  tarred  is  preferable  for  fire  protection  to 
wrought  iron,  which  is  sure  to  rust,  or  to  steel,  which  will 


w  A.TEB 


\\  o|;KS. 


probably  rust.  The  tar  should  be  applied  by  the  best  hot 
process. 

It  is  important  to  have  smooth  throatage.  The  mere  roughen- 
ing of  the  inside  of  a  pipe  will  double  the  friction  loss  even 
where  there  is  no  noteworthy  deposit  of  rust  bunches  or  tuber- 
cles. One  great  objection  to  cement-lined  pipe  is  the  thinness 
of  the  iron  (for  cast-iron  pipe  the  iron  shell  is  commonly  eleven 
times  as  thick  as  the  wrought  iron  shell  used  in  cemented  pipe) 
in  addition  to  the  danger  of  rusting  which,  as  stated,  may  be 
regarded  as  a  certain  expectation  in  the  case  of  wrought  iron. 

Cement-lined  wrought  iron  pipe,  as  already  stated,  is  not  only 
certain  to  become  leaky  after  fifteen  or  twenty  years  of  use, 
whereas  cast-iron  will  last  for  fifty  years  or  more,  but  it  is  liable 
to  be  destroyed  by  lightning — a  casualty  which  has  happened  in 
Arlington,  Woburn,  Lynn,  Fitchburg  and  Winchester,  Mass., 
and  other  places.  The  cities  of  Fitchburg,  Worcester,  Man- 
chester, Spencer,  Somervills,  Maiden  and  others,  have  found  it 
necessary  to  take  up  the  cement-lined  pipe  and  replace  with 
cast-iron.  In  Rome,  N.  Y.,  several  years  ago,  the  bursting  of 
a  cement-lined  pipe  during  a  fire  led  to  a  property  loss  of  up- 
wards of  $200,000.  The  objection  is  to  the  thinness  of  the  iron, 
not  to  the  cement  lining,  which  is  in  itself  an  advantage.  It 
would  improve  cast-iron  pipe,  by  saving  frictional  head,  but  the 
extra  expense  makes  its  use  prohibitory  with  cast-iron. 

The  size  of  mains  and  pipes  should  be  carefully  gauged  b}- 
competent  experts  to  insure  that  too  much  head  is  not  lost  by 
friction,  taking  into  account  the  supply  needed  for  domestic 
(household  and  manufacturing)  purposes  and  fire  extinguishing 
purposes. 

Supply.  While  the  amount  needed  for  fire  service,  per  annum, 
is  not  large,  the  amount  required  for  a  fire  will  often  exceed, 
for  a  few  hours,  that  for  all  other  purposes.  Twenty  hose 
streams,  for  example,  would  require,  for  each,  estimating  only 
150  gallons  per  minute,  3,000  gallons  per  minute,  (estimating 
250  gallons,  would  require  5,000  gallons  per  minute)  while  the 
domestic  supply  for  a  town  of  25,000  population,  estimating  75 
gallons  maximum  per  capita  (a  large  estimate)  per  diem,  would 
not  exceed  2,700  gallons  per  minute. 


SUPPLY. 


267 


A  single  good  \  %  inch  X  45  pounds  X  250  gallons  fire  stream  takes  as  muck 
water  as  would  be  needed  on  the  average  for  tkc  ordinary  domestic  supply  of  a 
population  of  6,001)  at  60  gallons  per  day  to  each  person. 

A  sufficient  fire  supply  should  be  provided  in  addition  to  the  maximum 
domestic  consumption,  and  double  the  average  draught  (or  whatever  ratio  of 
increase  the  actual  record,  if  there  be  a  record,  may  show  of  the  district  under 
consideration)  should  always  be  kept  in  view  as  the  basis  over  and  above  which 
the  tire  supply  is  to  be  secured.    (John  R.  Freeman.) 

The  average  domestic  consumption  for  household  and  manu- 
facturing purposes,  per  capita,  is  safely  estimated  in  small  cities 
with  little  manufacturing  at  50  gallons  per  diem,  but  at  certain 
hours  of  the  day  and  on  certain  days  of  the  week,  particularly 
on  Monday,  a  larger  supply  is  needed,  and  a  common  experience 
is  that,  at  times,  the  maximum  draft  will  be  double  the  average 
draft.  An  average  of  110  gallons  per  capita  daily  would  proba- 
bly be  sufficient  for  both  domestic  and  fire  service.  In  manu- 
facturing cities  a  much  greater  amount  is  often  used.  The  daily 
consumption  in  Boston  is  over  100  gallons  per  inhabitant  per 
da}\  The  same  is  true,  on  the  other  hand,  of  Nashua,  N.  H. 
The  use  of  water  per  capita  is  steadily  increasing.  Making 
allowance  in  planning  new  water-works  for  a  growth  of  a  pros- 
perous city  or  town  of  40  per  cent,  in  a  decade,  it  would  probably 
be  found  economical  to  gauge  the  reservoir  and  supply-mains 
accordingly,  unless  an  additional  reservoir  can  be  constructed 
afterwards  at  pro  rata  expense,  which  is  not  likely.  To  supply 
a  city  of  25,000  population,  using  365  cubic  feet  of  water  per 
minute  for  domestic  service  and,  in  the  emergency  of  a  con- 
flagration, possibly  400  feet  more  per  minute  for  fire  service, 
would  require  a  24-inch  supply  main  from  the  reservoir.  Two 
of  these,  as  already  stated,  would  be  better,  and  insure  against 
breakage.  To  insure  protection,  the  reservoir  should  always 
(even  at  4  o'clock  Monday  morning)  hold  a  reserve  for  fire  of 
at  least  two  million  gallons  for  any  closely  built  city  up  to  75,- 
000  inhabitants,  and  more  if  the  city  is  much  larger. 

The  following  figures  are  based  on  estimates  of  Mr.  J.  T. 
Fanning,  in  his  "Treatise  on  Hydraulic  and  Water  Supply 
Engineering" — a  work  well  worthy  of  the  study  of  underwriters. 

With  a  static  head  of  150  feet  and  pipes  1,000  feet  long,  a 
6  in.  pipe  would  supply  40  cu.  ft.  per  min.  or  300  gallons. 
8      "  "         "      80      "        "  600  " 

10      "  "         "     120      "        "  900  " 

12     "  "         "    220      "        "         1,650  " 

18     "  "         "  '  480      "        "         3,600  " 


21  is 


WATER  WORKS. 


All  of  these  figures  as  to  frictional  head  and  discharge,  it 
should  always  he  remembered,  are  for  new,  clean  pipe;  if  the 
pipe  is  old  and  rusted  the  loss  of  frictional  head  may  be  doubled. 

If  the  subsidiary  pipe  relied  upon  is  six  inches  in  diameter  and 
supplied  at  both  ends,  the  fire  supply  at  each  end  would  be  40 
cubic  feet,  or  300  gallons,  per  minute  or  a  total  for  both  ends 
of  80  cubic  feet,  or  600  gallons,  per  minute,  with  the  water 
flowing  at  a  velocity  of  3%  feet  per  second  and  a  loss  of  fric- 
tional head  of  :i  feet,  or  4  lbs.,  per  thousand  feet  of  length.  In 
case  the  water  is  to  be  taken  from  one  end  of  the  pipe  only,  it 
would  be  better  to  have  the  pipe  8  inches  in  diameter.  This 
would  secure  about  the  same  discharge,  640  gallons  per  minute, 
at  the  same  velocity,  and  with  no  greater  loss  of  frictional  head, 
viz.,  9  feet,  or  4  lbs.,  per  square  inch. 

Fire  Boats.  Where  a  city  has  a  water  front  and  Fire-Boats 
their  powerful  pumps  may  be  made  available  for  protecting  the 
compact  portion  at  small  expense  by  running  8-inch  pipes  (10- 
inch  would  be  better  still)  with  hydrant  connections  from  the 
water  front  to  the  mercantile  centre,  thus  bringing  into  the 
heart  of  conflagration  districts  a  pressure  exceeding  that  of 
many  steam  engines  and  capable  of  forcing  water  to  the  very 
tops  of  high,  modern  fireproof  structures — which,  by  the  way, 
ought  always  to  be  provided  with  private  standpipes  and 
Siamese  connections  at  the -street,  for  the  use  of  Fire  Depart- 
ments, even  where  fire-boats  are  not  available,  so  as  to  save 
the  loss  of  time  of  carrying  hose  for  the  upper  stories,  especially 
if  the  elevator  should  happen  not  to  be  running,  as  at  night. 
Where  pipes  with  connections  at  the  water  front  for  the  use  of 
fire-boats  are  thus  extended  into  the  city  an  intelligent  system 
of  rating  should  allow  5  fo  deduction  in  rate  to  all  buildings  on 
the  line  of  the  pipes  or  within  500  feet  of  hydrant  connections, 
see  items  Nos.  186  and  221  of  the  Universal  Mercantile  Schedule. 

Where  the  water  of  the  harbor  is  salt,  it  may  be  well  to  flush 
the  main  after  a  fire  by  attaching  an  engine  at  the  land  end  and 
blowing  fresh  hydrant  water  through  the  pipe,  although  with 
a  well  tarred  cast-iron  pipe  this  would  probably  be  an  unneces- 
sary precaution. 

Milwaukee  is  provided  with  two  fire-boats,  and  has  nearly 
six  miles  of  fire-boat  pipe  lines,  which  vary  in  length  from  800 


FIRE  BOATS. 


269 


to  3,500  feet.  These  lines  are  tapped  at  each  corner  as  well  as 
in  the  middle  of  the  block  by  large  hydrants.  Six-inch  pipe 
was  found  to  be  too  small,  and  at  present  all  fire-boat  pipe  lines 
being  laid  are  8  and  10  inch — It)  inches  for  a  half  or  two-thirds 
of  the  distance,  the  remainder  being  8-inch.  Chief  Foley  states 
that  in  a  test  with  a  3,250  ft.  line,  using  a  2^2  inch  nozzle,  the 
jet  of  solid  water  was  120  feet,  or  the  height  of  an  ordinary 
elevator.  In  another  test,  with  a  2,250  ft.  line  two  leads  of  50 
feet  each,  3K  inch  hose  and  2  inch  nozzle,  solid  water  was 
thrown  from  both  to  a  height  of  180  feet;  after  which,  Siames- 
ing  both  streams  and  using  a  3-inch  nozzle,  water  in  a  solid 
stream  was  thrown  198  feet.  The  connections  at  the  water 
front  are  for  six  3/^  inch  leads  for  all  the  long  lines.  In  warm 
weather  the  lines  are  kept  full  to  save  time  in  starting,  but 
emptied  with  freezing  weather. 

The  experience  of  Milwaukee,  proves  the  great  advantage  of 
having  10-inch  pipe,  and  nothing  less  than  8-inch,  although  the 
6-inch  does  admirable  work.  The  difference  in  the  cost  as  com- 
pared with  8  and  10-inch  is  so  slight  in  view  of  the  great  superi- 
ority of  the  larger  pipe  as  to  make  the  false  economy  of  small 
pipe  extremely  shortsighted. 

Detroit  has  a  most  extensive  system,  its  pipe  lines  having 
been  laid  in  nine  streets  and  varying  in  length  from  700  to 
4,000  feet.  The  long  line  of  4,000  feet  has  delivered  from  one 
hydrant  four  1%  and  one  2-inch  magnificent  fire  streams.  The 
superiority  of  the  streams  delivered  from  the  pipe  lines  as  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  engine  is  readily  apparent  to  the  most 
casual  observer.  The  water  comes  with  greater  force,  in  a 
more  solid  body,  and  does  the  most  effective  work. 

The  Detroit  lines  are  provided  with  a  cut-off  valve  opposite 
each  hydrant,  so  that  in  the  event  of  walls  falling  on  the  hydrant 
the  water  may  be  shut  off  without  shutting  off  the  entire  main, 
and  the  pipes  are  inclined  toward  the  river,  enabling  the  fire- 
boat  to  fill  them  when  necessary,  while  in  cold  weather  they  are 
immediately  emptied  by  means  of  a  valve  at  the  foot  of  the 
ctreet.  In  the  warmer  months  they  are  allowed  to  remain 
filled. 

I  quote  from  a  valuable  paper  written  by  Mr.  James  E.  Tryon, 
Secretary  of  the  Fire  Commission,  Detroit,  on  the  subject 


270 


WATER  WORKS. 


"What  a  Water  Supply  Engineer  Can  Do  in  the  Fin-  Depart- 
ment," and  read  by  him  at  the  Convention  of  the  New  England 
Water-Works  Association,  in  June,  1894: 

"The  Detroit  pipe  lines,  laid  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  lire-boat  avail- 
able lor  fires  ;it  least  one-half  mile  distant  from  the  river,  were  planned  by  and 
laid  under  the  supervision  of  the  compiler  of  this  paper,  and  a  brief  description 
of  them  may  not  be  out  of  place.  These  lines  consist  of  three  long  lines,  two 
thousand  feet  each,  and  three  short  lines  of  one  thousand  feet  each,  or  nine 
thousand  feet  in  all.  For  these  lines  the  8-inch  steel  pipe,  such  as  the 
Standard  Oil  Company  uses  for  piping  crude  oil  from  the  oil  fields  to  tide 
water,  was  selected.  The  pipe  had  been  subjected  to  a  test  of  one  thousand 
pounds  hydraulic  pressure.  Connection  at  the  river  is  made  with  a  three 
or  a  five  way  Siamese  with  three  and  one-half  inch  openings,  with  a  clack 
valve  over  each,  to  enable  the  boat  to  start  its  pumps  as  soon  as  the  first  con- 
nection is  made.  Hydrants  having  two  3-inch  and  one  4-inch  openings  are  set 
at  intervals  along  the  line  with  a  manhole  opposite  each.  At  the  end  of  the 
pipe  is  an  air  valve  loaded  to  remain  open  until  the  water  comes,  and  a  relief 
valve  set  at  250  pounds,  which  will  open  when  the  pipe  is  filled  antl  the  recoil 
renders  it  necessary  for  something  to  give  way. 

We  have  worked  through  1,000  feet  of  3-inch  hose  stretched  from  a  hydrant 
2,000  feet  from  the  river,  with  a  pressure  of  105  pounds  at  the  hydrant.  These 
results  were  obtained  with  a  pressure  of  176  pounds  at  the  boat.  The  friction 
loss  in  a  line  2,000  feet  long  working  through  two  lines,  100  feet  each,  of  3-inch 
hose  is  as  follows: 

TWO  1^-INCH  STKEAMS. 


Pressure  Pressure  Loss 

at  Bout.  at  Hydrant.  per  Foot. 

120  80  .0002 

140  90  .0025 

160  105  .0275 

180  120  .0300 


These  lines  were  fully  completed  during  the  summer  of  1893,  and  were  filled 
repeatedly  during  the  past  winter.  We  have  had  but  two  incidents  to  mar 
the  successful  working  of  this  branch,  one  being  the  failure  of  the  air  valve  to 
work,  owing  to  the  insufficient  load,  which  made  it  impossible  to  fill  the  pipe, 
and  the  other  was  due  to  the  failure  of  a  relief  valve  to  work,  having  been  set 
at  four  hundred  pounds.  The  damage  in  this  case  was  the  blowing  off  of  the 
Siamese.  The  pipes  are  laid  as  nearly  on  a  level  as  possible,  the  lift  being 
about  8*4  feet  in  a  thousand.  The  grade  is  toward  the  river,  and  to  prevent 
the  freezing  of  dead  wTater  the  pipes  are  emptied  after  each  filling.  When  the 
boat  responds  to  an  alarm  of  fire,  connection  is  made  with  the  most  available 
pipe  line  and  the  pumps  started  just  as  a  land  engine  fills  its  line  of  hose. 
When  the  pipe  is  filled  the  pumps  are  stopped  to  await  orders.  A  single  wire 
laid  in  a  pipe  in  the  same  trench  with  the  pipe  line  is  run  into  the  engine  room, 
and  a  signal  code  is  used,  by  means  of  a  push  button,  which  can  be  operated 
at  any  hydrant  on  the  line.  The  boat  is  signalled  by  the  use  of  the  following 
code: 


WATER  SUPPLY  AT  HARBOR  LEVEL. 


271 


1  Bell— Start  pumps. 
1    "  — Stop  pumps. 

3  "  — Twenty  pounds  less  pressure. 

4  — Twenty  pounds  more  pressure. 
6   "  — Pick  up. 

In  this  way  the  pipe  line  enables  the  boat  to  play  its  pari  in  the  work  of 
extinguishing  the  fires  that  may  occur  in  the  City  of  Detroit." 

It  would  be  possible  in  such  cities  as  Chicago  and  New  York 
to  make  use  of  their  powerful  fire-boats  not  merely  for  supply- 
ing water  but  for  furnishing  pressure  and  throwing  so  many 
powerful  streams  as  to  be  equal  to  twenty  or  thirty  steamers. 
It  seems  strange  that  such  precautions  are  not  taken.  It  is  due 
to  Ex-Chiefs  Swenie  and  Bonner  that  I  should  say  here  that  they 
were  not  to  blame  for  so  serious  an  omission.  It  is  estimated  that 
in  the  territory  lying  between  Chambers  Street  and  Fourteenth 
Street,  New  York  City,  the  aggregate  value  of  merchandise  and 
buildings  exceeds  five  hundred  millions  of  dollars.  The  entire 
loss-paying  ability  (i.  e.,  capital  and  net  surplus)  of  all  the 
Companies  doing  business  in  the  State,  domestic  and  foreign, 
does  not  exceed  one-fifth  of  this  sum.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  the 
vacuum  in  community  wealth  resulting  from  the  destruction  of 
even  one-fifth  of  this  territory  would  be  likely  to  result  in  com- 
mercial disaster  which  would  be  felt  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific.  The  simple  laying  of  mains  with  hydrant  outlets,  for 
the  fire-boats  which  are  already  provided,  would  go  far  to 
prevent  the  possibility  of  such  a  disaster. 

On  March  12,  1888,  in  consequence  of  the  blizzard,  engines 
would  have  been  powerless  to  get  to  a  fire.  Not  so  with  the 
hydrants  of  the  fire-boat  pipe  lines,  however ;  they  could  have 
supplied  the  needed  pressure,  and  it  would  have  only  been 
necessary  to  attach  hose  to  the  hydrants.  Such  simple  pre- 
cautions should  not  be  neglected  in  any  of  the  great  cities  with 
a  water  front. 

Water  Supply  at  Harbor  Level.  At  very  many  places,  especially 
seaboard  towns,  not  having  fire-boats  with  pipe-lines,  it  might 
be  well  to  use  the  neighboring  water  at  its  natural  level,  by 
means  of  pipes,  or  systems  of  pipes,  having  both  ends  immersed 
to  secure  a  constant  circulation,  the  fire  engines  connecting  their 
suctions  therewith  through  manholes.  Cases  in  point  are  the 
tidal  drains  at  Charleston  and  the  canal  and  basins  system  at 
New  Orleans,  and  at  both  places  much  use  could  be  made  of 


272 


WATER  WORKS. 


the  level  flow  if  pipes  of  proper  size  were  laid  and  kept  fairly 
clean,  as  they  could  be.  Much  of  New  York  below  Canal  Street 
could  be  protected  by  the  use  of  a  level  system  such  as  suggested. 
At  Boston  ;uid  Norfolk,  also,  probably  it  could  be  made  of  great 
service. 

Stop-Valves  or  Gates.  Safety  cut-off  gates  should  be  provided 
at  each  corner  and  on  each  hydrant  branch  of  the  mains,  for 
cutting  out  any  broken  pipes,  which  would  otherwise  waste  the 
water  and  diminish  the  head.  By  means  of  these  the  water 
may  be  cut  off  on  each  side  of  a  break  and  a  supply  secured  for 
a  fire  in  the  district  or  block  from  neighboring  sub-mains,  of 
which  there  would  probably  be  at  least  two  available  on  a  "grid- 
iron" system.  Inasmuch  as  accidents  are  liable  to  happen  to 
pipes,  hydrants  or  gates  from  opening  streets,  etc.,  such  pro- 
visions are  very  important.  The  breaking  of  a  3-inch  or  4-inch 
service  pipe  entering  a  building  will  often  interfere  seriously 
with  the  supph\  In  consequence  of  the  fall  of  a  building,  a 
hydrant,  in  full  play,  may  be  covered  with  the  debris  and  make 
it  necessary  to  cut  off  the  section  of  pipe  to  which  it  is  attached. 
The  breakage  of  a  6-inch  main  and  discharge  of  its  contents 
into  the  open  air  would  pull  down  the  pressure  twenty  to  thirty 
pounds  and  waste  enough  water  to  supply  a  dozen  streams. 
The  "stop- valves"  or  "gates"  should  be  located  by  some  system 
at  a  uniform  distance  from  the  curb  to  insure  finding  them 
readily  in  case  of  necessity,  especially  when  streets  are  covered 
with  snow.  If  they  are  not  in  the  centre  of  the  streets  they 
should  be  uniformly  upon  the  same  geographical  side,  as  upon 
the  northerly  and  westerly  side,  and  at  some  fixed  distance  from 
the  centre  of  the  street  and,  at  the  same  time,  exactly  on  the  side 
line  of  the  cross  street.  The  location  of  them  can  also  be  in- 
dicated by  a  sign  on  the  nearest  building  or  fence  showing  the 
direction  and  number  of  feet  from  the  curb  line. 

Careless  workmen  frequently  break  gates  while  making  re- 
pairs, and  neglect  to  report  the  fact,  with  the  result  that  when 
the  broken  gate  is  left  closed  the  result  is  felt  at  a  fire.  In 
Detroit  it  was  found  that  out  of  2,600  gates  400  were  broken 
and  closed.  A  systematic  inspection  of  the  gates  should  be 
made  by  an  employee  of  the  department  at  stated  intervals, 
and  a  record  kept  of  his  report. 

The  effect  of  a  broken  gate  neglected  and  closed  is  to  make  a 


NUMBER  OF  FIRE  STREAMS  BASED  UPON  POPULATION.  273 


dead  end  of  the  pipe  on  which  it  occurs — a  fatal  fact  which  may 
not  be  discovered  until  a  fire  occurs;  hence  the  necessity  of 
regular  and  recorded  inspections. 

Number  of  Fire  Streams  Based  Upon  Population.  Hydraulic 
experts  differ  somewhat  as  to  this  point  from  each  other  and, 
especially  in  the  case  of  smaller  towns,  from  Underwriters. 
Mr.  Freeman  presents  "as  a  rough,  general  guide"  the  following 
table : 


Total  population 

No.  of  250  gallon  streams  which  should  hi 

of  community 

able  simultaneously  in  addition  to 

protected: 

maximum  domestic  draft: 

1,000 

2  to  3 

5,000 

4  "  8 

10,000 

6  "  12 

20,000 

8  "  15 

40,000 

12  "  18 

60,000 

15  "  22 

100,000 

20  "  30 

200,000 

30  "  50 

Ten  streams  may  be  recommended  for  a  compact  group  of  large,  valuable 
buildings  irrespective  of  a  small  population . 

As  a  general  statement  the  pipes  should  be  large  enough  and 
the  hydrants  numerous  enough  so  that  at  least  two-thirds  of  the 
above  number  of  streams  could  be  concentrated  upon  any  one 
square  in  the  compact,  valuable  part  of  the  city  or  upon  any  one 
extremely  large  building  or  special  hazard. 

Mr.  J.  Herbert  Shedd  presents  a  formula  showing  the  number  of  streams 
needed,  from  which  the  following  values  are  taken: 


Population.  No.  of  200  gallon  streams. 

5,000  5 

10,000  7 

20,000  10 

40,000  14 

60,000  17 

100,000  22 

180,000  30 


From  a  fire-extinguishing  standpoint,  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  always  that  in  gauging  the  size  of  pipes  and  mains  and 
determining  the  location  of  hydrants  no  general  rule  based  upon 
population  would  be  a  safe  or  a  wise  one.  It  might  be  as  neces- 
sary for  a  village  of  3,000  inhabitants,  by  reason  of  the  grouping 


WATER  WORKS. 


of  manufacturing  or  special  hazards  or  exceptionally  high  or 
large  area  mercantile  structures,  to  have  ten  250-gallon  streams 
as  in  the  case  of  a  town  of  40,000;  indeed,  in  the  case  of  the 
smaller  town  it  might  be  more  necessary  than  in  the  case  of  the 
larger. 

Pipes  below  Frost  Line.  In  New  England  the  rule  is  that  the 
axis  of  water  pipes  should  be  five  feet  below  the  surface, 
especially  in  gravelly  or  stony  ground. 

The  importance  of  laying  pipes  below  the  frost  line  ought  not 
fc<  >  need  emphasis.  In  some  sections  of  the  Northwest  they  may 
be  frozen  seven  feet  below  the  surface. 

Where  a  pipe  line  is  laid  in  a  street  which  has  not  been  graded 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  subsequent  grading  of  the 
street  may  lower  the  surface  to  within  a  dangerous  distance  from 
the  pipe.  As  much  as  two  feet  of  the  cover  may  under  circum- 
stances be  taken  off. 

Electrolysis.  A  serious  menace  to  the  pipe  system  of  the 
country  has  been  discovered  in  fugitive  currents  of  electricity 
which  escape  from  trolley  and  other  wires  unprovided  with 
proper  returns  in  the  shape  of  good  copper  wire.  In  numerous 
instances  pipes  have  been  ruined  by  these  currents  of  electricity, 
and  greater  vigilance  must  be  exercised  to  prevent  widespread 
disaster. 

Hydrants.  Only  "2-way"  hydrants  should  be  used  in  the 
business  or  mercantile  section.  They  should  be  "staggered'' 
through  a  territory  on  alternate  sides  of  the  street,  so  that  at 
least  half  of  them  would  be  safe  from  a.  line  of  fire,  and  they 
should  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  protected  from  freezing.  The 
importance  of  protecting  hydrants  from  freezing  ought  not  to 
require  argument.  There  is  no  excuse  for  frozen  hydrants,  as 
there  are  many  patterns  which  with  proper  care  will  not  freeze. 
As  I  write,  the  entire  business  portion  of  a  New  York  town  has 
been  destroyed  because  its  steam  fire  department  was  helpless 
by  reason  of  the  intense  cold.  It  may  safely  be  stated  that  the 
property  destroyed  in  a  single  winter  month  of  any  one  year,  as 
a  consequence  of  frozen  hydrants,  would  more  than  pay  for 
protecting  all  the  hydrants  in  the  country  permanently  against 
the  dangers  of  frost.  They  should  have  drains  to  the  sewer  to 
carry  off  the  water  after  being  used,  and  be  protected  by  boxing, 


HYDRANTS. 


275 


etc.  There  is  no  excuse  for  the  almost  universal  neglect  of 
simple  precautions,  upon  the  observance  of  which  the  safety  of 
an  entire  city  may  depend.  Where  these  precautions  are  not 
systematically  taken,  not  more  than  half  the  credit  for  the  fire 
department  in  rates  should  be  allowed  under  the  Universal 
Schedule. 

The  location  of  hydrants  is  an  important  matter.  As  a  rule, 
they  should  be  on  the  corners  of  streets,  for  obvious  reasons, 
chiefly  because  they  would,  at  such  locations,  be  most  quickly 
discovered.  It  may  happen,  however,  that  the  location  of  a 
hydrant  in  too  close  proximity  to  a  dangerous  risk  of  large  area 
or  height  might  be  injudicious. 

Two  "2-way"  hydrants  are  preferably  to  one  "4-way"  hydrant, 
on  account  of  frost  and  the  probability  that  at  least  one  may  not 
be  frozen. 

Hydrants  should  be  liberally  distributed;  it  is  a  mistaken 
economy  to  have  them  too  far  apart,  not  alone  because  of  the 
loss  of  frictional  head  in  great  lengths  of  hose — a  serious  matter 
— but  by  reason  of  the  simple  fact  that  6-inch  cast-iron  pipe  can 
be  laid  for  about  the  cost  of  the  best  2%  inch  hose,  with  the 
further  important  difference,  as  Mr.  Freeman  suggests,  tliat  the 
life  of  the  hose  will  not  average  more  than  five  to  ten  years, 
while  the  pipe  will  last  half  a  century.  The  greater  length  of 
hose,  moreover,  is  liable  to  accident  at  a  critical  moment.*  In 
the  compact  mercantile  portion  hydrants  should  not  bo  over  250 
feet  apart. 

The  post  hydrant,  having  a  5%  inch  or  6-inch  riser,  with 
rounded  corners,  is  preferable  to  the  flush  hydrant,  even  where 
the  latter  has  an  extra  "4-way"  outlet,  especially  in  Northern 
States,  where  a  covering  of  snow  might  interfere  with  finding 
the  hydrant ;  on  very  narrow  streets,  however,  the  flush  hydrant 
may  be  better.    In  Boston,  the  location  of  flush  hydrants  is 

*Mr.  Freeman  says:  ".More  than  half  the  static  hydrant  pressure  is  wasted 
in  overcoming  the  friction  through  too  long  a  line  of  hose  or  too  small  a  street 
main.  Good  jacketed  fire  hose  now  costs  about  75  cents  per  foot.  A  6-inch, 
tar-coated,  heavy  cast-iron  main  can  be  laid  for  about  75  cents  per  foot,  cost  of 
pipe,  trench,  h  ad  and  laying  all  included.  A  city  can  buy  a  good  two-way 
hydrant  for  less  than  the  price  of  50  feet  of  good  fire  department  hose  and  its 
water  department  can  buy  and  put  down  100  feet  of  the  best  six  inch  cast-iron 
water  pipe  for  just  about  the  same  price  that  its  fire  department  pays  for  an 
equal  length  of  hose." 


276 


WATER  WORKS. 


indicated  by  signs  on  buildings  opposite  tbe  hydrants,  stating 
the  number  of  feet  and  the  direction  from  the  curb  line.  An 
eight-inch  feed  pipe,  a  six-inch  riser  and  round  corners  leading 
to  the  hose  nipple  will  be  true  economy  even  for  a  2-way  hydrant, 
especially  where  the  pressure  exceeds  75  lbs.  per  square  inch. 

False  economy  is  practised  in  selecting  hydrants  having  the 
main  gate  and  riser  only  four  inches  in  diameter;  the  4-inch 
stand-pipe  sacrifices  too  much  valuable  water  pressure  to  be 
longer  tolerated  in  new  work  and  should  be  discontinued  to- 
gether with  the  -1-inch  water  main.  For  ordinary  purposes  of 
fire  protection  a  standard  hydrant  should  have  a  main  gate  and 
riser  at  least  five  inches  in  diameter  and  be  provided  with  two 
outlets  for  hose.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  independent  hose 
gates  on  these  outlets,  as  if  one  does  not  happen  to  be  used  it 
may  be  covered  by  a  cap  or  closed  by  a  portable  hose  gate 
carried  on  the  hose  wagon  and  already  connected  into  the  rear 
end  of  the  hose  line,  while  a  second  gate  is  at  hand  for  attach- 
ment of  the  spare  nozzle  during  the  time  the  hose  is  being  run 
and  before  the  hydrant  gate  is  open.  The  standard  hydrant 
should  have  a  bell  for  connecting  with  the  water  pipe  at  least 
six  inches  in  diameter. 

It  would  seem  unnecessary  to  suggest  that  when  hydrants 
are  being  located  they  should  be  attached  to  the  larger  of  two 
available  mains,  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  in  so  many  in- 
stances as  almost  to  amount  to  a  rule  they  are  placed  upon  the 
smaller  of  two  mains,  simply  because  the  connection  costs  less 
money  for  the  pipe  laying  contractor.  This  fault  is  so  common, 
and  the  consequences  are  so  serious,  that  it  should  be  the  rule 
of  any  city  that  no  hydrant  connection  should  be  covered  up 
until  the  Fire  Department  has  had  an  opportunity  to  examine 
and  pronounce  it  satisfactory.  With  the  use  of  modern  appli- 
ances in  the  shape  of  tapping  machines  it  is  possible  to  connect 
with  the  large  mains  without  shutting  off  water. 

The  Fire  Department  should  have  charge  of  the  location  of 
hydrants,  as  in  Detroit,  the  only  city,  I  believe,  where  this  is  the 
case.  The  firemen  can  be  trusted,  in  all  cases,  to  put  a  hydrant 
on  the  largest  available  main. 

A  notable  instance  of  indifference  on  the  part  of  a  Water 
Works  Company  to  avail  itself  of  large  mains  was  discovered 
in  Detroit.    I  quote  from  Chief  Tryon's  report  of  it: 


HYDRANTS. 


27? 


"In  April,  1893,  a  fire  occurred  in  one  of  the  buildings  forming  a  part  of 
the  plant  of  a  large  brewing  company  in  Detroit.  The  fire  was  quite  ugly  at 
the  outset  and  the  officer  in  command  promptly  sent  in  a  third  alarm.  Three 
engineers  whose  engines  were  located  on  Jefferson  avenue  in  which  was  a  42- 
inch  supply  main,  with  a  6-inch  distributing  main  alongside,  complained  of 
poor  water  and  proved  it  by  recording  a  vacuum  pressure  on  their  combination 
gauges.  It  did  not  ne  ed  the  gauge,  however,  to  tell  the  story,  as  by  standing 
next  the  hydrant  I  could  hear  the  suction.  I  could  only  think  of  a  broken 
gate  somewhere  on  the  line,  but  when  the  Engineer  of  the  Water  Works  set 
about  investigating,  he  developed  one  of  the  most  serious  minor  defects  in  our 
system.  It  appears  to  have  been  the  practice  heretofore  to  lay  large  and 
small  supply  mains  through  districts  they  were  intended  to  supply  without 
connecting  them  to  cross  lines.  In  this  case  the  engines  actually  pumped  dry  a 
section  covering  many  acres,  and  the  investigation  revealed  that  while  the  42-inch 
and  6-inch  mains  were  laid  parallel  they  were  only  connected  at  points  5,100  feet 
{nearly  a  mile)  apart,  and  that  the  district  north  was  supplied  entirely  from  this  6- 
inch  main  and  all  hydrants  were  connected  with  it!" 

Another  fire  in  March,  1894,  developed  the  fact  that  while  an 
8-inch  main  had  been  provided,  the  hydrant  ivas  on  a  Jf-inch 
main,  from  which  an  engine  could  not  get  sufficient  water.  I 
quote  from  Mr.  Tryon's  report : 

"The  supply  in  this  case  was  an  8-inch  main,  the  hydrants  being  on  4-inch 
mains,  one  just  north  and  the  other  just  south  of  the  8-inch.  An  investigation 
showed  that  the  following  conditions  existed:  The  gate  on  the  north  side  of 
Michigan  avenue  was  closed  so  t  hat  the  engine  was  pumping  out  of  a  4-inch 
pipe,  having  a  feed  from  but  one  way  and  that  from  a  3-inch  pipe.  This  was  in 
a  section  which  has  been  built  up  a  great  many  years  and  the  pipeage  is  as 
old  as  the  locality.  Even  had  not  the  gate  been  closed  the  pipeage  was  not 
sufficient  to  feed  the  large  engines  as  was  shown  in  the  case  of  No.  8.  With 
one  lj4  -inch  stream  they  were  all  right,  but  when  they  came  to  add  a  l^-inch 
stream  they  were  lost." 

It  may  be  assumed  as  a  fact  that  underwriters  have  no  more 
important  business  on  hand  than  that  of  making  proper  rates 
for  such  unprotected  territory,  for  it  may  safely  be  said  that 
millions  of  dollars  worth  of  property  located  on  inadequate  street 
mains  is  insured  below  cost  under  suppositions  of  adequate 
mains  which,  while  provided,  at  great  expense,  in  the  street, 
are  absolutely  useless  for  fire  purposes  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
hydrants  are  on  small  pipes. 

Hydrants  should  be  painted  a  bright  red,  so  that  the  Fire 
Department  can  find  them  easily.  Street  sprinklers,  sewer 
diggers  and  other  inexperienced  persons  ought  not  to  be  per- 
mitted to  use  them,  as  they  are  liable  to  get  out  of  order. 

Two  and  one-half  inch  openings  should  be  avoided;  4-inch 


•j;s 


WATER  WORKS. 


should  be  the  rule,  especially  where  3-inch  hose  can  be  handled 
by  the  Department, 

Hydrants  should  be  regularly  flushed,  to  secure  reliability  of 
action  and  remove  the  sediment  which  accumulates  in  the  short 
arm  leading  to  each  post. 

Hose.  The  best  quality  of  jacketed  fire-hose,  rubber  lined  and 
perfectly  smooth  should  be  used,  of  2%  inches  internal  diameter. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  use  3-inch  hose  and  abandoned,  in 
some  cases,  because  it  has  been  thought  unwieldy.  The  3-inch 
hose,  however,  is  necessary  in  compact  mercantile  districts. 
Chief  Croker  of  New  York  has  39  companies  equipped  with  3- 
inch  hose  and  expects  to  equip  more. 

A  modern  steam  engine,  using  3-inch  hose,  with  capacity  of 
1,200  gallons  per  minute,  can  throw  one  1/^  inch  and  one  1)4= 
inch  stream,  or,  with  two  short  lines  of  hose,  two  1^2  inch 
streams  can  be  thrown.  Such  streams  as  these  do  effectual 
work.  As  Mr.  Tryon  laconically  expresses  it,  they  are  "solid 
streams,  that  do  not  break  until  they  reach  the  fire,  and  leave  a 
black  mark  where  they  strike." 

Uniform  Size  and  Thread.  It  is  remarkable  and  inexcusable 
that  a  uniform  size  and  pitch  of  thread  for  couplings  have  not 
been  established  for  the  entire  country  so  that  the  apparatus  of 
neighboring  towns  can  be  availed  of  in  case  of  conflagrations. 

The  dimensions  recommended  by  the  National  Association  of 
Fire  engineers  at  the  1891  meeting  are  as  follows: . 

Couplings  for  2YZ  inch  hose,  1l/2  threads  to  the  inch,  3  1-16  inch  diameter 
to  top  of  threads  on  male  coupling. 

Couplings  for  2y%  inch  hose,  8  threads  to  the  inch,  3  5-16  inches  diameter 
to  top  of  threads  on  male  coupling. 

Couplings  for  2%  inch  hose,  8  threads  to  the  inch,  3j^  inches  diameter 
to  top  of  threads  on  male  coupling. 

Couplings  for  3-inch  hose,  8  threads  to  the  inch,  Zy%  inches  diameter 
to  the  top  of  threads  on  male  coupling. 

Couplings  for  S'/i  inch  hose,  8  threads  to  the  inch,  4  1-16  inches  diameter 
to  top  of  threads  on  male  coupling. 

Couplings  for  4-inch  hose,  8  threads  to  the  inch,  4^  inches  diameter 
to  top  of  threads  on  male  coupling. 

Couplings  for  4^  inch  hose,  8  threads  to  the  inch,  5^  inches  diameter 
to  top  of  threads  on  male  coupling. 

Couplings  for  5-inch  hose,  8  threads  to  the  inch,  §y%  inches  diameter 
to  top  of  threads  on  male  coupling. 

Couplings  for  6-inch  hose,  8  threads  to  the  inch,  7  1-16  inches  diameter 
to  top  of  threads  on  male  coupling. 


STEAM  FIRE  ENGINES. 


279 


Mr.  Charles  A.  Landy,  in  an  instructive  paper  on  this  subject 
recommends,  with  much  reason,  it  seems  to  me,  the  adoption  of 
a  uniform  thread  of  7%  threads  to  the  inch  for  this  reason  that 
the  7X2  swivel  part  of  couplings  will  connect  with  7  or  S  thread 
male  couplings  and,  therefore,  meet  the  majority  of  existing 
conditions  throughout  the  country. 

The  same  dimensions  should  be  followed  by  all  mills  and 
manufactories  rel}'ing  upon  the  co-operation  of  the  nearest  city 
or  village  department  in  case  of  fire.  It  has  frequently  hap- 
pened that  such  auxiliary  aid  has  been  valueless,  simply  because 
hose  and  hydrant  threads  would  not  fit  those  of  the  department, 
and  reducing  or  expanding  couplings  had  not  been  provided  to 
remedy  the  fault. 

This  subject  of  uniform  thread  and  coupling  is  deserving  of 
a  special  convention  of  Engineers  for  its  consideration. 

At  present  numerous  cities  capable  of  helping  each  other  are 
powerless  to  do  so. 

As  early  as  1830,  Mr.  Braidwood,  the  celebrated  English 
Fire  Engineer,  suggested  that  if  uniformity  in  the  structure  and 
design  of  apparatus  could  extend  to  the  most  minute  particulars, 
'  'a  screw  or  nut  of  any  one  engine  would  fit  every  other  engine 
in  the  kingdom.'' 

Steam  Fire  Engines.  This  suggestion  of  Mr.  Braidwood  as  to 
uniformity  in  the  size  of  nuts  and  parts  of  machinery  is  a  far- 
reaching  one.  At  present  the  situation  in  this  country  is  grave 
from  the  standpoint  that  steam  fire  engines,  probably  without 
exception,  are  of  such  delicate  construction  that  they  resemble 
the  machinery  of  a  watch.  They  are  liable  to  breakage,  and 
when  broken  it  is  discovered  that  they  must  be  sent  to  a  distance, 
to  the  shop  of  the  manufacturer,  to  be  repaired,  involving  the 
risk  of  conflagration  during  their  absence  and  outlay  for  expense 
because  of  the  exclusive  privilege  of  repairing.  Money  is  need- 
lessly spent  on  nickel-plate,  brass  finish  and  gewgaws,  which 
should  be  either  saved  altogether  or  expended  in  improving  the 
working  parts,  all  of  which  should  be  of  such  simple,  strong 
construction  as  to  be  easily  repaired  by  a  mechanic  of  average 
ability,  to  be  found  in  any  town.  A  blacksmith,  for  example, 
should  be  capable  of  repairing  almost  any  portion  of  a  steam 
fire  engine,  and  the  nuts  and  bolts  should  be  interchangeable. 


280 


W  ATER  WORKS. 


It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  reliability  of  steam  fire  departments  is 
materially  impaired  by  reason  of  the  faults  mentioned,  and  that 
the  steam  fire  engine  of  the  future,  when  underwriters  decide 
to  act  upon  their  present  convictions,  will  be  one  whose  working- 
parts  are  not  only  so  strong  as  to  reduce  the  breakage  risk  to 
the  minimum  but  of  such  simple  character  that  they  can  be 
easily  and  cmickly  repaired,  in  most  cases  by  the  substitution 
of  duplicate  parts  carried  by  the  engineer  himself. 

Hose  N  ozzle.  1  'M  inch  is  regarded  as  better  for  many  reasons 
than  1^4,  although  the  latter,  especially  with  Siamese  con- 
nection, is  decidedly  preferable  where  it  can  be  used.  The 
chances  of  extinguishing  a  fire  are  directly  proportional  to  the 
amount  of  water  thrown.  Small  streams  are  less  efficient,  as  a 
large  portion  of  the  stream  is  evaporated  before  it  reaches  the 
point  of  conflagration,  and  unless  water  is  brought  to  the  burn- 
ing surface  it  has  little  effect. 

I  quote  from  Mr.  Freeman. 

"The  efficiency  of  a  water  works  or  fire  department  is  measured  by  its 
ability  to  control  a  bad  fire  before  it  becomes  a  sweeping  conflagration,  and  the 
design  should  he  based  upon  streams  suitable  for  this  purpose. 

Experience  shows  that  large  streams  are  much  more  effective  on  a  fierce  fire 
than  small  streams.  A  small  stream  may  be  so  completely  evaporated  into 
steam  as  it  passes  through  the  flames  as  to  never  reach  the  seat  of  the  fire. 

A  fire  cannot  be  extinguished  by  wetting  the  flames. 

In  every  fire  which  makes  a  Maine,  there  are  two  processes  taking  place — 
the  first  process  is  the  roasting  out  of  gas ;  the  second  is  the  burning  of  this  gas. 

Water  extinguishes  mainly  by  chilling  the  ignited  surface  so  no  more  gas  is 
given  off — the  flames  then  die. 

With  a  large  stream,  even  though  half  the  water  be  evaporated  as  it  passes 
through  the  flames,  there  may  be  enough  left  to  quench  the  glowing  coals  which 
form  the  heart  of  the  fire. 

Thus  we  see  the  reason  for  the  opinion  to  which  many  practical  firemen 
have  been  led  by  experience  that  given,  say,  1,200  gallons  of  water  per  minute 
under  good  pressure — this  will  do  more  good  on  a  fierce  fire  if  concentrated 
into  four  IX  in-  streams  of  300  gallons  each,  than  if  used  in  six  1  in.  streams 
of  200  gallons  each,  or  ten  %  in.  streams  of  120  gallons  each. 

K\%  in.  stream  is  used  in  many  departments  and  is  often  better  than  the 
\y%  inch,  if  water  is  plenty  and  length  of  hose  short.  If  hose  is  long,  the 
friction  due  to  pushing  so  much  water  through  so  small  a  pipe  leaves  the 
nozzle  pressure  so  small  that  the  stream  is  too  feeble. 

Thus  from  the  hydraulic  principles  involved,  we  find  that  with  hydrant 
pressures  of  80  to  100  lbs.,  and  lengths  of  hose  from  200  to  400  feet,  the  1%  in 
nozzle  is  the  size  best  adapted  for  all-around  use  with  2}4  in.  hose. 


PIPE  DIAGRAM. 


281 


On  the  other  hand,  from  the  teachings  of  practice  and  without  any  discussion 
of  scientific  principles,  the  \  y%  in.  smooth  nozzle  has  come  to  be  the  size  most 
common  in  the  best  American  fire  departments." 

In  the  great  Boston  fire  of  1889,  it  was  safely  estimated  that 
enough  water  was  thrown  to  flood  the  district  of  acres  in- 
volved 12%  feet  deep. 

A  smooth  nozzle  and  rigid  pipe  are  necessary. 

Pipe  Diagram.  An  accurate  diagram  of  the  pipe  system  of  the 
city,  showing  the  size  and  location  of  mains  and  hydrants,  with 
stop-valves  and  gates,  should  he  in  the  hands  of  the  Fire 
Department  Chief  and  the  Local  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 
In  most  cities  and  towns  throughout  the  country,  to-day,  the 
only  diagram  of  this  kind  is  in  the  office  of  the  Water  Works 
or,  worse  still,  in  the  possession  of  some  private  individual, 
whose  selfish  pride  in  the  exclusive  possession  of  it  is  such  that 


fITCHBU  RG        DOTTED  LINES  SHOW  CEMENT  LINED  PIPE9 
JVIASS. 


282 


WATER  WORKS. 


the  important  secret  is  likely  to  die  with  him.  The  writer  has 
found  this  latter  condition  to  exist,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  in 
more  towns  than  one.  In  an  important  western  city,  not  even 
the  water  works  company  knew  the  location  or  sizes  of  the 
street  mains,  and  the  individual  who  alone  possessed  the  infor- 
mation was  trading  upon  it  in  order  to  enjoy  a  life  monopoly  in 
making  repairs. 

In  making  a  pipe  diagram  of  the  city,  it  is  well  to  omit  the 
street  lines  and  show  only  the  pipe  lines  with  the  names  of  the 
streets.  This  system  insures  greater  clearness,  and  is  the 
method  pursued  by  Mr.  Freeman.  The  foregoing  diagram 
shows  a  section  of  his  pipe  diagram  of  the  city  of  Fitchburg, 
Mass.  The  heavier  arteries  or  feeders  are  shown  by  correspond- 
ing heavier  lines.  The  size  of  the  pipe  in  inches  is  clearly  legible, 
and  where  there  is  both  high  and  low  service  both  systems  may 
be  shown  by  tracing  the  pipes  of  the  low  service  in  red  ink  and 
of  the  high  service  in  blue  ink.  The  heights  of  various  levels 
above  mean  sea  level  are  shown  in  figures,  474,  454,  &c. 

Expert  Management.  The  system  of  a  city  should  be  under 
expert  management  and  the  person  in  charge  should  understand 
hydraulic  engineering;  something  more  than  a  knowledge  of 
mechanics  is  necessary. 

Municipal  and  Private  Ownership  of  Water-Works.  Every  muni- 
cipality should  own  and  control  its  water- works  system  ab  initio, 
in  order  that  it  may,  from  the  very  outset,  determine  the  size 
and  quality  of  the  street  mains,  and  in  order  also  that  it  may 
secure  efficiency  at  the  lowest  possible  cost.  Theoretically,  an 
honest  private  corporation  can  supply  a  municipality  with 
water  under  a  contract  which  contemplates  the  purchase  by  the 
municipality,  at  some  later  date,  on  an  agreed  price,  but  in  prac- 
tice it  is  a  mistake  for  a  town  to  enter  into  contracts  of  this 
character.  The  credit  of  the  town  is  usually  the  basis  on  which 
the  corporation  floats  its  bonds  and  stock.  Even  though  the 
credit  be  not  traded  upon  as  a  guarantee,  the  stock  of  the  com- 
pany is  sold  on  the  supposition  that  the  town  will  have  to  take  the 
water  for  a  term  of  years  and  buy  the  plant  in  the  end.  It 
might,  therefore,  as  well  float  its  bonds  and  trade  upon  its  own 
credit  from  the  start.  The  temptation  to  put  in  cheap  pipe  and 
to  neglect  necessary  repairs,  especially  as  the  period  approaches 


RESPONSIBILITY   OF  PRIVATE  CORPORATIONS,  ETC.  283 

for  selling  the  plant  to  the  city,  is  too  great,  in  most  instances, 
to  insure  the  city  from  a  serious  loss  and  the  purchase  of  a  worn- 
out  system.  I,  therefore,  advise  municipal  ownership  of  water 
works  in  all  cases. 

Responsibility  of  Private  Corporations  for  Failure  to  Supply  Water 
for  Extinguishing  Fires.  It  is  to-day  well  settled  by  numerous 
court  decisions,  with  but  one  exception — that  of  Paducah  Lum- 
ber Company  vs.  Paducah  Water  Supply  Company  (Ky.),  12 
S.  W.  Rep.  554 — that  private  corporations  are  not  responsible 
to  individual  citizens  for  failure  to  supply  water  for  fire  purposes; 
even  in  cases  where  their  contract  with  the  city  or  municipality 
makes  it  their  duty  to  furnish  water  under  proper  pressure  for 
fire  protection ;  the  courts  holding  that  there  is  no  privity  of  con- 
tract between  an  individual  citizen  and  such  water  company 
which  would  enable  him  to  maintain  an  action  for  injury  sus- 
tained through  a  fire  and  resulting  from  a  failure  of  the  water 
company  to  perform  its  contract  with  the  municipality. 

That  municipalities  themselves  are  not  liable  to  citizens  for 
neglect  in  the  matter  of  private  water  supply  is  established  by 
an  unbroken  line  of  authorities.  First,  because  there  is  no  con- 
tract relation  between  the  propertyowner  and  the  municipality ; 
and,  second,  because,  as  one  authority  expresses  it,  "no  recovery 
in  any  event  can  be  had  where  the  negligence  of  the  municipal 
corporation  consists  in  failing  to  perform  a  legislative,  judicial 
or  discretionary  duty,  or  in  simply  performing  such  a  duty  in  an 
improper  manner.  A  recovery  can  be  had  against  a  municipal 
corporation  only  where  it  negligently  performs  or  negligently 
fails  to  perform  a  duty  in  its  nature  m  inisterial,  and  then  only 
in  cases  where  the  municipal  duty  is  imposed  by  law. "  8  Wait's 
Act.  and  Def.  938. 

"The  law  (Mott  vs.  Cherry  vale  Water  and  Manufacturing 
Company,  29  Pac.  R.  989.  48  Kan.  12)  which  authorizes  cities 
to  contract  with  individuals  and  companies  for  the  building  and 
operating  of  waterworks  confers  no  powers  upon  a  city  to  make 
a  contract  of  indemnity  for  the  individual  benefit  of  a  citizen  or 
resident  of  the  city,  for  the  breach  of  which  he  can  maintain  an 
action  in  his  own  name." 

The  Paducah  case  already  referred  to  (Paducah  Lumber  Co. 
vs.  Paducah  Water  Supply  Co.)  is  the  only  one,  as  stated,  in 
which  the  water  company  was  held  to  be  liable. 


284 


WATER  WORKS. 


WATER  WORKS  IN  THE  UNIVERSAL  SCHEDULE. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  schedule  recognizes  efficiency  and 
reliability  of  water  works  in  the  following  order: 

1.  Gravity,  with  an  "effective  head"  and  "volume"  at  the 
hydrants.  For  recognition  in  schedule  rating  the  reservoir 
should  contain  at  least  five  days'  supply  for  domestic  and  fire 
service,  which  should  be  maintained  and  is  more  reliable  if 
supplied  by  hydraulic  pumps,  in  duplicate,  from  a  river  or  other 
inexhaustible  supply,  not  liable  to  drought.  If  the  pumps, 
whether  steam  or  hydraulic,  are  arranged  to  secure  also  direct 
pressure  in  emergency,  as  already  explained,  both  kinds  of  serv- 
ice may  be  secured. 

2.  Hydraulic  Pumps  in  duplicate,  with  storage  reservoir  or 
tank  stand-pipe  of  ten  hours'  supply  for  domestic  and  fire  service. 

3.  Steam  pumps,  in  duplicate,  with  a  tank  stand-pipe  or 
storage  reservoir  of  ten  hours  supply  for  domestic  and  fire  serv- 
ice. 

4.  Direct  pressure  from  Hydraulic  Pumps,  in  duplicate, 
without  tank  stand-pipe  or  storage  reservoir. 

5.  Direct  pressure  from  steam  Pumps,  in  duplicate,  without 
tank  stand-pipe  or  reservoir. 

A  reservoir  system  is  preferable  to  all  others,  and  insures 
uniform  pressure  in  pipes,  involving  less  danger  of  breakage. 
While  a  large  reservoir  is  desirable  for  storage  purposes,  how- 
ever, it  is  not  indispensable  for  fire  purposes.  A  reservoir 
sufficient  to  hold  a  supply  for  both  domestic  and  fire  service  of 
ten  hours  would  probably  be  ample  for  extinguishing  any  fire. 
As  already  stated,  one  million  gallons  storage  will  supply  eleven, 
standard,  250  gallon,  fire  streams  for  six  hours,  and  for  the 
ordinary  city  up  to  15.000  inhabitants,  a  million  gallons  could 
be  considered  an  ample  reserve  of  storage  for  fire  purposes. 

Fire-proof  Pumping  Station.  It  would  seem  unnecessary  to  state 
that  the  building  on  whose  existence  the  safety  of  a  city  depends 
should  be  safe  from  fire  and  separated  from  dangerous  manu- 
facturing or  other  hazards  and  especially  from  Electric  Lighting 
Stations.  It  will  be  observed  that  charge  is  made  (item  No.  8) 
for  an  electric  light  station  or  other  special  hazard  in  the  pump- 
house  or  exposing  it.    It  is  a  grave  question  if  this  charge  ought 


CISTERNS. 


285 


not  to  be  higher,  even  to  the  extent  of  making  the  '  'key-rate" 
of  a  city  having  a  direct  pressure  system,  so  jeopardized,  higher 
than  that  of  a  town  without  any  water  works  at  all,  in  view 
first,  of  the  fact  that  such  a  town  afterwards  gets  credit  for  in- 
dividual risks  in  proximity  to  hydrants  to  the  extent  possibly  of 
15  io  (see  Nos.  155,  156),  and,  second,  of  the  fact  that  a  company's 
conflagration  line  in  the  direct  pressure  town  would  have  been 
increased  by  reason  of  the  pressure,  but  all  benefit  of  the  system 
lost  if  a  fire  destroying  the  pump-house  should  happen  to  be 
coincident  with  the  raging  of  a  conflagration  in  the  city. 

Cisterns.  In  Detroit,  small  cisterns  or  reservoirs,  holding 
7,000  gallons  or  more,  are  distributed  throughout  the  city,  not- 
withstanding the  pipe  system,  and  would  admirably  supplement 
a  broken  street  main.  In  some  cases  they  are  of  oblong  or 
sewer  shape,  of  cemented  brick. 

As  stated  elsewhere,  in  all  cases  where  dead  ends  are  neces- 
sary in  the  outskirts  of  the  city,  a  cistern  or  reservoir  is  provided 
at  the  end,  so  that  in  blowing  off  the  dead  end  the  waste  water 
is  husbanded  for  fire  purposes. 

CAPACITY  OF  CISTERNS  OR  STAND-PIPES  IN  U.  S.  GALLONS 

For  each  12  inches  of  depth. 


The  following  table  will  enable  any  one  to  estimate  the  capacity  of  tank 
stand-pipes  or  cisterns  of  cylindrical  form  in  U.  S.  gallons  for  each  12  inches 
of  depth: 


4  feet  diameter, 

94 

11  feet  diameter 

711 

5  " 

-  147 

12  " 

-  846 

6  " 

211K 

13  " 

993 

7  " 

-  288 

14  " 

<  i 

-  H15K 

8  " 

376 

15  " 

li 

1322 

9  " 

-  476 

20  " 

I  t 

-  2350 

10  " 

58734 

25  " 

.  i 

-  3672 

For  example,  a  cistern  25  feet  in  diameter  would  contain  3672 
gallons  for  every  foot  of  depth ;  and  if  10  feet  deep,  36720  gallons, 
or  918  bbls. 

A  simple  rule  may  be  stated  as  follows :  To  find  the  contents 
in  U.  S.  standard  gallons  for  each  foot  of  depth  of  a  cylin- 
drical cistern  with  a  circular  base,  multiply  the  square  of  the 


•■»*<; 


WATER  WORKS. 


diameter  (in  feet)  by  5%;  the  product  will  be  the  contents 
in  gallons  * 

For  example,  a  cistern  20  feet  in  diameter  and  10  feet  deep 
would  contain  20  X  20  X  5%  X  10  =  23500  gallons  (see  table  above). 

*Tlie  cubic  contents  in  feet  of  a  cylinder  like  a  cistern  are  obtained  by 
multiplying  the  area  of  the  circle  by  the  depth  in  feet.  Inasmuch  as  the  area 
of  a  circle  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  .7854,  and 
inasmuch  as  a  cubic  foot,  of  water  contains  7. IS  gallons,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  the  product  of  7  48 X  7854,  ==5%,  to 
obtain  the  result  in  gallons,  without  the  longer  computation. 

N.  B. — In  the  preparation  of  the  preceding  pages  it  was  my  aim  to  collate, 
in  condensed  form  and  by  systematic  arrangement ,  such  important  information 
regarding  water  works  and  street  mains  as  is  usually  to  be  found  scattered 
throughout  the  pages  of  expensive  treatises  on  hydraulics  and  water  supply, 
whose  authors  generally  and,  perhaps,  naturally  give  more  attention  to 
domestic  service,  potableness,  etc.,  than  to  fire  service. 

Technical  phraseology  has  been,  as  far  as  possible,  avoided,  in  order  that  the 
property-holders  of  a  city  may  understand  its  recommendations  when  consider- 
ing the  introduction  or  improvement  of  water  works.  Impressed  with  the 
value  of  a  thorough  canvass  for  the  criticism  and  opinions  of  others,  such  as 
was  made  in  the  case  of  the  Universal  Mercantile  Schedule,  the  writer  decided 
to  send  the  pamphlet  "in  proof"  to  Hydraulic  Engineers,  Fire  Chiefs  and  other 
experts  throughout  the  country,  with  the  result  that  he  is  under  obligation  not 
only  to  the  gentlemen  quoted  throughout  the  pamphlet  but,  also,  to  main- 
others  and  especially  to  Mr.  Freeman,  to  whom  he  has  been  largely  indebted,  as 
numerous  references  throughout  the  work  indicate.  Indeed,  so  wide  has  been 
the  writer's  canvass  for  criticism  and  so  materially  has  the  article  been  im- 
proved by  drafts  made  upon  the  wisdom  of  others  that  he  feels  more  like  a 
compiler  than  an  author.  Whatever  he  may  lose  in  credit  for  originality, 
however,  will  be  compensated  by  the  gratification  of  an  honest  desire  to 
furnish  valuable  and  reliable  information,  in  a  concise  form,  and  by  the  con- 
viction that  those  who  make  use  of  the  treatise  will  rely  thoroughly  upon  its 
statements,  for  the  reason  that  it  involves  the  consensus  of  judgment  of  many 
able  experts,  rather  than  the  individual  opinions  of  one  man. 


WRITING  POLICIES. 


The  agent  cannot  be  too  careful  in  writing  policies.  He 
should,  in  all  cases  where  the  circumstances  permit  it,  confine 
himself  to  the  carefully  prepared  forms  furnished  by  the  Com- 
pany for  his  guidance  and  avoid  carelessly  worded  contracts,  j 
written  on  the  spur  of  the  moment,  or  to  gratify  the  unreason- 1 
able  whim  of  some  over-particular  customer  who,  perhaps, 
fancies  that  forms  are  intended  to  protect  the  company,  at  the 
expense  of  the  assured.  No  greater  error  could  be  made.  An 
honorable  company  seeks  only  to  protect  itself  from  fraud  and 
from  the  consequences  of  stupid  blunders,  and  it  will  be  found, 
in  nine  cases  out  of  ten.  that  the  clearly  worded  policies  of  the 
company  will  protect  the  assured  better  than  any  he  is  likely  to 
frame  for  himself.  A  company  desirous  of  securing  business 
is  not  apt  to  be  so  short-sighted  as  to  insist  upon  inequitable  or 
unfair  forms,  for  no  honorable  company  desires  disputes  or 
misunderstandings,  in  cases  of  loss,  which  might  be  avoided  by 
definite  and  unmistakable  contracts. 

It  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  always,  when  writing  a  policy  of 
insurance,  that  though  it  may  lie  forgotten  in  some  bureau 
drawer  or  office  safe  for  years,  it  will  become,  in  ease  of  fire, 
as  important  as  a  deed  for  the  same  amount.  Nothing  can 
be  more  embarrassing  for  all  concerned — the  assured,  the  com- 
pany and  the  agent — than  to  discover,  at  such  a  time,  that  the 
instrument  to  which  they  must  refer  for  a  definition  of  the 
respective  rights  and  obligations  of  the  parties  is  indefinite, 
illogical,  and  inconsistent,  not  only  with  the  policies  of  other 
companies  on  the  same  propert)-,  but  possibly  with  its  own 
terms,  and  that  each  party  must  make  disagreeable  concessions 
in  order  to  harmonize  a  contract  which  might  just  as  well  have 
been  clear  and  explicit  from  the  start. 

An  agent  will  sometimes  write  a  policy  for  five  thousand 


WJMTIN'C  I'OIjriKS. 


dollars  wit li  less  care  than  lie  would  a  check  or  note  for  fifty, 
notwithstanding  that  within  twenty-four  hours  the  policy  may 
become  a  claim  for  its  whole  amount!  Such  indifference  is  in- 
excusable. 

Before  writing  a  policy  select  a  form  suited  to  the  risk,  and 
unless  it  conflicts,  in  important  respects,  with  existing 
insurance  in  oilier  companies  on  the  property,  follow  it  care- 
fully and  as  literally  as  the  facts  and  circumstances  will  allow. 

All  the  insurance  upon  the  same  property,  however,  should  be  con- 
current, that  is,  the  contracts  or  policies  of  all  companies  insuring 
it  should  read  alike,  with  regard  to  the  description  of  the 
property,  the  different  classes  of  property  covered,  and  the  pro- 
portion in  which  the  policies  apply  to  or  cover  them.  The  policy 
of  one  company,  for  instance,  on  a  stock  of  "groceries,  dry 
goods  and  crockery,"  should  not  cover  groceries  and  crockery. 
that  of  another  dry  goods  and  crockery,  while  a  third,  possibly, 
covers  all  three.  Nor  should  the  policy  of  one  company  cover 
a  specific  amount  on  each,  while  another  insures  all  under  one 
sum. 

Non-concurrent  policies  are  always  productive  of  dissatis- 
faction in  case  of  loss,  and  seriously  embarrass  adjusters.  The 
assured,  moreover,  nearly  always  suffers,  since  the  companies 
are  protected  by  conditions  in  their  policies  against  the  non-con- 
current contracts  of  others,  and  where  the  assured  is  so  short- 
sighted as  to  conceal  the  wording  of  subsisting  insurance  on 
his  property,  that  be  may  secure  a  policy  covering  property  not 
mentioned  in  it,  he  generally  secures  loss  to  himself.  The  better 
way  is  to  have  all  incorrect  policies  corrected,  and  the  whole 
insurance  made  concurrent.  The  companies  themselves  would 
much  prefer  this  plan,  and  cheerfully  undertake  the  trouble. 
When  the  agent  cannot  obtain  copies  of  other  policies  on  the 
risk,  he  should  either  decline  the  risk  or  insert  the  following 

form  of  permit  for  other  insurance:    "$  other  insurance 

permitted,  it  being  a  condition  that  the  ivhole  amount 
thereof  shall,  so  far  as  this  policy  is  concerned,  be  con- 
sidered as  written  concurrently  therewith,'"  being  particular 
to  explain  the  purpose  of  the  clause  to  the  assured.  Even  when 
the  other  insurance  is  concurrent  he  should  write  the  permit  in 

the  following  form:    $  other  i nsu  ranee  permitted 

concurrent  herewith, 


AMOUNT  OF  OTHER  INSURANCE,  ETC.  289 

Insert  the  amount  of  other  insurance.  Do  not  permit  an  indefinite 
amount.  An  agent  should  exercise  the  same  caution  in  limiting 
the  total  amount  of  insurance  by  all  companies  on  a  risk  to  a 
safe  figure,  as  compared  with  values,  as  when  he  carries  the 
whole  amount  in  one  policy.  Investigate  carefully  all  applica- 
tions for  permitting  additional  insurance,  both  as  to  value  and 
concurrence. 

Too  much  attention  cannot  be  paid  to  this  important  matter 
of  the  concurrence  of  contracts,  and  the  agent  will  do  well  to 
explain  to  an  applicant  that  it  is  to  his  own  interest  to  have  all 
of  his  policies  read  alike.  Non-concurrent  policies  are  usually 
the  result  of  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  insured  or  of  the 
agent,  who.  having  failed  to  protect  a  particular  class  of  property 
in  one  policy,  seeks  to  remedy  the  omission  by  taking  out  an- 
other in  some  other  company.  Efforts  have  been  made  to 
harmonize  the  differences  which  invariably  arise  in  such  cases, 
but  without  success.  No  rule  of  adjustment  which  would 
probably  be  acceptable  to  all  the  companies  interested  will  cover 
non-concurrent  contracts  so  as  to  protect  the  assured. 

Take,  for  example,  the  following  illustration.  A  party  hav- 
ing $5000  worth  of  flour  and  $5000  worth  of  grain  secures  an 
insurance  of  85000  on  flour  with  company  A.  Finding  that  his 
grain  is  not  protected  he  applies  to  company  B  for  $5000  insur- 
ance, but  insists  on  having  it  worded  on  flour  and  grain, 
declining  to  inform  the  agent  of  B  how  his  other  policy  reads 
(he  ought  not  to  succeed  in  obtaining  the  insurance  under  such 
circumstances,  but  we  will  suppose  that  he  does),  and  a  total 
loss  occurs.  If  company  A  should  decline  to  pay  over  one-half 
the  loss  on  flour,  claiming  that  he  has  an  insurance  of  $10,000, 
and  its  proportion  is  one-half,  he  will  lose  $2,500.  Whereas,  if 
both  policies  had  been  concurrent — and  he  might  have  had  them 
so  without  paying  any  more  premium — he  would  have  been 
fully  and  unquestionably  covered ! 

Having  decided  upon  the  proper  form,  it  should  be  clearly 
copied  in  the  register,  from  which  entry  the  agent  should 
copy  his  pot  icy.  The  full  name  of  applicant  should  be  written  in 
all  cases,  and  the  day  of  the  month  of  commencement  and  termination, 
and  the  amount  should  also  be  written  in  full,  and  very  plainly. 

Under  no  circumstances  should  a  policy  or  renewal  be  dated  back 


WRITING  POLICIES. 


to  cover  expired  time.  Tlie  contract  must  not  be  made  to  com- 
mence before  the  dnij  on  irhich  its  terms  are  agreed  to  If 
it  is  desirable,  for  any  reason,  to  have  all  of  (lie  policies  on  a 
risk  expire  on  a  particular  day,  the  policy  may  be  issued  for 
"the  time"  from  the  date  of  the  contracl  to  the  day  of  expiration. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  a  party  entrusted  with  the  care  of 
insurance  on  property  for  the  owner,  will  desire  to  cover  up  an 
oversight  on  his  pari  by  having  a  policy  or  renewal  dated  back. 
The  agent  should  decline  to  do  so  in  all  cases.  The  precedent 
would  be  an  objectionable  one  to  establish. 

There  should  be  no  erasures  in  a  policy  or  renewal.  If  a  mistake 
is  made,  do  not  attempt  to  erase  it,  but  use  a  new  blank,  and 
return  the  incorrect  one  as  "spoiled"  to  the  company  with  the 
next  monthly  account. 

The  Numbering  of  Policies.  Kach  policy  should  have  a  particu- 
lar number  by  which  it  is  to  be  always  afterward  known  and 
designated,  even  though  subsequently  canceled.  Under  no 
circumstances  should  the  some  number  be  given  to  another. 
All  policies  and  renewals  must  be  numbered  in  successive  order. 

Lost  Policies.  If  a  policy  is  lost  do  not  issue  a  duplicate  policy, 
but  cancel  the  lost  policy  pro  rata  and  take  a  lost  policy  receipt 
for  it.  Then  write  a  new  policy  for  the  unexpired  time  of  the 
lost  policy,  and  make  the  premium  the  same  as  the  return 
premium  on  the  lost  policy.  This  will  involve  no  financial 
transaction  with  the  assured  and  will  keep  the  records  of  the 
company  straight. 

The  agent  should  not  give  a  number  of  his  own  to  a  policy  written 
at  the  office  of  the  company,  as  it  would  interfere  with  the  accounts 
of  the  Company.  Such  policies  should  always  be  known  by  the 
numbers  they  bear.  The  agent  should  not  skip  any  number  of 
his  series  because  of  the  issue  of  such  a  policy. 

The  monthly  account  should  show  a  continuous  list  of  the 
policies  issued.  Do  not  skip  or  omit  any  numbers,  but  fill  them 
in,  in  all  cases,  writing  opposite  each  the  particulars  of  the  policy 
or  an  explanation  of  their  omission,  as,  for  instance,  "canceled 
at  request  of  company,"  "canceled,  no  premium  paid,"'  "not 
taken,"  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be. 

It  is  not  necessary  for  an  agent  to  commence  his  series  of 
policies  with  number  "1."    He  may  commence  at  any  arbitrary 


VERBAL  AGREEMENTS,   LOCA  TION  OP  RISK,   ETC.  291 

number,  LOO,  for  instance,  being  careful  to  keep  the  scries  per- 
fect thereafter.  Where  lie  is  appointed  in  the  />/<(<■<'  of  a 
former  agent  of  fhc  company  removed  or  resigned,  he  .should 
commence  his  numbers  where  such  agent  stopped  writing, 
or,  if  lie  desires  to  keep  his  record  separate,  lie  may  commence 
with  any  number  higher  than  the  last  policy  issued,  but  never 
with  one  lower,  which  would  result  in  duplicate  numbers. 

Never  make  verbal  agreements.  The  policy  or  renewal  must  be 
the  only  contract  of  insurance.  All  tacit  understandings  or  oral 
agreements  as  to  what  property  is  or  is  not  insured  by  the  policy 
are  inadmissible,  under  any  circumstances.  Let  the  plainly 
written  policy  be  the  only  reference,  and  if  it  does  not  clearly 
describe  the  property,  have  it  corrected  before  afire. 

All  policies  should  accurately  describe  the  building  insured  or  con- 
taining property  to  be  insured,  as  follows,  for  example,  "the  two 
story,  brick,  metal  roof  building  with  metal  cornice  and 
coped  walls,"  or,  "the  one  story,  frame,  shingle  roofed  build- 
ing," or  otherwise,  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  location  of  the  risk  must  be  clearly  and  definitely  described  in 
the  body  of  the  policy,  by  street  numbers,  if  possible,  or,  in  the 
absence  of  street  numbers,  by  the  side  of  the  street  on  which 
the  building  is  located,  and  the  names  of  cross  streets  between 
which  it  is  situated,  and  distance  in  feet  from  the  nearest ;  or, 
in  the  absence  of  cross-streets,  by  lot  and  block  numbers.  De- 
scriptions of  location  to  the  company  should  be  uniform;  for 
instance,  one  risk  should  not  be  described  by  street  numbers, 
and  another,  adjoining  it.  by  lot  and  block  number.  Such  dis- 
crepant references  make  it  difficult  for  the  company  to  keep  a 
register  of  its  lines  exposed  to  one  fire.  Indeed,  too  much  care 
cannot  be  used  in  particularly  describing  the  location  of  risks, 
especially  when  the  building  insured  is  one  of  a  number  of 
similar  ones  owned  by  the  same  party.  In  case  of  a  loss, 
under  such  circumstances,  on  a  building  not  insured,  claim 
might  be  made  for  it  under  an  indefinite  policy  intended  to 
cover  a  different  one.  When  a  building  cannot  be  clearly  and 
unmistakably  designated  by  the  written  description,  the  policy 
should  refer  to  a  diagram  showing  it;  as  "building  marked 
"A,"  (or  "No.  1")  on  diagram  on  file  in  the  office  of  the 
company,  which  is  hereby  made  a  part  of  this  policy." 


WRITING  POLICIES. 


Never  write  ;i  policy  on  ;i  building  described  as  indefinitely 
as  the  following,  for  example,  ".s// Haled  in  the  town  of  Jeffer- 
son,"  or  "on  the  south  .side  of  Adams  street."  The  policy 
should  describe  the  property  as  accurately  as  possible,  and 
though  not  with  the  particularity  of  a  deed  of  sale,  yet  with  an 
accuracy  which  will,  in  case  of  loss,  admit  of  no  question  as  to 
the  pari icular  building  intended. 

An  agent  has  no  power  to  waive  any  of  the  printed  conditions  of  a 
policy. and  he  musi  nol  attempl  to  do  so  by  any  written  clauses, 
or  by  erasing  any  of  the  printed  matter.  Where  the  conditions 
are  ob  jected  to,  in  any  case,  he  should  advise  with  the  company, 
and  take  no  action  without  their  written  advice. 

Asa  rule,  the  printed  conditions  of  policies  are  intended  to 
protect  the  company  against  fraud,  aud  every  honest  claimant's 
interest  is  belter  protected  by  their  presence  than  it  would  be  by 
their  absence.  Take,  for  example,  the  condition  prohibiting 
other  insurance  without  the  consent  of  the  company.  Could 
anything  he  more  dangerous  to  the  public  interest  or  safety 
than  to  permit  a  dishonest  person  to  insure  his  property  for  an 
excessive  amount  and  without  reference  to  its  value ;  and  does 
not  everyone  feel  better  satisfied  in  knowing  that  his  next  door 
neighbor  is  restricted  from  keeping  dangerous  explosives  and 
combustibles  in  his  building  by  an  insurance  policy,  though  it 
prohibits  them  on  his  own  premises  as  well?  The  conditions  in 
the  policies  of  honorable  companies  are  actually  inserted  in  the 
interest  of  the  assured.  There  can  be  little  question  but  that 
the  restrictions  in  the  policies  of  insurance  companies  against 
the  keeping  of  dangerous  chemicals  and  explosives  in  buildings 
insured  by  them  have  had  more  to  do  with  preventing  serious 
catastrophes  in  cities  than  have  prohibitory  laws  on  this  im- 
portant subject.  Laws  are  easily  evaded  and  are  not  always 
enforced,  but  the  policies  of  conservative  and  careful  companies 
are  withheld  by  them  until  a  thorough  and  intelligent  survey 
of  the  risk  has  been  made  by  their  inspectors;  such  inspection  is 
very  apt  to  bring  to  light  the  dangerous  features  of  a  risk,  and 
even  if  it  should  fail  to  do  so.  the  knowledge  by  the  applicant 
for  insurance  that  his  policy  will  be  voided  by  a  breach  of  its 
conditions,  if  a  fire  should  result  from  the  keeping  of  prohibited 
articles,  has  the  effect  of  excluding  them. 

Probably  the  objections  urged  by  most  persons  against  printed 


INTEREST  OF   ASSURED,   MORTGAGEE,  ETC.  293 

conditions  in  policies  arises  from  an  ignorance,  on  their  part,  of 
the  fact  that  companies  would  be  protected  by  law,  in  the 
absence  of  such  conditions. 

The  interest  of  the  assured  must  be  clearly  stated  in  the  policy,  if 
other  than  the  unconditional  and  sole  ownership.  The  following  are 
tlii'  conditions  of  standard  insurance  policies: 

This  entire  policy  shall  be  void  if  the  interest  of  the 

insured  in  the  properly  be  not  truly  slated  herein;  

This  entire  policy,  unless  otherwise  provided  by  agreement  indorsed  hereon 

or  added  hereto,  shall  be  void  if  

the  interest  of  the  insured  be  other  than  unconditional  and  sole  ownership;  or 
it'  the  subject  of  insurance  he  a  building  on  ground  not  owned  by  the  insured 
in  fee  simple;  or  if  the  subject  of  insurance  be  personal  property  and  be  or 
become  incumbered  by  a  chattel  mortgage;  or  if,  with  the  knowledge  of  the 
insured,  foreclosure  proceedings  be  commenced  or  notice  given  of  sale  of  any 
property  covered  by  this  policy  by  virtue  of  any  mortgage  or  trust  deed;  or 
if  any  change,  other  than  by  the  death  of  an  insured,  take  place  in  the  interest , 
title,  or  possession  of  the  subject  of  insurance  (except  change  of  occupants 
without  increase  of  hazard)  whether  by  legal  process  or  judgment  or  by 
voluntary  act  of  the  insured,  or  otherwise;  or  if  this  policy  be  assigned  before 
a  loss. 

The  insurance  of  interests  smaller  than  that  of  the  fee  simple 
is  so  often  attended  with  moral  hazard  and  danger,  that  com- 
panies have  been  obliged  to  protect  themselves  by  a  clause  like 
the  preceding  in  their  policies.  It  is  evident  that  if  such  interests 
as  those  of  the  mortgagee,  and  the  minor  interests  of  the  life- 
tenant,  lease-holder  and  others,  all  of  which  are  insurable  at 
law.  could  be  insured,  as  well  as  the  interest  of  the  owner  in 
fee,  a  property  might  be  insured  by  two  or  more  different  per- 
sons, for  many  times  its  value,  each  one  taking  a  policy  upon 
it  for  the  full  value,  and  a  dangerous  moral  hazard  result. 
Where  several  different  interests  require  protection,  all  of  the 
parties  should  be  joined  in  one  policy.  This  enables  a  com- 
pany to  restrict  the  amount  of  insurance  to  a  safe  proportion  of 
the  value  and  protects  each  interest  as  well. 

When  the  insurance  is  for  the  owner  in  fee  only,  the  written 
portion  of  the  policy  should  commence  with  the  possessive 
pronoun  "his,*'  "her,"  or  "their/'  as  the  case  may  be.  to  in- 
dicate the  interest  insured ;  as,  for  example.  "$  on  his  tiro 

story,  brick,  metal  roof  building" ,  etc. 

The  interest  of  a  mortgagee  must  not  be  insured  direct  and  sepa- 
rately.   He  should,  in  all  cases,  be  joined  with  the  mortgagor 


•.".I  I 


WRITING  POLICIES. 


or  owner.  The  policy  should  he  made  in  the  name  of  the  owner, 
in  the  usual  manner,  and  with  loss,  if  any,  payable  to  the 
mortgagee,  as  follows:  "Loss,  if  (tin/,  payable  to  John  Doe, 
mortgagee." 

In  case  the  mortgage  should  he  afterwards  paid  by  the 
mortgagor,  the  following  endorsement  may  be  made;  "The 
i nt crest  of  John  l><><\  mortgagee,  having  been  .satisfied,  Hie 
losis,  if  any,  is  now  payable  to  the  assured." 

Do  not  consent  to  Chattel  Mortgages  on  Personal  or  Movable  Prop- 
erty. Too  many  interests  in  movable  property  embarrass  adjust- 
ments, and  a  presumption  of  moral  hazard  lies  where  an  owner's 
1  affairs  are  in  such  an  unsatisfactory  condition  that  he  is  obliged 
to  mortgage  his  personal  effects. 

Life  Estate.  Care  and  good  judgment  should  be  exercised  in 
insuring  this  interest.  The  tenant  for  life  who  has  insurance 
for  the  full  value  of  property,  of  which  he  has  only  the  use  for 
life,  has  often  much  to  gain  by  a  fire.  There  is,  under  such 
circumstances,  usually  little  incentive  to  carefulness  on  his  part; 
indeed  there  is  apt  to  be  a  strong  incentive  to  fraud. 

The  value  of  a  life  estate  is  not  easy  of  ascertainment,  and, 
moreover,  decreases  each  year,  and  the  better  way,  where  all 
parties  consent  to  the  arrangement,  is  for  all  interested — both 
the  tenant  for  life  and  the  ultimate  owner— to  be  joined  in  the 
policy,  with  a  condition  in  the  policy  that,  in  case  of  loss,  the 
money  is  to  be  applied  to  rebuilding  or  restoring  the  property, 
a  designated  payee  being  mentioned  in  the  policy.  This 
protects  all  interested.  Another  way  is  for  the  ultimate  owner 
and  the  tenant  for  life  to  agree  as  to  the  proportion  of  the 
insurance  money  each  is  to  receive,  in  tlie  event  of  loss,  and 
to  have  it  plainly  stipulated  in  the  policy;  as  follows,  for 
example,  11  It  is  understood  that,  in  case  of  loss  under  this 
policy,  the  same  shall  be  payable  in  the  following  pro- 
portion, viz.,  one-fourth  to  John  Doe  and  three-fourths  to 
Richard  Hoe." 

Leasehold.  This  interest  is  not  covered  by  a  policy  unless 
expressly  mentioned  by  it  (see  lines  17  and  18.)  Where  the 
owner  of  a  building  which  stands  on  leased  ground,  and  which 
will  revert  to  the  owner  of  the  ground,  by  the  terms  of  the  lease, 
at  the  expiration  of  it,  seeks  insurance,  it  should  be  remembered, 


[NSURANCE  OE  LEASES,  ETC. 


295 


as  has  been  before  stated,  that  his  interest  in  the  property  is  not 
more  valuable  than  tit<j  right  to  use  it  for  the  time  tli<j  lease 
has  to  rim — say  what  would  remain,  after  deducting  from  a 
fair  rental,  such  expenses  as  cost  of  repairs,  taxes,  ground  rent, 
defaulting  tenants,  declining  rents,  etc.  His  interest  depreciates 
in  value  with  each  }"ear,  and  when  within  a  few  years  of  the 
expiration  of  the  lease,  the  amount  of  the  insurance  should  be 
very  light,  unless  both  owner  and  lessee  are  joined. 

It  is,  sometimes,  urged  that  a  lessee  will  let  a  building  deteri- 
orate, for  want  of  repairs,  as  his  lease  approaches  its  termination, 
so  that,  at  the  last,  he  will  not  lose  much,  and  may,  therefore, 
be  safely  insured ;  but  this  argument  overlooks  the  danger  com- 
mon to  all  property,  the  owner  of  which  has  no  inducement  to 
carefulness.  Any  insurance,  rlso,  is  more  than  likely  to  be 
over-in  durance. 

Where  such  an  interest  is  insured,  the  agent  should  satisfy 
himself  as  to  all  the  circumstances  of  the  case — the  length  of  the 
lease  (which  should  be  stated  in  the  written  portion  of  the  policy) 
— whether  by  its  terms  the  building  reverts,  at  expiration,  to 
the  owner  of  the  ground,  or  is  to  be  paid  for  by  him  at  a  fair 
price,  and  whether  the  lease  is  renewable  on  equitable  terms — 
all  of  which  are  important  in  deciding  as  to  the  lease  and  its 
value  and  the  desirability  of  insuring  it.  If  it  seems  desirable 
to  issue  a  policy,  advise  the  Company  in  the  Daily  Report  as  to 
all  the  facts. 

Insurance  of  Leases  (for  form,  see  index.)  The  value  of  a 
lease  is  the  amount  which  a  tenant  collects  from  sub-tenants 
over  and  above  what  he  pays  the  owner  and  is  the  profit  on  his 
lease.  Leases  are  seldom  insured  outside  of  large  cities,  where 
rents  are  high  and  where  the  lessee  of  a  large  building,  in  a 
desirable  location,  who  has  secured  it  for  a  term  of  years  at  a 
low  figure,  can  frequently  sub-let  to  great  advantage — some- 
times for  thousands  of  dollars  per  annum  more  than  he  himself 
pays.  In  such  a  case,  he  has  an  interest  which  may  be  insured. 
He  would  clearly  be  a  heavy  loser  by  a  fire  destroying  the  build- 
ing and  canceling  his  leases.  Great  care  should  be  taken,  how- 
ever, to  see  that  the  applicant  has  a  good  bargin.  He  may 
have  taken  the  building  when  rents  were  high.  He  may  not 
have  secured  tenants  enough  to  fill  it.    Trade  may  have  changed 


2&6 


U  BITING  POLICIES. 


from  the  locality.  It  must  be  remembered  i  hat  we  do  not  insure 
except  against  m  l  mil  lass  of  property. 

Insurance  on  Rents,  (for  form  of  policy,  Bee  index.  |  Rents  arc 
also,  a  legitimate  subject  of  insurance.  The  owner  of  a  well- 
tenanted  building  receiving  annual  rentals  for  his  property, 
dearly  loses  something  more  than  the  mere  cost  of  the  building 
in  case  of  a  fire,  if  his  leases,  by  their  terms,  are  canceled  by 
such  fire. 

The  amount  of  the  monthly  payment,  to  be  made  under  the 
policy,  in  case  of  fire,  should  not  be  more  than  one-twelfth  l  i 
the  amount  of  the  policy,  as  this  is  the  basis  on  which  the  rate 
is  made.  Where  a  large  proportion  of  the  policy  is  payable  per 
mouth,  a  proportionally  higher  rate  should  be  charged,  as  a 
party  might  draw  the  whole  amount  of  a  policy,  in  case  of  a 
temporary  loss  of  rents  for  only  two  or  three  months,  and  the 
company  suffer  a  total  loss,  under  its  policy,  for  a  mere  tempo- 
rary damage  to  the  building. 

Onli/  an  (tciual  loss  of  vents  is  to  be  paid  for.  The  Com- 
pany should  not  pay  rent  for  rooms  which  were  vacant,  at  the 
time  of  the  fire,  and  for  which  no  tenants  could  be  secured. 
To  do  so  would  be  to  offer,  in  some  cases,  a  strong  incentive  to 
fraud. 

Title  of  Property  in  the  Name  of  a  Wife.  Although  the  husband 
has  an  insurable  interest,  at  law,  in  the  property  of  his  wife, 
the  condition  of  the  policy  requires  that  it  be  insured  in  her 
name,  or,  if  in  his  name,  that  his  interest  be  plainly  stated  in 
the  policy.  A  wife  has  no  insurable  interest,  at  law.  in  the 
property  of  her  husband. 

Property  in  the  hands  of  a  Sheriff  or  U.  S.  Marshal.  Do  not  insure 
without  the  consent  of  the  Company  first  obtained.  A  serious 
moral  hazard  is  often  involved,  especially  in  cases  of  seizure  for 
frauds  on  the  revenue,  as  in  the  case  of  whiskey,  tobacco,  etc. 
Fires  are  sometimes  resorted  to  by  unprincipled  parties  to  cover 
evidences  of  guilt. 

Assignee  in  Bankruptcy.  While  it  may  be  claimed  that  the 
danger  of  moral  hazard  is  past  when  a  bankrupt  assigns  his 
property,  for  the  benefit  of  his  creditors,  it  must  also  be  remem- 
bered that  no  one,  after  such  an  assignment,  has  that  interest 
in  the  preservation  of  the  property  which  is  common  to  unem- 


k<  >i;  w  in  >  .1  i  r  :..  a  v  *  <  >NOERN,  R  r 


bamissed  ownership  ;uul  so  indispensable  to  ensure  the  caro  upon 
which  the  underwriter  relies  for  his  prospects  of  safety.  Indeed 
it  might,  in  some  cases,  benefit  all  concerned — owner  and  cred- 
itors alike — if  the  property  should  burn  with  a  full  insurance. 
The  agent  should,  therefore,  decline  to  insure,  under  such 
circumstances,  without  fully  satisfying  himself  as  to  the  honesty 
of  all  concerned.  Not  over  three-fourths  of  the  actual  cash 
value  should  be  insured,  in  any  case,  and,  as  a  rule,  not  over 
one-half  such  value. 

For  Whom  it  may  Concern.  Decline  to  insert  this  clause  in  a 
policy.  The  names  of  all  interested  should  be  inserted  in  full. 
Agents  and  property-holders  are  apt  to  overlook  the  objection 
to  this  form,  forgetting  that  we  insure  the  individual  against 
loss  on  his  property,  and  not  the  property  itself.  Insurance  is 
a  contract  of  indemnity  only,  and  no  matter  how  good,  physic- 
ally, the  risk  may  be,  we  would  not  insure  an  unsafe  man. 
For  this  reason  we  must  know  whom  we  insure,  that  we  may 
guard  against  fraud. 

Insurance  of  -Agents"  instead  of  Principals.  Never  insure  an 
agent  on  the  property  of  his  principal.  The  policy  should  be  in 
the  name  of  the  owuier,  but  maybe  made  payable  to  the  agent, 
if  it  is  desirable  to  do  so,  on  account  of  the  non-residence  of  his 
principal  or  for  other  reasons. 

Insurance  of  the  Insurance  Agent's  own  Property.  The  Company 
will  be  pleased  to  write  policies  for  any  of  its  agents  on  desirable 
risks  belonging  to  them.  An  insurance  policy  written  by  an 
agent  on  his  own  property,  however,  is  void  at  law — a  man  not 
being  able  to  make  a  contract  with  himself — a  fact  which  the 
agent  should  know  for  his  own  good,  and  which  it  is  due  to  him 
here  to  state.  He  should  forward  his  application  to  the  Com- 
pany, and  may  rely  on  immediate  attention  to  his  request  and 
a  reply  by  return  mail. 

"Estate  of."  "Heirs  of."  etc.  The  property  of  a  deceased  person, 
which  has  not  been  divided  or  which  does  not  pass  by  will  or 
by  law  to  the  heir,  should  be  insured  in  the  name  of  the  estate. 
The  expression  "estate  of."  so  frequently  used  in  insurance 
policies,  has  strictly  no  legal  significance,  and  is  indefinite.  It 
is,  however,  susceptible  of  explanation  in  case  of  loss,  and  is  a 
very  common  and  convenient  expression  for  insurance  policies. 


u  RITING  POLICIES. 


To  insure  the  "heirs"  of  a  person  is  objectionable,  unless  the 
loss  is  made  payable  to  some  definite  parly,  surlt  as  the  adminis- 
trator, as  it  may  be  a  question,  in  case  of  loss,  as  to  who  and 
where  they  are,  and  it  might  be  claimed  that  the  company 
should  be  responsible  for  the  discovery  of  them.  They  are  some- 
times scattered  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  and  their  release 
receipts,  in  case  of  loss,  might  be  difficult  to  procure,  unless  at 
such  expenditure  of  time  and  trouble  as  would  prove  a  serious 
inconvenience. 

Commission  Clause — "Merchandise  Held  in  Trust  or  cn  Commission, 
or  Sold  but  not  Delivered."  "Held  in  Trust."  This  phrase  is 
often  misconstrued,  and  is  erroneously  supposed  to  cover  prop- 
erty merely  left  in  the  custody  of  the  assured,  for  which  he  is 
not  responsible,  in  case  of  loss,  and  of  which  he  is  only  a  "bailee," 
and  not  a  "trustee." 

"A  'trustee1  is  the  legal  owner  of  the  property,  which  he  is 
bound  to  convey,  use  or  apply,  for  the  benefit  of  another,  but 
neither  in  technical  nor  ordinary  language  is  a  man  called  a 
'trustee'  because  some  article  has  been  left  at  his  house  or  store, 
to  remain  there  until  called  for." 

This  cldii.se  docs  not  core/-  goods  held  on  storage,  if  insured 
in  the  name  of  the  warehouseman  and  not  in  the  name  of  the 
owner.  The  policies  of  companies  require  that  goods  held  on 
storage  must  be  specifically  mentioned  and  insured  as  such. 

"On  <  'omni  ission.'' — This  phrase  is  intended  to  protect,  and 
does  protect,  property  bought  or  sold  under  orders  or  com- 
missions of  third  parties  to  the  entire  value  of  the  goods,  not 
exceeding,  of  course,  the  amount  insured  thereon. 

"Sold  but  not  delivered.'1'' — "AVhat  constitutes  'delivery'  has 
been  an  open  and  much  discussed  question,  and  a  very  general 
misapprehension  exists  in  the  minds  of  merchants  on  the  subject. 
If,  after  sale,  the  vendor  is  bound  by  contract  or  custo7n  to 
deliver  the  goods,  his  policies  should  and  do  protect  him,  but 
with  reference  to  a  future  delivery,  agreed  upon  between  the 
parties,  unless  such  an  interest  is  retained  by  the  vendor  as  will 
ensure  his  care  of  the  property,  the  insurance  of  it  is  not  apt  to 
be  a  safe  undertaking."  It  must  be  remembered  that  we  do 
not  insure  the  goods — if  we  did  it  might  be  a  matter  of  indiffer- 
ence to  us  as  to  who  had  charge  of  or  owned  them.    We  insure 


COMMISSION  CLAUSE. 


299 


the  owner  against  any  loss  he  may  sustain  by  reason  of  the  de- 
struction of  the  goods,  and,  as  the  safety  of  property  largely 
depends  upon  the  character  of  the  owner  for  honesty  and  care- 
fulness, the  company  should  always  know  when  a  change  of 
ownership  takes  place,  and  be  in  a  position  to  withhold  its  con- 
sent if  necessary. 

The  following  extract  from  the  report  of  a  Committee  of  the 
New  York  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  will  be  found  to  still 
further  explain  the  matter: 

"We  do  not  know  why  the  seller  should  be  relieved  from  all  responsibility 
for  care  and  safety  of  the  goods,  except  lire  insurance,  which  lie  or  the  Broker 
seems  to  suppose  he  may  hold  and  trade  oil  in  the  sale.  If,  after  sale,  he  is 
bound  by  contract  or  custom  for  delivery,  we  believe  it  right  that  his  Policies 
shall  still  protect  him.  We  may  not  know  whether  or  not  his  agreement  for 
a  future  delivery  has  been  made  specially  to  hold  the  insurance,  but  we  do  say 
that  if  the  insurance  is  thus  necessary  for  the  seller's  protection,  so  should 
be  all  other  needed  care  and  responsibility  for  the  goods  until  they  shall  be  actually 
delivered.  It  is  a  technical  wrong-wording  to  say,  we  insure  the  goods,  and  it 
leads  tn  further  saying  and  thinking  that  if  we  insure  the  goods,  what  matters 
it  who  may  be  the  owner,  if  the  fire  be  honest.  Insurance  is  a  personal  con- 
tract between  the  company  insuring  and  the  person,  owner  or  manager  bf  the 
property  described.  We  insure  him  against  any  loss  he  may  sustain  by  fire 
to  the  property.  We  issue  our  Policies  on  our  faith  in  the  assured  and  his  care 
for  thi- property,  and  we  cannot  suffer  him  to  abandon  any  of  that  care  of  owner- 
ship whilst  our  Policy  may  be  liable  for  a  loss." 

The  actual  removal  of  the  property  from  the  custody  and 
premises  of  the  vendor  is  not  necessary  to  constitute  delivery. 
"If  goods  are  sold  in  a  store,  separated  and  weighed  or  num- 
bered— if  that  be  necessary — and  put  into  a  parcel,  or  otherwise 
made  ready  for  delivery  to  the  buyer,  in  his  presence,  and  he 
request  the  seller  to  keep  the  goods,  for  a  time,  for  him,  this  is 
so  far  a  delivery  as  to  vest  the  property  in  the  goods  in  the 
buyer,  and  the  seller  becomes  the  bailee  of  the  buyer.  If  they 
should  be  burned  while  so  held,  the  buyer  would  lose  them." 
(Parsons  on  Commercial  Lair.)  In  some  cases,  as  in  the 
purchase  of  lumber,  for  instance,  slight  acts,  such  as  touching 
it  or  even  going  near  it  and  pointing  it  out,  are  sufficient  to 
constitute  delivery.  The  delivery  of  a  negotiable  warehouse 
receipt  or  of  an  order  on  a  warehouse-man  or  third  party  having 
custody  of  the  goods,  constitutes  delivery  and  the  interest  of 
the  seller  passes  to  the  buyer.  So,  also,  the  delivery  to  the 
buyer  of  the  key  of  a  warehouse  containing  the  goods  would  be 
delivery. 


:iuu 


WRITING  POLICIES. 


The  illustration  has  heen  made  use  of  by  a  writer  on  com- 
mercial law  that  if  a  certain  number,  say  fifty,  out  of  two 
hundred  trees  should  be  selected  by  a  buyer  and  purchased  of  a 
gardener,  though  left  growing  in  the  grounds  of  the  seller,  he 
(the  purchaser)  would  be  the  owner  of  them  and  lose  by  their 
destruction.  If,  however,  he  should  purchase  fifty  of  the  num- 
ber without  denoting  his  preference  for  particular  ones,  they 
would,  up  to  the  time  of  such  selection,  remain  the  property  of 
the  seller,  who  would  lose  them  if  destroyed. 

It  is  sometimes  customary  among  brokers  and  merchants  to 
attempt  to  sell  a  remaining  interest  in  an  insurance  policy  by 
inserting  in  sale  notes  words  like  these :  "Buyers  to  have  the 
benefit  of  seller's  unexpired  fire  insurance  without  charge." 
This  may  he  agreed  upon  as  lieticeen  the  parties,  biif  unless 
the  transaction  is  completed  by  obtaining  the  consent  of 
the  insurance  company  to  the  transfer,  such  clauses  in  any 
contracts  for  the  sale  of  goods  are  powerless  to  convey  an  interest 
in  the  policy.    In  such  a  case  it  takes  three  to  make  a  bargain. 

The  following  is  the  resolution  of  the  New  York  Board  of 
Fire  Underwriters  as  to  this  important  point  of  goods  sold,  with 
an  agreement  as  to  a  future  delivery: 

'■'Resolved,  That  claims  for  loss  of  goods  sold  where  it  is  truly  set  forth  in 
the  'proofs  of  loss,'  that  in  the  sale  note  or  contract  of  sale,  there  was  in  writing 
the  following  words  (or  others  to  the  same  effect) — 'Deliverable  at  the  option  of 

the  buyer  at  any  time  within  days,'  or,  if  an  order  on  the  warehouse  has 

been  given,  and  such  order  was  made  to  read  'Deliver  to  A.  B.  &>  Co.,  {the 
purchaser),  at  any  time  within  days,'  (or  words  to  that  effect),  the  Insur- 
ance Companies,  members  of  'the  new  YORK  board  of  FIRE  underwriters,' 
will  recognize  the  assured  in  the  Policy  named  as  the  owner  of  the  goods 
within  and  up  to  the  time  of  such  limitation,  provided  the  number  of  days  is 
fixed  at  the  time  of  sale,  and  then  -written  in  the  contract  or  order;  and  provided 
that  the  buyer  shall  not  have  presented  his  order  and  had  the  goods  placed  to 
his  or  other  account  in  the  store." 

To  collect  the  amount  of  insurance,  in  case  of  loss,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  claimant  should  have  an  insurable  interest  in  the 
property  at  the  time  of  the  fire,  and  it  must  be  plain  that  the 
seller,  who  has  sold  property  and  is  not  liable  to  the  buyer  for 
it,  cannot  take  the  required  oath  of  interest.  His  responsi- 
bility for  the  preservation  of  the  goods  has  ceased. 

Sold  but  -not  Removed  from  Store."  Decline  this  form.  It  is 
designed  to  evade  the  legal  interpretation  of  the  term  ''sold  but 


RE-INSURANCK. 


301 


not  delivered."  As  before  explained,  actual  removal  is  not  a 
necessary  incident  of  delivery.  No  one  should  be  permitted  to 
insure  that  which  he  does  not  own,  and  for  which  he  is  not 
responsible,  in  case  of  loss. 

Re-insurance.  Policies  reinsuring  other  Companies  must  not 
be  issued  without  first  obtaining  the  consent  of  the  Company. 
Wberever  practicable  the  policy  should  be  issued  direct  to  the 
property-holder.  It  is,  however,  sometimes  admissible  to  re- 
insure a  company  having  a  larger  line  than  it  ought  to  carry. 
The  agent  should  be  very  careful,  in  such  cases,  to  assure  him- 
self that  the  company  dividing  its  line  is  not  doing  so  under  a 
concealed  apprehension  of  danger,  and  especially  should  he 
guard  against  re-insurance,  where  any  moral  hazard  is  in- 
volved. The  re-insurance  should  always  be  a  question  of  line 
only,  and  never  of  risk  or  rate;  that  is,  only  to  be  effected  for 
a  company  desiring  to  be  re-insured  where  the  line  held  by  such 
company  is  too  great  for  it  to  carry  and  not  where  the  rate  is  too 
low,  or  the  risk  an  undesirable  one.  In  reporting  such  risks  by 
daily  reports  be  particular  to  explain  all  the  circumstances,  and 
to  state  the  amount  of  insurance  retained  by  the  re-insured 
company,  after  deducting  all  re-insurance. 

The  agent  should  assure  himself,  also,  that  the  re-insuring 
company  is  not  getting  rid  of  the  poorest  portion  of  a  risk, 
by  re-insuring  it  at  the  "round  rate"  of  the  whole.  We  would 
not  re-insure  barns,  for  instance,  at  the  round  rate  for  farm 
property,  where  the  re-insured  company  retains  the  dwelling. 

An  agent  of  tiro  different  companies  cannot  re-insure  one 
of  them  in  the  other.  Such  a  policy  would  be  void  unless 
approved  by  the  company  issuing  it.  An  agent  cannot  make 
a  contract  with  himself,  either  personally  or  as  an  agent. 

Under  no  circumstances  do  we  wish  an  agent  to  issue  the 
policy  of  this  company  for  a  larger  amount  than  is  meant  to  be 
retained,  even  when  re-insuring  the  excess  in  some  other  com- 
pany. Such  a  practice  virtually  amounts,  in  many  cases,  to  a 
guaranty  of  the  policy  of  a  weaker  company  without  re- 
muneration, since,  in  case  of  loss,  we  would  have  the  full 
amount  to  pay  and  take  our  chances  of  recovering  any  portion 
of  it  from  the  re-insuring  company,  which  might  fail  by  an 
extended  conflagration  involving  the  destruction  of  the  property. 


302 


WRITING  POLICIES. 


We  clearly  lose,  also,  in  the  case  of  re-insurance  the  expenses 
of  commission,  taxes,  etc.,  paid  by  us  on  the  premium. 

In  those  cases  where  it  may  he  necessary  or  advisable  to  re- 
insure our  lines,  we  prefer  to  do  so  at  the  principal  office. 

Where  agents  cannot  place  their  surplus  lines,  they  will  find 
the  company,  at  all  times,  ready  and  willing  to  assist  them  by 
placing  desirable  risks  in  other  companies,  securing  for  them, 
if  possible,  the  usual  commission. 

Do  not  write  a  -Valued  Policy."  i.  <■..  one  in  which  the  value  of 
the  subject  insured  is  mentioned.  If  the  written  portion  of  a 
policy  fixes  the  value,  there  is  little  hope  of  escaping  the  pay- 
ment of  the  amount,  even  though  it  be  above  the  true  value  of 
the  property.  In  all  cases  the  value  should  be  left  to  be  deter- 
mined after  the  loss.  It  is  desirable,  however,  in  some  cases, 
to  fix  ;i  limit  of  value,  beyond  which  claim  cannot  be  made  in 
case  of  loss.  Especially  is  this  the  case  where  the  property  has 
a  fancy  value,  not  well  established  by  rules  of  trade;  such  prop- 
erty, for  instance,  as  paintings,  valuable  horses  or  other  live 
stock,  collections  of  curiosities,  mineral,  geological  or  ornitho- 
logical cabinets,  rare  books,  statuary,  etc.  When  insuring 
paintings  or  engravings,  where  two  or  more  are  Insured  under 
one  amount  and  not  specifically,  the  following  clause  should  be 
inserted:  "In  case  of  loss,  no  one  painting  or  engraving  to 
be  rallied  at  more  than  •>'.  .  .  .,"  (here  insert  amount),  or  the 
following:  "In  case  of  loss,  no  painting  or  engraving  to  be 
valued  at  more  than  east."  Neither  of  these  clauses  fixes  any 
value.    They  merely  limit  the  maximum  amount  of  claim. 

Where  horses  or  other  live  stock  are  insured,  an  amount 
should  be  named  beyond  which  claim  cannot  be  made,  in  case 
of  loss,  on  any  one.  This  prevents  any  claim  being  made  for 
the  whole  amount,  or  an  undue  proportion  of  it,  on  a  single 
animal.  The  number  of  animals  should  also  be  named,  and 
the  amount  specified  on  any  one  should  be  a  fair  proportion  of 
the  whole ;  for  instance,  if  $300  be  insured  on  three  horses,  the 
amount  limited  to  be  claimed  on  any  one  should  not  exceed  8100, 
or  one-third.  Where  the  amount  is  not  limited  to  a  fair  pro- 
portion of  the  whole  amount  of  insurance,  the  rate  should  be 
higher,  since  we  might,  otherwise,  be  virtually  carrying  several 
risks  for  one  premium. 


INSURE  THE  WHOLE  HAZARD,  ETC. 


303 


Insure  the  whole  hazard — external  and  internal    or  none.    It  is 

not  uncommon  for  an  applicant,  who  is  dissatisfied  with  the 
charge  made  for  an  exposure,  to  offer  to  carry  the  risk  of  the 
exposure  himself,  claiming,  possibly,  that  the  danger  is  over- 
estimated; or,  on  the  other  hand,  he  offers  that  if  the  Company 
will  insure  him  against  outside  dangers,  he  will  run  all  risk, 
himself,  of  a  fire  originating  on  his  own  premises.  Such  con- 
tracts are  objectionable.  It  is  frequently  difficult  to  arrive  at 
the  cause  of  a  fire,  and  it  will  generally  be  found,  after  a  loss 
under  such  a  contract,  that  the  company,  while  it  has  been 
receiving  a  part  only  of  the  premium,  has  really  been  carry- 
in  (j  the  irltole  risk. 

A  Policy  should  be  Specific.  A  separate  amount  should  be 
named  upon  each  building  insured,  and  a  specific  amount  on 
merchandise  in  each.  Under  no  circumstances  should  two  or 
more  buildings  or  their  contents — unless  they  communicate 
without  iron  doors — be  insured  under  one  amount,  without 
the  average  clause.  Insurance  should  always  cover  specifically 
on  each  side  of  an  iron  door. 

If  two  or  more  buildings,  insured  under  one  amount,  be  so 
situated  as  not  to  burn  necessarily  by  one  fire,  the  company 
would  clearly  be  carrying  two  or  more  risks  for  one  premium, 
unless  the  full  value  of  each  is  insured,  which  is  neither  likely 
nor  desirable. 

Never  insure  a  building  and  its  contents  under  one  sum. 

When  it  is  necessary,  for  any  reason,  to  insure  two  or  more 
buildings  or  their  contents  under  one  sum,  the  "distribution 
form"  of  average  clause  must  be  inserted. 

Where  personal  or  movable  property  consists  of  two  or  more 
different  classes,  it  is  desirable  to  insure  a  specific  amount  on 
each  class.  For  example,  if  insurance  is  desired  on  a  stock  of 
hardware,  tinware  and  fire-arms,  a  policy  covering  a  specific 
amount  on  each  class  of  merchandise  is  desirable  but  not  im- 
perative. Such  a  policy  may  close  with  words  like  the  following, 
after  the  last  division,  "and  other  merchandise  not  more 
hazardous,'''  to  cover  small  omissions.  The  policies  of  all 
companies  on  the  risk,  however,  should  be  concurrent,  and  all 
should  be  specific  or  none. 

A  policy  on  household  furniture  is  improved  by  specific  divi- 


:j()4 


\\  KITIN(i  POLICIES. 


sions,  and,  where  the  insurance  is  so  written,  an  applicant  U 
more  likely  to  take  a  sufficient  amount  of  insurance,  his  atten- 
tion being  called,  by  the  divisions,  to  the  amount  necessary  to 
protect  him.  In  case  of  loss,  also,  an  adjustment  is  easily  and 
satisfactorily  made,  the  assured  having  no  one  but  himself  to 
blame  if  he  is  insured  for  an  inadequate  amount. 

Office  furniture,  fixtures,  counters,  show-cases,  burglar  or  fire-proof 
safes,  etc..  should  all  be  insured  specifically,  and  never  included 
under  the  same  amount  with  stock. 

Druggists'  Jars.  Bottles  Soda  Water  Fountains,  etc..  should  also  be 
insured  specifically,  and  separately  from  stock. 

Plate  Glass  in  doors  and  windows,  if  more  than  three  feet  square, 
(or  nine  square  feet  ),  and  Plate  Glass  Mirrors  should  be  insured 
specifically  and  a  higher  rate  collected  (at  least  double  the  rate 
on  the  building)  owing,  in  the  case  of  windows,  to  the  liability 
of  breakage  either  by  the  heat  of  a  fire  across  a  street  or  in  a 
aeighboring  building,  or  by  firemen  in  order  to  enter  the  build- 
ing itself  in  case  of  fire. 

Out-houses.  Yard  Fences,  etc..  should  be  specifically  insured. 
Fences  should  paj'  at  least  one  per  cent.,  as  they  are  nearly 
always  broken  down,  in  case  of  a  fire. 

Curiosities.  Collections  of  Birds.  Cabinets  of  Mineral  or  Geological 
Specimens.  Collections  of  Coins,  etc..  if  insured,  must  be  for  small 
amounts,  and  specifically,  a  limit  of  claim  being  written  in  the 
policy  as  to  any  one  specimen,  in  case  of  loss. 

The  following  property  must  not  be  insured,  under  any  circum- 
stances: money,  bullion,  bills,  notes,  accounts,  deeds,  evi- 
dences of  debt,  securities  of  property  of  any  kind,  or  manu- 
scripts.   An  agent  of  intelligence  will  readily  understand  why. 

Avoid  all  ambiguous  or  incomplete  language  in  writing  policies, 
such  as  the  indefinite  words  "articles."  -effects."  -  property."  "con- 
tents." -household  goods."  etc. 

"Live  Stock.1"    Specify  whether  horses,  cattle  or  sheep. 

"Goods."  "Wares."  etc.  "Merchandise1'  is  a  preferable  term  to 
either  'goods'  or  'wares.'  as  it  implies  property  kept  for  sale. 
"Property  which  is  purchased  and  taken  out  of  the  market  to 
be  applied  to  the  ultimate  use  for  which  it  is  intended,  ceases  to 
be  'merchandise.'    Thus,  a  gentleman's  wearing  apparel,  the 


ARTICLES,  ETC. 


30."? 


furniture  <>t'  His  house,  his  coach  and  horses,  and  the  wines 
and  liquors  for  use  in  his  family,  arc  not  'merchandise.'" 

"Articles."  When  this  term  is  insisted  upon  by  the  assured, 
it  should  be  qualified  by  the  addition  of  such  words  as  "Ac/*/ 
for  sale,"  or  "o/  merchandise,"  to  prevent  claim  being  made 
on  show-cases,  office  or  store  furniture,  fixtures,  etc.,  all  of 
which  might  be  claimed  to  be  "articles,"  and  which  should  be 
specifically  insured. 

Avoid  abbreviations,  such  as  "Do.*"  or  "Ditto."  -etc.."  "Ac.,"'  -etal.," 
and  others.  According  to  Lord  Coke,  "&c."  means  "whatever 
else  ought  to  have  been  expressed."  We  have  no  objection  to 
insure  "whatever  else  ought  to  have  been  expressed,"  but  we 
desire  to  hare  it  expressed,  that  we  may  know  whether  it 
ought  to  be  insured. 

A  policy  should  never  be  worded  as  follows,  for  example,  on  a  -Saw 
Mill."  a  -Flour  Mill."  a  "Starch  Factory."  etc.,  but  should  be  written 
— "on  the  brick,  metal  roof  building  irhite  occupied  as  a  saw 
mill," — (flour  mill,  or  starch  factory,  as  the  case  may  be).  It 
has  been  claimed  that  a  policy  on  a  "saw  mill"  covers  not  only 
the  building,  but  also  the  saws,  engine,  boilers,  machinery, 
and.  in  fact,  everything  necessary  to  make  it  a  ''saw  mill  " 
complete  in  all  its  parts. 

Do  not  make  too  many  endorsements  on  a  policy.  It  is  best  to 
write  a  new  one  when  it  becomes  filled  -  up  with  too  many 
endorsements.    Clean  contracts  are  desirable. 

Do  not  renew  a  policy  which  has  been  materially  altered  in  any 
important  particular,  as  of  amount,  name,  location,  etc..  by  renewal 
receipt.  It  is  best  to  write  a  new  policy,  and,  in  this  connection, 
it  may  be  well  to  state  that  in  reporting  a  new  policy  so  written, 
in  place  of  an  old  one,  the  fact  that  it  is  renewed  by  a  neir 
policy  not  by  a  "renewal  receipt,"  should  be  stated  in  the  daily 
report  and  in  the  monthly  account. 

Never  issue  a  Renewal  Receipt  which  alters  the  original  contract 
in  any  important  respect,  especially  in  amount.  Renewal  receipts 
are  not  explicit  enough  in  their  form,  as  will  be  apparent  to  any 
one  upon  an  examination  of  them,  to  warrant  their  being  used 
to  alter  any  material  terms  of  the  original  contract,  especially 
if  such  alteration  is  in  favor  of  the  Company,  as  in  a  reduc- 
tion of  the  amount  of  its  liability.    A  renewal  receipt  may 


30G 


WKITINC    I'm  I  K  ||;s. 


require  extrinsic,  collateral  evidence  to  pnivc  it.  while  a  policy 
proves  itself. 

Endorsements  should  never  be  made  upon  a  Renewal  Receipt,  but. 
in  all  cases,  upon  the  Policy  itself.  All  endorsements,  transfers 
and  assignments  should  I >e  reported  on  the  day  they  are  made, 
on  the  small  blanks  furnished  for  the  purpose. 

The  policy  on  a  building  should  always  limit  the  hazard  of  occupa- 
tion, by  clearly  stating  it.  Such  words  as  "while  occupied  as 
prirafc  r//rc//<//f/,"  or,  "while  occupied  as  a  grain  ware- 
house" protect  the  Company  against  the  consequences  of  a 
change  of  occupation. 

It  is  desirable  that  definite  language  should  be  used.  The 
words,  "while  occupied  as  a  'store,'  or  "for  mercantile  purposes," 
or  "for  a  store-house,"'  are  not  sufficiently  definite — the  partic- 
ular kiial  of  "store,*'  "ware-house."  or  "store-house,"  and  the 
nature  of  the  "mercantile  purposes,"  should  be  stated.  The 
sale  of  fire-works,  gunpowder,  or  other  dangerous  substances, 
might  be  claimed  to  be  an  occupation  for  "mercantile  purposes." 
The  phrase  "while  occupied  for  purposes  not  specially  hazard- 
ous,'" though  frequently  used  and  less  objectionable  than  many 
others,  is  still  not  so  desirable  as  a  particular  and  plain  de- 
scription of  what  the  occupancy  really  is.  Where  the  occupa- 
tions of  a  building  cannot  all  be  given,  the  phrase  "privileged 
for  hazardous  and  extra  hazardous  occupation"  may  be  used, 
as  these  indicate  clearly  defined  classes,  and  are  preferable  to 
the  indefinite  phrase  "not  specially  hazardous." 

In  policies  on  special  hazards,  the  words  "privileged  to  be 
occupied  for  special/!/  hazardous  purposes"  are  not  sufficiently 
definite  to  limit  the  occupation — the  particular  kind  of  special 
hazard  must  be  specified.  The  term  "special  hazard"  covers  a 
very  large  class  of  dangerous  occupations. 

Do  not  issue  a  policy  for  a  premium  less  than  $1.50.  A  smaller 
premium  does  not  pay  for  the  use  of  blanks,  trouble  of  recording, 
etc.  Where  the  amount  is  so  small  that  the  computed  premium, 
at  the  rate  for  the  class,  amounts  to  less  than  $1.50,  the  agent 
should  charge  that  amount  for  it  or  decline  the  risk. 

Decline  to  write  term  policies  on  mercantile  risks.  The  only  risks 
which  should  be  written  for  a  longer  term  than  a  year,  are 
dwellings  and  farm  property.    It  is  sometimes  advisable,  how- 


APPLICATION  AND  SURVEY,  ETC. 


ever,  to  modify  the  rule  in  favor  of  elm  relics,  school-houses, 
colleges,  court-houses,  engine-houses,  and  other  public  build- 
ings which  are  not  subject  to  changes  of  occupation.  All 
other  risks  should  come  up,  each  year,  for  consideration  and 
inspection,  and  it  may  be  suggested,  also,  to  the  assured  that 
his  companies  should  come  before  him,  cacti  year,  for  con- 
sideration. The  rates  current  in  some  localities,  for  term 
policies,  of  two  annual  premiums  for  three-year  policies,  and  of 
three  annual  premiums  for  five-year  policies,  are  not  adequate. 
They  should  be  2%  and  3/^  annual  premiums  respectively  as 
already  explained.     Page  206. 

Application  and  Survey.  The  policy  should  close  with  a  refer- 
ence to  the  application  and  survey,  which  should  be  signed  by 
the  applicant,  using  the  following  form,  "Reference  being  had 
to  the  application  and  survey  of  the  assured,  numbered. . . ., 
on  file  in  the  office  of  the  Company,  which  is  the  basis  of 
this  insurance,  and  which  is  hereby  made  a  warranty  on 
the  part  of  the  assured." 

The  application  should,  in  all  cases,  be  signed  i>y  the  appli- 
cant and  never  t>i/  the  agent,  and  it  is  desirable,  also,  that  the 
answers  to  questions  should  be  filled  in  by  the  applicant  himself. 
Where  the  agent  performs  this  task  for  him,  he  is  the  agent  of 
the  applicant  for  that  purpose. 

Gunpowder.  Kerosene.  Night-work  in  Mills.  Lightning.  Fire-works, 
etc.    (For  forms,  see  index.) 


REPORTS  TO  COMPANY. 


Daily  Reports.  Surveys,  etc.  Let  all  daily  reports  be  full,  with 
every  question  answered.  When  a  letter  of  explanation  will 
place  the  Company  in  possession  of  valuable  collateral  infor- 
mation and  facilitate  its  consideration  of  the  risk,  it  should  be 
forwarded — otherwise  do  not  write  on  a  separate  sheet.  Daily 
reports  arc  intended  to  be  self-explanatory. 

Be  particular  to  answer  the  questions  as  to  the  amount  of 
insurance  permitted  in  other  companies,  and  as  to  whether  it 
is  concurrent ;  the  amount  of  other  policies  which  the  Company 
may  have  in  or  on  buildings  exposed  by  the  risk,  and,  therefore, 
liable  to  burn  by  the  same  fire;  the  value  of  the  property;  the 
length  of  time  the  applicant  has  resided  at  the  agency,  and  the 
number  of  years  the  agent  has  known  him. 

In  case  the  applicant  is  a  "new  comer,"  be  particular  to 
inquire  as  to  his  antecedents,  and  report  the  facts  to  the 
Company. 

In  reporting  endorsements,  transfers,  assignments,  etc.,  the 
same  care  and  dispatch  should  be  observed  as  in  reporting 
policies.  Where  assignments  are  made  by  filling  out  the  printed 
forms  on  the  backs  of  policies,  it  is  not  necessary  to  copy  the 
printed  matter  of  the  form,  it  being  sufficient  to  report,  as 
follows,  for  example,  "policy  assigned  to  John  Doe,  pur- 
chaser.'' In  all  cases,  the  agent  should  state  the  interest  of 
assignees,  whether  as  purchasers,  mortgagees,  or  otherwise. 

In  short,  the  agent  should  make  an  intelligent  report  of  the 
risk,  noticing  and  explaining  such  points  as  will  be  likely  to 
excite  inquiry  on  the  part  of  an  examining  officer.  A  brief 
explanation  in  pencil  on  a  daily  report  as  to  a  point  of  interest 
will,  sometimes,  save  both  Company  and  agent  the  necessity  of 
correspondence. 

The  agent  should  refer,  on  all  daily  reports,  to  the  insurance 


INSURANCE  MAI'S  AND  DIAGRAMS. 


309 


map  and  when  the  risk  is  not  on  the  map,  he  should  state 
the  fact  and  make  a  diagram  showing  the  risk  and  all  buildings 
exposing  it,  the  widths  and  names  of  streets  and  numbers  of 
buildings.  In  the  absence  of  such  references,  lot  and  block 
numbers  should  be  given.     (See  ante,  page  291.) 

All  daily  reports  must  be  forwarded,  on  the  day  a  risk  is 
made  binding  or,  in  case  they  cannot  be  sent  on  the  very  day, 
a  short  letter  should  be  sent,  giving  the  principal  particulars  of 
the  risk,  such  as  amount,  location,  etc. 

It  would  be  embarrassing,  both  to  the  Company  and  the 
agent,  to  have  a  tire  occur  before  the  Company  had  been  noti- 
fied of  its  responsibility.  Such  neglect  would  be  inexcusable. 
The  records  of  the  Company  and  of  its  agent  should  correspond, 
as  nearly  as  may  be,  with  each  other. 

All  surveys  and  applications  should  be  signed  by  the  applicant 
and  never  by  the  agent. 

It  is  not  necessary  in  reporting  policies  or  renewals  to  copy 
any  of  theprinted  matter.  Copies  only  of  the  written  portion 
should  be  forwarded,  and  only  the  written  portion  copied  in  the 
register. 

Insurance  Map  or  Diagram.  Where  an  insurance  map  is  on  file 
with  the  Company,  the  number  of  the  building,  as  before  stated, 
should  be  noted  on  the  daily  report ;  this  will  save  the  examiners 
in  the  office  of  the  Company  much  time  and  trouble  in  locating 
the  risk.  The  agent  should  also  be  careful  to  note,  in  pencil, 
on  his  duplicate  copy  of  the  map,  opposite  a  building  insured  or 
containing  insured  property,  the  particulars  of  the  policy — num- 
ber, amount,  and  date  of  expiration. 

In  this  way  he  will  be  able  to  decide  intelligently  and  accu- 
rately as  to  questions  of  line,  and  wall  not  be  likely  to  accept 
too  large  an  amount  in  any  one  block.  In  case  the  map  needs 
correction,  in  any  respect — whether  in  consequence  of  errors  of 
the  surveyor,  or  by  reason  of  the  erection  of  new  buildings  or 
the  destruction  of  others  by  fire — any  pains  taken  to  correct  it, 
by  forwarding  a  small  diagram  (drawn  on  the  same  scale  as  the 
map,  i.  e.,  50  feet  to  the  inch),  which  can  be  pasted  in  the 
proper  place,  will  be  appreciated  by  the  Company. 

In  the  absence  of  any  map,  the  agent  will  find  the  transaction 
of  business  greatly  facilitated  by  making  and  forwarding  a 


INSURANCE  MAI'S  AND  DIAGRAMS. 


connected  (I iagra m  of  the  compact,  business  port  of  his 
town. 

By  numbering  the  buildings  and  retaining  a  duplicate  copy 
(for  making  which,  the  transparent  diagram  paper  furnished 
by  the  company  will  be  found  to  be  very  convenient),  it  will 
only  be  necessary  in  reporting  risks,  thereafter,  to  refer  to  the 
number  of  the  buildings  on  the  map,  instant  of  making  a 
diagram  on  cadi  daily  report. 

The  diagrams  furnished  by  an  agent  on  daily  reports,  in 
reporting  the  risks  taken  by  him  in  the  first  three  months  of  his 
work,  would,  if  pasted  together  as  one  connected  diagram, 
frequently  make  a  very  fair  insurance  map  of  the  compact  part 
of  his  town,  and  save  him  much  trouble  in  reporting  subsequent 
risks. 

The  map  need  not  be  drawn  to  any  particular  scale,  (care  be- 
ing, of  course,  taken  to  show  the  relative  size  of  buildings),  if 
the  distances  between  buildings  and  other  measurements  be 
inserted  in  figures,  but  should  not  be  on  a  smaller  scale  than  50 
feet  to  one  inch,  which  allows  %  inch  of  space  to  a  25  foot  front, 
and  is  a  very  convenient  one;  and  the  buildings  need  not  be 
colored  in  water  color,  it  being  only  necessary  to  draw  brick, 
or  stone  outlines  in  red  ink  and  frames  in  black. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  show  fire-walls  extending  through 
and  above  the  roof,  (a  very  important  feature),  wooden  cor- 
nices, openings  in  side  or  division  walls  (and  especially  in  walls 
on  exposed  sides),  communications  with  adjoining  buildings, 
material  of  roofs,  etc.    (See  key  to  symbols  and  sample  diagram. ) 

The  relative  heights  of  buildings  may  be  shown  by  figures  in 
brackets,  the  height  of  each  being  marked  in  feet.  A  building 
exposed  by  one  of  brick  or  stone  adjoining  it,  but  of  greater 
heigh  t,  is  as  effectually  protected  as  by  a  wall  extending  through 
and  above  the  roof  as  already  explained,  and  pains  should  be 
taken  to  show  such  an  important  feature  of  a  risk.  The  fact 
might  decide  the  Company  to  accept  a  risk  which  it  would, 
otherwise,  suppose  too  seriously  exposed. 

See  the  diagram  for  the  manner  of  showing  the  relative 
heights  of  buildings  in  blocks. 

Where  there  are  windows  in  that  portion  of  the  wail  of  a 


I 

r/og 


8 

4 


Gro 


8 

I 

1 

+  ro 

19      17        15  13 


3ft  I  3ft 


MO  +•£ 


MASONIC  H'U 


i  \ 
$ 

I 


9         7  5         3  1 

MANSARD  ROOF 


Co 
M 


r 


I 

(v  +       Mn     +  - 


63      65  6 


i 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


building  above  the  roof  of  one  adjoining  it,  they  should  be  shown 
in  the  manner  indicated. 

Be  particular,  in  all  cases,  to  give  names  and  widths  of 
streets  in  diagrams,  and  unless  a  street  is  at  least  100  feet  wide, 
the  agent  should  show  the  buildings  on  the  opposite  side  from 
that  on  which  a  risk  is  situated. 

Explanation  of  Diagram.  For  example,  the  omnibus  building, 
Nos.  1,  3  and  5  Main  street,  as  shown  on  the  diagram,  has  a 
mansard  roof  and  a  wooden  cornice  (shown  by  the  broken  line 
in  front  of  the  building),  and  is  three  stories  high.  No.  2  Main 
street  represents  a  four  story,  metal  roof,  brick  building,  occupied 
for  a  dry  goods  store  and  photograph  gallery,  the  skylight  being- 
shown  (see  key).  A  communication  between  No.  2  and  No.  4 
is  protected  by  an  iron  door  and  the  walls  of  the  building  rise 
three  feet  above  the  roof.  The  figures  in  brackets  [GO]  show 
that  the  building  is  sixty  feet  high  and,  as  No.  4  adjoining  is 
seventy  feet  high,  the  wall  between  the  two  is,  so  far  as  No.  2 
is  concerned,  an  effectual  fire-wall  (provided  the  iron  door 
proves  reliable).  The  windows  in  the  rear  wall,  on  1st  and 
3rd  floors,  exposed  by  the  planing  mill,  are  protected  with  iron 
shutters,  and  the  wall  between  Nos.  2  and  4  is  18  inches  thick 
(shown  by  numerals  on  the  line  of  the  wall). 

No.  28  First  Street  shows  a  frame  planing  mill,  with  a  brick 
boiler-house.  The  line  of  furnace  feed,  however,  is  in  a  direct 
line  with  the  door  to  the  mill  (an  important  and  objectionable 
feature,  see  under  head  of  "Planing  Mills,")  and  a  "back 
draught''  would  inevitably  empty  the  contents  of  the  furnaces 
into  the  mill.  There  should  either  be  no  opening  in  the  wall 
between  the  boiler-house  and  the  mill,  or  the  doors  to  the  fur- 
naces should  open  at  right  angles  to  the  mill,  or,  better  still  in 
an  opposite  direction  from  the  communication. 

The  height  of  lumber  piles  is  also  shown,  an  important  point. 
(See  under  head  of  "Lumber  Yards.") 

The  agent  will  notice,  in  the  case  of  No.  10  Main  street,  that 
the  iron  shutter  to  the  window  in  the  south  wall  is  a  valuable 
protection,  in  view  of  the  frame  row  on  that  side. 

CORRESPONDENCE. 

Be  prompt  in  replying  to  all  letters  of  the  Company.  The 


3 1 2 


CA  NCELLATION. 


accumulation  of  open  matters,  in  consequence  of  unanswered 
letters,  especially  in  the  case  of  a  large  company,  doing  business 
with  thousands  of  agents,  is  almost  overwhelming,  and  seriously 
embarrasses  an  intelligent  management  of  the  business.  Daily 
reports,  applications,  etc.,  are  often  held  for  such  replies  until 
the  examining  officer,  in  consequence  of  the  lapse  of  time  and 
the  press  of  routine  work,  has  grown  unfamiliar  with  the  matter, 
and  upon  receipt  of  a  delayed  letter,  has  much  of  his  work  to 
go  over  again. 

Where  several  hundred  letters  are  sent  off  each  day,  the 
accumulation,  even  of  a  week,  becomes  a  serious  matter. 

I'.c  careful  to  note  the  references  to  pages  of  copybooks  show- 
ing copies  of  the  letters,  when  replying  to  them.  It  will  save 
much  trouble  and  loss  of  time. 

Do  not  write  about  several  different  matters  on  one  sheet. 
In  all  well  regulated  offices,  each  letter  is  filed  in  its  appropriate 
place.  One  relating  to  an  account,  for  instance,  with  the 
account  department;  another  describing  a  risk,  with  the  daily 
report.  Letters  have  to  be  read,  also,  by  those  having  charge 
of  the  particular  matters  to  which  they  refer,  and  the  business 
of  a  large  office  is  greatly  facilitated  if  such  matters  are  treated 
of  on  separate  sheets,  which  can  then  be  distributed  to  the 
proper  persons. 

It  may  be  well  to  add,  also,  that  where  several  different 
matters  are  written  about  on  one  sheet,  copies  have  to  be  made 
for  filing ;  this  necessitates  trouble  and  loss  of  time  which  will 
more  than  balance  the  extra  expense  of  letter  paper  saved  in 
using  one  sheet. 

CANCELLATION. 

(For  rules  as  to  cancellation  after  a  fire,  see  pages  318,  319,  etc.) 

The  right  to  cancel  a  policy,  at  any  time  they  may  so  elect, 
is  one  reserved  by  companies  in  the  printed  conditions  of  their 
policies.  In  reserving  this  right — so  necessary  to  protect  them- 
selves— most  companies  accord  the  same  privilege  to  the  assured, 
as  a  matter  of  courtesy,  upon  the  condition,  however,  that  where 
the  cancellation  is  at  the  request  of  the  assured,  it  shall  be  made 
at  the  customary  short  rates  of  premium  for  the  time  the  policy 
has  run,  as,  otherwise,  a  party  might  evade  the  proper  charges 


CANCELLATN  »N. 


for  short  risks  by  taking  a  policy  for  a  year  and  canceling,  pro 
rala,  when  no  longer  needed. 

When  the  Company  requests  cancellation  of  any  policy  even 
though  the  reason  may  not  be  apparent  or  sufficient  in  the 
opinion  of  the  agent,  he  should  act  promptly,  forwarding  the 
policy,  if  possible,  by  return  mail.  A  company  may  have  ample 
reason  which  it  does  not  wish  to  communicate,  or  information 
not  within  reach  of  the  agent.  By  any  unwarranted  neglect, 
in  such  cases,  an  agent  would  place  himself  in  a  position  of 
responsibility  to  the  Company,  if  a  loss  should  occur.  Requests 
to  cancel  policies  are  never  made  unless  for  good  and  sufficient 
reasons,  and  never  without  careful  consideration  of  all  the 
circumstances,  not  forgetting  the  inconvenience  and  embarrass- 
ment which  such  requests  may  cause  an  agent. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  the  ignorance  of  some  companies  as  to 
the  cost  of  carrying  certain  classes  of  hazards  should  result  in 
a  reduction  of  rates  on  them  to  an  unsafe  figure.  No  alternative 
remains  to  a  conservative  and  intelligent  company,  in  such 
cases,  but  to  decline  the  risks  and  wait  patiently  until  com- 
petitors have  learned  the  cost  of  insuring  them,  or  until  property- 
holders  have  learned  that  the  policies  of  low  rate  companies  are 
not  the  cheapest  in  the  broad  view  of  a  true  economy.  To  do 
otherwise  than  decline  business  at  inadequate  rates  would  be  to 
inconsistently  ignore  the  lessons  of  experience,  and  experience 
which  is  not  profited  by,  has  been  aptly  compared  to  the  stern 
lamps  of  a  vessel  which  shed  light  only  upon  the  track  over 
which  it  has  passed. 

It,  sometimes,  happens  that,  after  taking  a  risk,  the  agent, 
himself,  discovers  evidence  of  moral  hazard,  or  of  serious  in- 
crease of  the  physical  hazard,  not  contemplated  in  the  original 
contract.  In  such  a  case,  a  faithful  agent  will  not  wait  for  in- 
structions from  the  Company,  but  will  cancel  the  policy  at  once. 
A  company  always  appreciates  such  care  of  its  interests. 

After  a  sitsjjicious  partial  loss,  for  instance,  he  should  not 
even  wait  to  have  the  loss  adjusted  before  relieving  the  Company 
of  any  further  liability  under  its  policy.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  an  unprincipled  party,  who  fails  in  his  first  attempt  to  burn 
property,  has  learned  enough  thereby  to  succeed  in  a  second. 

"When  a  holder  of  a  policy  objects  to  cancellation,  and  refuses 


NOTICES  OF  C  W  ELL  ITION. 


to  surrender  the  policj*,  a  lender  of  the  uiiea rued  prem  i uni  at 
the  pro  rata  rate,  for  the  unexpired  time,  in  legal  tender 
currency  and  in  Hie  presence  of  one  or  more  competent 
witnesses,  is  sufficient.  Care  should  he  taken  to  tender  the 
correct  amount,  and  the  tender  should  be  without  any  con- 
ditions, such  us  /lie  signing  of  o  receipt  in  full.  A  simple 
receipt  for  SO  much  money  paid  may  he  demanded  but  not  a 
receipt  in  full  discharge  of  the  claim.  When  a  signed  receipt 
can  he  procured,  it  is,  of  course,  desirable,  and,  in  that  case, 
should  be  written  on  the  policy  itself,*  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  a  receipt  in  full  is  merely  an  act  of  courtesy,  not 
required  by  law.  and  the  legal  effect  of  a  tender  is  impaired 
ichere  it  is  made  a  condition — a  legal  tender  must  be  'with- 
out conditions,  such  as  the  surrender  of  the  policy  or  other 
document. 

It  should  be  remembered,  also,  that  a  check  or  national 
bank  notes  are  not  legal  tenders  if  objected  t<>  by  the  assured 
on  that  ground.  United  States  notes,  gold  and  silver  certifi- 
cates, gold  coin  and  silver  dollars  are  legal  tender,  but  subsid- 
iary silver  coin  is  only  legal  tender  up  to  the  amount  of  ten 
dollars.  As  above  stated,  however,  the  holder  of  the  policy 
must  object  to  national  bank  notes  or  other  tender  on  the  ground 
that  they  are  not  money,  at  the  time  of  the  tender,  to  prevent 
its  being  a  legal  tender. 

It  may  be  well  to  serve  a  written  notice  as  well,  that  the 
Company  is  no  longer  liable  under  the  policy,  in  accordance 
with  its  own  terms.    (See  printed  conditions  of  the  policy). 

The  following  is  a  convenient  form  for  such  a  notice : 

Logansport,  Ind.,  January  2,  1902. 

.1//'.  Richard  Roe, 

Sir: — You  will  please  take  notice  that  the  

Insurance  Company  of  ,  desires  to  terminate 

the  insurance  on  your  property  by  policy  Xo  , 

renewal  No   in  accordance  with  its  terms,  and 

I  hereby  tender  you  the  unearned  or  return  premium  for 

*As  follows:  "Troy,  N.  Y.,  May  2,  1902,    Received  of  the  

Insurance  Company  of  New  York  Dollars,  return  premium,  in 

consideration  of  which  this  policy  is  hereby  canceled  in  full  and  surrendered 
to  said  Company,"   Assured. 


CANCELLATION  OF  STANDARD  FORM  OF  POLICY.  315 


the  unexpired  term  of  said  polity,  the  Company  not  being 
responsible  for  any  loss  or  damage  which  may  occur  after 
this  date. 

Respectfully, 

 Agent. 

If  uo  premium  has  been  paid,  the  following  form  of  notice 
should  be  served : 

Logansport,  Tnd. ,  January  2,  1902. 
Sir: — You  ivill  please  take  notice  that  the  premium  of 

policy  No  ,  issued  by  the  Insurance 

Company  of  ,  has  not  been  paid,  an  d  said  policy 

is  null  and  void  by  its  terms,  the  Company  not  being  liable 
for  any  damage  by  fire  which  may  occur  to  the  property. 
Respectfully, 

John  Doc,  Agent. 

To  Mr.  Richard  Roe. 

If  the  policy  is  surrendered,  write  "canceled"'  across  its  face 
and  across  the  entry  in  the  register,  and  forward  it  to  the 
Company  at  once.  It  should  not  be  held  for  the  next  monthly 
account,  if  canceled  at  the  request  of  the  Company. 

Where  a  policy  is  canceled  at  the  request  of  the  assured,  no 
return  premium  is  due  if  it  has  less  than  a  month  to  run. 

Cancellation  of  the  -Standard"  Insurance  Policy.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  cancellation  clause  of  the  "Standard''  policy  of 
New  York  and  other  States  differs  from  the  old  form  of  clause. 
It  reads  as  follows  (See  lines  51  to  55) : 

"This  policy  shall  be  canceled  at  any  time  at  the  request  of  the  insured;  or 
by  the  company  by  giving  five  days  notice  of  such  cancellation.  If  this  policy 
shall  be  canceled  as  hereinbefore  provided,  or  become  void  or  cease,  the  pre- 
mium having  been  actually  paid,  the  unearned  portion  shall  be  returned  on 
surrender  of  this  policy  or  last  renewal,  this  company  retaining  the  customary 
short  rate;  except  that  when  this  policy  is  canceled  by  this  company  by  giving 
notice  it  shall  retain  only  the  pro  rata  premium." 

Under  the  old  forms  of  cancellation  it  was  necessary  to  make 
a  tender  of  the  unearned  or  return  premium,  and  in  the  case  of 
unprincipled  policy-holders  this  was  sometimes  made  very  diffi- 
cult by  their  evading  service.  In  order  to  secure  cancellation 
for  the  company  simply  by  serving  notice,  leaving  the  return 
premium  to  be  paid  upon  demand,  the  clause  in  the  standard 


:UI'.        (A  N*(  'KLLATION  OF  STANDARD  FORM  OF  POLICY. 


policy  was  framed ;  and  it  will  be  observed  by  the  punctuation 
of  the  clause  that  this  provision  is  a  complete  sentence,  ending 
with  a  period,  viz : 

"This  policy  shall  be  canceled  at  any  time  at  the  request  of  the  insured;  ,>> 

by  the  company  by  giving  Jive  days  notice  of  such  cancelation.  If  this  policy,"  etc. 
i  Note  the  period,  capital  "I"  and  new  sentence.) 

The  concession  of  live  days  was  considered  an  expensive  one 
to  make,  in  that  it  would  prevent  the  company  from  being  re- 
lieved of  an  undesirable  risk  for  five  days  unless  by  agreement 
with  the  assured;  but  great  as  the  concession  was,  it  was 
considered  desirable  to  make  it  in  order  to  avoid  the  necessity 
of  tendering  the  unearned  premium. 

In  a  recent  case  before  the  New  York  Court  of  Appeals,  how- 
ever, the  court  of  highest  resort  in  the  State,  it  was  held  by  the 
majority  of  the  Court  that,  even  with  this  clause,  tender  of 
premium  or  payment  of  it,  was  necessary  to  effect  cancellation; 
but  the  minority  opinion  of  the  Court  was  in  line  with  my 
< ■<  >i 1 1 » - 1 1 1  i <  .11  that  lender  of  return  premium  is  ao\  necessary  to 
effect  cancellation ;  and  this  view  of  the  case  was  afterwards 
sustained  in  the  United  States  Circuit  Court  of  New  York  by 
Judge  Wallace  in  the  case  of  Schwa rtzchild  vs.  Phoenix  In- 
surance Company  "as  presenting  the  better  reasoning."  I  con- 
fidently believe  this  opinion  of  Judge  Wallace  and  of  the 
minority  justices  in  the  New  York  Court  of  A  ppeals  will  be  held 
by  other  courts  as  in  accordance  with  the  meaning  and  intent 
of  the  contract.  As  I  was  one  of  the  Commission  which  drew 
up  the  Standard  Policy  for  the  State  of  New  York,  I  speak 
advisedly  as  to  the  history  of  this  clause  and  the  intended  mean- 
ing of  the  phraseology,  which  at  the  time  had  the  consideration 
of  able  lawyers  consulted  by  the  Commission.  The  punctuati  m 
of  the  clause  was  not  presented  to  the  Court  in  the  N.  Y. 
Court  of  Appeals  case  of  Tisdel  vs.  Insurance  Company,  and 
this  fact,  I  think,  had  much  to  do  with  the  decision. 

While  I  do  not  agree  with  the  decision  that  tender  of  return 
premium  is  necessary,  however,  I  think  it  is  wise  to  avoid  litiga- 
tion by  tendering  the  return  premium  wherever  it  is  possible  to 
do  so,  and  to  rest  content  with  freedom  from  anxiety  where 
we  are  prevented,  by  absence  of  the  assured  or  evasion  of  service, 
from  tendering  the  premium.  In  most  cases  the  return  of  prem- 
ium or  tender  of  it,  is  easy  of  accomplishment,  and  it  should, 


NOTICES  OF  CANCELLATION. 


317 


for  this  reason,  always  be  done.  It  is  not  necessary,  of  course, 
to  wait  five  days  if  the  assured  will  accept  the  return  premium 
and  sign  the  cancellation  receipt,  because  both  parties  to  the 
contract  can  terminate  it  by  agreement  at  any  time. 

If,  for  any  reason,  the  return  premium  cannot  be  paid  or  ten- 
dered, the  cancellation  notice  should  be  sent  by  registered  mail 
in  the  following  form  in  all  cases  where  the  Standard  Policy  is 
issued : 

"Dear  Sir:    We  hereby  give  you  notice  that  Policy  No  

of  Insurance  Company  of  issued  to  you 

covering  on  situated  at  

will  be  canceled  five  days  from  this  date  in  accordance  with  its  conditions  as 
set  forth  in  lines  51  to  5.5  thereof,  and  we  further  notify  you  that  said  Company 
will  not  be  liable  for  any  loss  or  damage  by  fire  to  the  property  described  in 
said  policy  after  the  expiration  of  five  days  as  herein  stated. 

We  enclose  herewith  .$  being  the  full  amount  of  unearned 

premium  on  said  policy  for  the  unexpired  term  thereof,  and  we  hereby  request 
a  return  of  said  policy  to  the  Company.       Yours  truly," 

And  at  the  expiration  of  the  five  days  it  may  be  well,  as  a 
matter  of  courtesy  to  the  assured  and  by  way  of  further  pro- 
tection of  the  Company,  to  serve  another  notice  as  follows : 

"Dear  Sir:    Pursuant  to  notice  sent  to  you  from  this  office  on  

we  have  this  day  canceled  off  the  books  of  this  Company,  Policy'  No  

of  the  Ins.  Co.,  issued  to  you,  covering  on  

situate  at  and  all  liability  for  loss  under  said  policy  has  ceased." 

If  the  policy  is  payable  to  a  mortgagee  cancellation  notice 
should  be  sent  to  him  by  registered  mail  at  the  same  time  it  is 
sent  to  the  owner,  using  the  following  form : 

NOTICE  TO  MORTGAGEE. 

"Dear  Sir:    We  hereby  give  you  notice  that  Polic  y  No  

of  Insurance  Company,  of  issued  to 

 covering  on  situated  at  

made  payable  to  you  in  ease  of  loss,  as  mortgagee,  will  be  canceled  five  days 
from  this  date  in  accordance  with  its  conditions  as  set  forth  in  lines  51  to  55 
thereof,  and  we  further  notify  you  that  said  Company  will  not  be  liable  for 
any  loss  or  damage  by  fire  to  the  property  described  in  said  policy  after  the 
expiration  of  five  days  as  herein  stated.  If  a  mortgagee  clause  is  attached  to 
said  policy  the  provisions  of  such  clause  relating  to  cancellation  are  to  apply. '> 

We  have  served  a  like  cancellation  upon  the  assured,  above  mentioned,  and 

have  paid  to  him  the  sum  of  $  being  the  full  amount  of  unearned 

premium  on  said  policy  for  the  unexpired  term  thereof,  and  we  hereby  request 
a  return  of  said  policy  to  the  Company.       Yours  truly," 


318 


CANCELLATION  PREMIUM  UNPAID. 


When  ;i  policy  is  to  be  canceled  for  non-payment  of  premium 
thereon,  and  a  cancellation  cannot  he  effected  hy  ninlnal  agree- 
ment and  a  surrender  of  the  policy,  notices  should  be  sent  in  the 
following  form  hy  registered  mail  to  the  owner  and  mortgagee, 
if  a  mortgagee  is  named  in  the  policy : 

NON-PAYMENT  OF  PREMIUM. — NOTICE  TO  OWNER. 

"Dear  Sir:    We  hereby  give  you  notice  that  Policy  No  

of  Insurance  Company,  of  issued  to 

you  covering  on  situated  at  

will  be  canceled  five  days  from  this  date  in  accordance  with  its  conditions  as 
set  forth  in  lines  51  to  55  thereof,  ON  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  NON-PAYMENT 
OF  THE  PREMIUM  DUE  THEREON;  and  we  further  notify  you  that  said 
Company  will  not  he  liable  for  any  loss  or  damage  by  fire  to  the  property  de- 
scribed in  said  policy  after  the  expiration  of  five  days  as  herein  stated.  And 
we  hereby  demand  the  return  of  said  policy  to  this  Company,  together  with 

the  earned  premium  to  this  date,  amounting  to  $   Yours  truly, 

P.  S.    Payment  of  the  full  premium  to  this  Company  or  its  duly  authorized 

agent  before  the  ex  pi  rat  ii  f  the  five  flays  above  mentioned,  will  render  this 

notice  inoperative  and  void;  otherwise  it  will  remain  in  full  force  and  effect." 

NON-PAYMENT  OF  PREMIUM— NOTICE  TO  MORTGAGEE. 

"Dear  Sir:    We  hereby  give  you  notice  that  Policy  No  

of  Insurance  Company,  of  issued  to 

  .covering  on  situated  at  

made  payable  to  you  in  case  of  loss,  as  mortgagee,  will  be  canceled  five  days 
from  this  date  in  accordance  with  its  conditions  as  set  forth  in  lines  51  to  55 
thereof,  ON  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  NON-PAYMENT  OF  THE  PREMIUM 
DUE  THEREON;  and  we  further  notify  you  that  said  Company  will  not  be 
liable  for  any  loss  or  damage  by  fire  to  the  property  described  in  said  policy 
after  the  expiration  of  five  days  as  herein  stated.  If  a  mortgagee  clause  is 
attached  to  said  policy,  the  provisions  of  such  clause  relating  to  cancellation 
are  to  apply. 

We  have  served  a  like  cancellation  notice  upon  the  assured,  and  hereby  re- 
quest the  return  of  said  policy  to  this  Company,  together  with  the  earned 

premium  to  this  date,  amounting  to  $   Yours  trulj', 

P.  S.  Payment  of  the  full  premium  to  this  Company  or  its  duly  authorized 
agent  before  the  expiration  of  the  five  days  above  mentioned,  will  render  this 
notice  inoperative  and  void;  otherwise  it  will  remain  in  full  force  and  effcet.', 

Cancellation  of  Policy.  Claim  Pending.  In  many  cases  where 
there  is  delay  in  the  adjustment  of  loss  which  does  not  involve 
all  the  property  described  in  the  policy,  it  is  important  that  the 
company  should  be  promptly  relieved  of  liability  for  further  loss 
by  cancelling  the  policy  on  the  remaining  property,  pending  ad- 


CANCELLATION  CLAIM  PENDING. 


319 


justment  and  settlement.  This  should  always  be  done  where 
the  cause  of  the  fire  is  suspected  incendiarism,  external  or  in- 
ternal ;  where  the  remaining  property  is  left  vacant  or  unpro- 
tected; or  where  a  partial  loss  has  occurred  and  the  assured 
would  be  benefited  by  a  total  destruction  of  the  property  by  a 
second  fire,  etc.  In  every  case  of  loss  where  these  or  similar 
features  present  themselves,  steps  should  be  taken  at  the  outset 
of  the  investigations  to  secure  for  the  company  a  release  from 
further  liability  for  loss  on  the  remaining  property.  Inasmuch 
as  the  conditions  of  the  policy  provide  for  a  five  days  notice  of 
cancellation  which,  in  some  cases,  is  notice  to  a  claimant  who 
has  a  partial  loss  that  the  second  fire  must  take  place  within 
that  period,  the  policy  should  be  canceled  on  the  unburned 
property  at  once  by  mutual  agreement,  whenever  it  is  possible 
to  do  so,  and  when  this  cannot  be  done,  owing  to  the  objection 
of  the  assured  or  the  remoteness  of  the  mortgagee,  (if  policy  is 
payable  to  one,)  the  following  form  of  notice  (enclosing  the  full 
amount  of  unearned  premium  pro  rata)  should  be  delivered  by 
hand  with  a  witness  or,  if  manual  tender  or  delivery  is  not  possi- 
ble, sent  the  assured  by  registered  mail. 

CLAIM  PENDING- CANCELLATION  NOTICE. 

"Dear  Sir:    We  hereby  give  you  notice  that  Policy  No  

of  Insurance  Company,  of  held  by  you, 

will  be  canceled  five  days  from  this  date  in  accordance  with  its  conditions  as 
set  forth  in  lines  51  to  55  thereof,  and  we  further  notify  you  that  said  Company 
will  not  be  liable  for  any  loss  or  damage  by  fire  to  the  property  described  in 
said  policy  after  the  expiration  of  five  days  as  herein  stated. 

You  may  regard  this  notice  as  without  prejudice  to  any  claim  you  may  have 
upon  this  Company  by  reason  of  any  fire  which  may  have  happened  prior  to 
this  date  causing  loss  or  damage  to  property  described  in  said  policy,  and  while 
the  said  Company  does  not  admit  nor  deny  liability  for  such  claim,  nor  admit 

the  validity  of  said  policy,  we  enclose  herewith  .$  ,  being  the  full 

amount  of  unearned  premium  on  said  policy  for  the  unexpired  term  thereof. 

Yours  truly," 

If  the  policy  is  payable  to  a  mortgagee  the  same  notice  should 
be  served  upon  him  by  registered  mail,  adding  the  words,  "We 

have  paid  to  the  assured  §  ,  being  the  full  amount 

of  the  unearned  premium  on  said  policy  for  the  unexpired  term 
thereof." 

The  foregoing  notices  of  cancellation  may  be  made  to  conform 
to  the  conditions  of  any  policy  of  insurance  by  omitting  or 


CANCELLATION  OP  LOST  POLICY. 


changing  the  numbers  of  the  policy  lines  referred  to  and  by 
changing  the  time  in  which  the  cancellation  may  he  effected. 
All  of  these  forms,  of  course,  will  he  furnished  by  the  Company 
on  requisition. 

When  a  policy  has  been  burned,  lost  or  mislaid,  the  company 
may  he  relieved  of  further  liability  at  once,  if  the  assured  and 
mortgagee  consent,  (if  the  pi  ilicy  is  payable  to  a  mortgagee, )  hy 
the  execution  of  the  following  receipt  by  all  parties  in  interest: 

In  consideration  of  Dollars  paid  me  (or  us)  by  the  

Insurance  Co.,  of  New  York,  the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged, 

Policy  No  of  said  company  issued  to  me  (or  us,)  is  hereby  cancelled 

in  full  from  this  date;  it  being  understood  and  agreed  that  this  cancellation  is 
without  prejudice  to  any  claim  which  1  (or  we)  may  have  for  loss  by  reason 
of  any  fire  which  may  have  happened  prior  to  this  date  to  property  described 
in  said  policy;  and  it  is  further  understood  and  agreed  that  this  cancellation 
shall  not  be  construed  as  an  admission  of  liability  for  such  loss  on  the  part  of 
said  company,  nor  as  a  recognition  of  the  validity  of  said  policy  at  tne  time  of 
the  occurrence  of  such  fire,  the  true  intent  of  this  cancellation  being  to  relieve 
said  company  from  all  liability  for  further  loss  under  said  policy  from  and 
after  this  date,  w  ithout  prejudice  to  the  rights  of  cither  partj  so  far  as  any 
pending  claim  for  loss  is  concerned,  and  said  policy  having  been  burned,  lost 
or  mislaid,  I  (or  we)  hereby  agree  to  protect  and  forever  defend  the  said  com- 
pany ngainvt  .ill  persons  or  claims  whatsoever  on  account  of  said  policy  by 
reason  of  any  loss  or  damage  by  fire  occurring  to  the  property'  described  in 
said  policy  from  and  after  this  date. 

Dated  at  this  day  of  19  ... 

Witness: 


This  receipt  may  be  executed  in  duplicate. 

The  cancellation  of  a  policy  prior  to  an  adjustment  of  a  claim 
is,  of  course,  necessary  only  in  case  of  a  partial  loss  under  the 
policy,  and  in  such  case  a  question  may  arise  as  to  the  amount 
of  return  premium  to  be  paid  in-order  to  effect  a  cancellation. 
When  a  cancellation  is  consented  to  by  all  parties  in  interest, 
any  sum  that  may  be  agreed  upon  will  be  sufficient  consideration 
to  effect  a  legal  cancellation  of  the  policy.  But  when  cancella- 
tion can  only  be  accomplished  by  service  of  written  notice  upon 
the  parties  interested  in  the  policy  care  must  be  taken  to  make 
full  and  ample  payment  of  unearned  premium.  In  such  cases 
the  safe  way  will  be  to  tender  or  return  the  full  premium  named 
in  the  policy,  and  when  an  adjustment  has  been  made  the  excess 
may  be  retained  by  the  company  upon  payment  of  the  loss.  A 


VOID  POLICIES. 


tender  of  too  much  return  premium  does  no  harm,  while  a  tender 
of  too  little  will  defeat  a  cancellation.  As  the  cancellations 
contemplated  in  this  article  are  emergency  cases  care  should  be 
taken  to  make  the  tender  large  enough  to  accomplish  the  object 
sought. 

Void  Policies.  All  the  foregoing  pertains  to  the  cancellation 
of  a  policy  immediately  after  a  fire,  and  before  an  adjustment 
has  been  made,  in  cases  where  there  is  no  known  breach  of 
contract  or  defense.  If  a  policy  is  suspended,  or  totally  void 
from  any  cause  whatever,  at  the  time  of  the  fire,  there  is,  of 
course,  nothing  to  cancel,  and  any  action  on  the  part  of  a  com- 
pany, or  an  adjuster,  from  which  a  desire  to  be  relieved  of 
liability  may  be  inferred,  might  be  construed  to  be  a  recog- 
nition of  the  validity  of  the  policy,  and  a  waiver  of  all 
defenses.  Indeed  the  courts  have  held  that  an  attempt  to 
cancel  implies  the  validity  of  the  policy.  This  class  of  cases  in- 
cludes policies  that  have  never  attached — that  is,  that  were  void 
ab  initio — policies  that  have  been  rendered  void  by  acts  of  the 
insured,  and  claims  for  loss  under  an  alleged  parol  or  verbal 
agreement  to  insure.  Each  case  will  have  features  peculiar  to 
itself,  more  or  less  intricate,  and  when  encountered,  the  adjuster 
is  advised  to  report  the  facts  to  the  company  for  such  action  as 
may  seem  best  after  a  careful  consideration  of  any  point  bear- 
ing upon  the  question  of  waiver,  and  the  possibility  of  a  second 
fire  resulting  in  an  additional  claim  for  loss,  and  further  trouble 
for  the  company. 

HOW  TO  PROCEED  IN  CASE  OF  FIRE. 

The  agent  should  always  consider  it  a  part  of  his  duty  to 
attend  every  fire  at  his  agency ;  not  only  will  he,  in  this  way, 
gain  valuable  practical  knowledge  which  will  enable  him  to 
judge  of  the  hazard  of  risks  and  exposures,  but,  if  he  is  a  man 
of  intelligence  and  judgment,  his  presence  and  direction  will, 
undoubtedly,  be  of  value  to  his  companies  in  the  saving  of 
property  which  might,  otherwise,  be  destroyed  or  stolen.  He 
will  learn,  also,  wholesome  lessons  of  prudence,  and  become 
more  conservative  and  careful  of  his  company's  interest.  See- 
ing how  easily  the  entire  receipts  of  an  agency  for  years  may  be 
consumed  in  a  few  moments,  he  will  not  be  inclined  to  accept 


322 


How    TO   PROCEED  IN  CASE  OP  FIRE 


responsibilities  for  his  principal  for  excessive  amounts  or  inade- 
quate rates. 

Where  an  organized  fire  department  exists,  the  agent's  duties 
will  probably  be  confined  to  the  protection  of  property  from 
damage  by  in  judicious  removal.  The  chief-engineer  or  superin- 
tendent of  fire  brigade,  as  before  stated,  should  have  the  whole 
direction  of  a  fire,  and,  while  he  may  make  mistakes,  it  is 
generally  best  that  he  should  not  be  troubled  during  a  fire  with 
the  advice  of  others.  It  is  very  desirable  that  the  entire  force 
of  firemen  should  be  under  the  contn  >1  of  one  man,  and  the  efforts 
of  citizens  should  be  directed  rather  to  his  removal,  if  inefficent, 
than  to  the  confusion  attendant  upon  a  multitude  of  opinions, 
advanced  at  a  time  when  only  one  can  be  followed. 

Where  there  is  no  fire  department,  or  before  its  arrival  on  the 
ground,  the  agent  may  render  valuable  service.  The  example 
and  direction  of  a  single  cool  and  collected  person,  at  such  a 
time,  is  invaluable.  At  the  commencement  of  a  fire  a  bucket 
of  water,  properly  applied,  may  be  north  more  than  a  steam 
fire  engine  a  few  moments  later. 

Do  not  wait  for  engines  to  come  up,  or  disdain  the  simple 
appliances  at  hand.  A  bucket  of  water,  an  axe  with  which  to 
gain  access  to  a  concealed  fire,  and  a  proper  attention  to  the 
drafts  and  currents  of  air,  which  should  be  cut  off,  if  possible, 
may  hold  the  fire  in  check,  if  not  extinguish  it.  All  loud  cries, 
unnecessary  noises  or  excited  gesticulation,  tend  to  confusion 
and  should  be  avoided.  Cool,  quiet  and  persistent  effort  is 
indispensable,  keeping  in  mind  that  the  work  of  extinguishing 
the  fire  may  be  one  of  hours  and  not  of  minutes,  and  that 
strength  and  endurance  should  not  be  exhausted  in  spasmodic 
efforts  at  the  start,  but  be  husbanded  for  what  may  prove  a 
protracted  and  laborious  task. 

It  is  of  the  tit  moat  consequence  to  .shut,  and  keep  closed, 
all  doors,  windows,  'and  other  openings  which  might,  other- 
wise, add,  to  the  draft.  There  could  be  no  better  illustration 
of  the  importance  of  this  injunction  than  a  recent  fire,  that  of 
the  Windsor  Hotel,  in  New  York,  on  March  17,  1899.  This 
hotel  was  located  on  Fifth  Avenue,  on  the  route  of  the  St. 
Patrick's  day  procession,  and  all  of  the  doors  and  windows  of 
the  hotel  on  the  Fifth  Avenue  side  were  open.    When  the  fire 


HOW  TO  PROCEED  IX  (  ASK  nK  FIRE. 


323 


started,  therefore,  the  condition  was  that  <  >f  a  stove  with  all  the 
dampers  open,  and  the  fire  Hashed  so  rapidly  throughout  the 
structure  that  it  was  quickly  destroyed,  and  a  number  of  guests 
lost  their  lives.  This  has  always  been  my  own  theory  of  the 
cause  of  the  rapidity  of  the  fire,  attributed  by  many  to  electric- 
light  wiring,  escaping  gas,  incendiarism,  &c. 

The  person  taking  the  lead  should,  by  proceeding  on  hands 
and  knees  to  avoid  the  smoke  which  is  always  less  dense  near 
the  floor,  endeavor  to  get  as  near  as  possible  to  the  fire,  which 
may  often  be  seen  burning  brightly  in  the  clear  space  of  air 
near  the  floor,  when  the  upper  part  of  the  room  is  filled  with 
smoke.  He  should  apply  the  water  passed  to  him  so  tit  at  it 
trill  .strike  the  burning  materials.  This  is  very  important, 
whether  the  water  be  applied  by  hose  from  an  engine  or  by 
pails.     It  tit  list  strike  the  fire  itself. 

If  there  is  any  delay  in  passing  the  water  to  him,  and  he  can- 
not be  kept  supplied  with  pailfuls,  he  should  use  a  cup  or 
dipper  to  throw  the  water,  so  as  to  make  every  drop  effective. 
So  careful  should  he  be  to  prevent  any  draft  of  air,  that  he 
should  close  the  door  of  the  room,  in  case  he  has  to  wait  for 
water. 

A  remarkable  fire  which  occurred  at  Marshall,  Mich.,  in  the 
drug  store  of  Messrs.  Smiley  &  Henderson,  may  be  mentioned 
as  an  example  of  the  importance  of  cutting  off  the  supply  of  air. 
Spontaneous  ignition  took  place  in  some  fine  planing  mill  chips 
which  had  been  saturated  with  the  drippings  of  linseed  oil. 
The  box  containing  this  dangerous  mixture  was  carelessly  left 
on  the  head  of  a  barrel  containing  linseed  oil.  The  fire  resulting 
actually  charred  the  barrels  standing  near,  one  of  which  con- 
tained wine  and  another  whiskey,  and  was  sufficiently  hot  to 
blister  a  barrel  containing  turpentine,  but,  having  exhausted 
the  oxygen  of  the  apartment,  it  went  out  for  leant  of  air. 
The  room,  though  filled  with  the  most  combustible  materials, 
was,  fortunately,  a  closed  one,  there  being  no  openings  or  broken 
panes  of  glass  to  supply  the  wanting  element. 

Where  water  cannot  be  procured,  moist  earth,  mud  or  sand 
may,  sometimes,  be  successfully  used.  Indeed,  it  is  claimed 
that  sand  is  better  than  water  for  extinguishing  kerosene  or 
other  oil  fires. 


32  I 


SAVING   CONTEXTS  <»F   Hl'HXIXO   Ml  II.DINCJS. 


Where  a  steam  jet  is  provided  in  the  room  in  which  the  fire 
is  burning,  the  valve  should  he  opened,  after  .securely  dosing 
oil  the  windows  and  doors.  If  the  room  can  he  effectually 
closed,  it  will  soon  extinguish  the  fire. 

[fa  Steam  jet  is  not  provided  and  the  room  is  heated  by  steam, 
or  has  steam-pipes  passing  through  it.  they,  may  be  broken  with 
a  heavy  wrench  or  axe,  so  as  to  permit  the  steam  to  escape.  A 
large  mill  near  Philadelphia  was  saved  in  this  way  by  the 
presence  of  mind  of  a  passing  mechanic,  who  broke  the  steam 
pipes  with  a  wrench,  which  he  happened  to  have  in  his  hand 
while  passing. 

1 1  is  unnecessary  to  add  that  if  fire-extinguishers  are  at  hand, 
they  should  he  used  as  soon  as  possible. 

A  building  exposed  to  a  burning  one  may,  sometimes,  be 
saved  by  covering  the  roof  and  exposed  sides  with  carpets, 
blankets,  or  other  woolen  material,  which  should  be  kept  wet 
by  persons  stationed  on  the  roof  or  at  windows  in  the  upper 
stories  with  pails  of  water  and  dippers. 

When  it  seems  certain  that  a  building  cannot  be  saved,  and 
not  before,  efforts  should  be  made  to  save  such  of  the  contents 
as  can  be  removed.  It  is  at  this  stage  of  the  fire  that  the 
utmost  coolness  and  intelligence  should  prevail.  The  most 
valuable  and  portable  property  should  be  first  carried  out  to  a 
safe  place  and  guarded  from  I  hie  res  who,  if  permitted  to 
profit  by  a  fire,  may  be  tempted  to  become  incendiaries  to  secure 
subsequent  opportunities.  Such  merchandise  as  dry  goods  or 
cutlery  should  be  removed  in  preference  to  crockery.  The  latter 
is  liable  to  be  broken  even  if  carried  out,  and  does  not  damage 
so  easily  by  water  or  smoke  as  the  former  and  yet,  strangely 
enough,  intelligent  by-standers  sometimes  throw  crockery  out 
of  the  windows  and  carry  feather  beds  carefully  downstairs. 

Furniture,  mirrors  and  pianos,  which  cannot  be  removed  with- 
out being  broken  in  pieces  and  destroyed,  //'/'/  heller  be  left  to 
burn,  that  the  moral  effect  of  their  wilful  and  unnecessary 
destruction  may  be  avoided.  As  a  rule,  little,  if  anything,  is 
ever  saved  by  throwing  articles  out  of  windows,  unless  they  are 
of  a  nature  not  to  be  easily  damaged  by  a  fall ;  such,  for  instance, 
as  mattresses  or  other  bedding,  wearing  apparel,  etc. 

In  case  a  barn  or  stable  is  on  fire,  the  horses  and  cattle  should 


CHIMNEY  FIRES. 


be  at  once  removed.  The  building  is,  frequently,  even  as  a 
question  of  value,  of  less  importance.  In  removing  animals 
can1  should  be  taken  to  do  so,  as  nearly  as  possible,  in  the 
ordinary  manner,  without  excitement,  or  unnecessary  noise, 
which  might  frighten  them.  If  they  become  restive  they  should 
be  blindfolded  with  a  coat,  empty  grain  bag,  or  other  cloth, 
care  being  taken  to  keep  the  eyes  thoroughly  covered  until  they 
are  safely  removed  to  some  secure  place  where  they  cannot 
.sec  the  fii'''-  Animals  will,  sometimes,  rush  into  a  burning 
building,  if  not  prevented,  especial///  if  it  he  ttte  one  in  which 
they  tat  re  been  fed  or  sheltered — not  because  they  love  to  rush 
into  tire,  as  is  erroneously  supposed,  but  because  they  become 
frightened. 

Merchandise  on  the  lower  floors  may  often  be  saved  from 
serious  water  damage  by  covering  counters,  tables,  and  shelves 
with  tarpaulins  or  canvas.  The  covers  should  extend  well  over 
the  tops  of  shelves,  in  such  cases. 

Chimney  Fires  may  be  almost  instantly  extinguished  by  throw- 
ing salt  on  the  fire.  The  process  of  burning  the  salt  evolves 
muriatic  acid  gas  which  extinguishes  flame.* 

Where  sulphur  is  procurable  it  should  be  thrown  into  the  fire 
and  the  fire-place  covered  with  a  metallic  fire-board  or  "blower." 
Sulphurous  oxide,  resulting  from  the  combustion,  will  soon  fill 
the  chimney,  and  taking  up  all  the  oxygen  from  the  contained 
air,  will  extinguish  the  fire.  A  fire  may  be  extinguished,  in 
this  way,  even  after  it  has  extended  into  the  wood-work  of  a 
building. 

Where  a  perse  >n  is  exposed  to  the  flames  or  smoke  of  a  burn- 
ing building,  he  should  breathe  through  a  wet  cloth  or  handker- 
chief, or  the  lapel  of  his  coat,  previously  wetting  it  for  the 
purpose.  I  cannot  offer  better  advice  to  one  in  a  burning  build- 
ing than  that  of  ex-Chief  Hugh  Bonner,  of  the  New  York  Fire 
Department  after  the  burning  of  the  Windsor  Hotel  already  ' 
referred  to.    It  is  as  follows : 

"Should  the  cry  of  'Fire!'  resound  throughout  the  hotel  and  volumes  of 
smoke  fill  the  corridors  and  the  room,  the  thing  above  all  others  to  do  is  to 
keep  cool.    Keep  cool,  keep  cool,  keep  cool — no  matter  how  serious  the  fire 

*Muriatic  acid  is  a  liydric  chloride,  and  as  common  salt  is  a  sodic  chloride 
containing,  also,  more  or  less  moisture  by  absorption  and,  therefore,  hydrogen, 
its  combustion  would  generate  hydric  chloride,  or  muriatic  acid  gas. 


CHIEF  BONNER'S  ADVICE. 


seems,  is  the  ad  \  ice  I  hut  I  reiterate.  If  those  who  jumped  from  the  windows  of 
the  Windsor  had  kept  cool  and  waited  for  the  firemen,  instead  of  jumping, 
most  of  them  would  have  been  saved. 

When  smoke  elogs  the  corridors,  follow  these  suggestions: 
1     Keep  the  door  and  transom  of  the  room  shut. 
2.    Open  the  windows  from  the  top. 

■I.  Wet  a  towel  and  stuff  it  in  the  mouth.  Breathe  through  it  instead  of 
through  the  nose.  It  will  keep  the  smoke,  cinders  and  tire  from  the  lungs, 
and  its  moisture  will  have  a  reviving  effect. 

4.  Stand  at  the  window  and  get  the  benefit  of  the  outside  air. 

5.  Should  there  be  a  rope  fire-escape,  use  it  only  when  you  deem  it  neces- 
sary for  your  safety.  If  it  is  secured,  as  many  of  them  are,  merely  by  an  iron 
hook,  twist  it  several  times  around  some  solid  article  in  the  room.  Then  begin 
your  descent.  It  is  a  dangerous  experiment  at  best  and  there  is  only  one  safe 
way  of  doing  it.  That  way  is  this:  Protect  the  hands  by  covering  them  with 
towels  or  anything  of  like  nature;  grasp  the  rope  firmly  by  both  hands,  twist 
it  once  around  the  right  leg,  then  placing  it  between  the  feet  keep  them  firmly 
together  and  in  that  position  slide  down  the  rope  as  slowly  as  possible. 

A  woman  should  go  down  the  rope  in  the  same  way.  In  the  average  case 
her  clothes  will  permit  her  to  make  an  easier  descent  than  a  man. 

6.  If  possible,  never  let  a  woman  or  child  descend  on  a  rope  alone.  The 
husband  should  secure  the  rope  under  his  wife's  arms,  place  some  article  of 
furniture  higher  than  the  window  sill  near  the  window,  and  then  let  the 
woman  descend  by  paying  out  the  rope  gradually.  If  the  child  is  small,  it  is 
well  to  tie  it  with  bedclothing  to  the  breast  or  back  of  the  person  going  down 
the  rope. 

7.  Never  jump  unless  the  blaze  is  scorching,  and  not  then  if  the  firemen 
with  their  scaling  ladders  are  coming  up  the  building  or  are  near. 

8.  Never  go  to  the  roof  when  you  know  that  there  is  no  escape  from  it  to 
adjoining  buildings  unless  as  a  last  recourse.  In  the  big  buildings  fire  always 
climbs  to  the  top. 

9.  If  caught  in  a  corridor  or  a  room,  always  keep  crouched  to  the  floor  and 
keep  close  to  the  wall.    Keep  as  low  as  possible.    Fire  and  smoke  ascend. 

10.  If  a  jump  must  be  made  through  flame  within  a  building  to  the  lower 
floor,  judge  the  distance  as  carefully  as  possible,  throw  a  blanket  or  covering 
over  the  head  and  make  the  leap.  Then  remove  the  covering,  breathe  but 
little  and  carefully  and  work  gradually  along  the  corridor  until  safety  is 
reached. 

Theoretically  I  know  of  no  other  instructions.  The  most  important  feature 
is  to  be  prepared  for  an  emergency,  and  the  only  way  to  obtain  that  prepa- 
ration is  by  a  preliminary  examination.  When  one  has  made  that  examination 
he  knows  when  the  emergency  arises  what  is  his  best  method  of  procedure. 

What  I  have  said  may  seem  elementary,  but  I  speak  from  long  and  active 
experience,  and  I  know  that  the  instructions  are  accurate.  When  I  say  'keep 
cool'  it  is  with  the  knowledge  that  New  York's  firemen  will  do  their  duty. 
There's  not  a  coward  in  the  department  .    The  tests  in  our  school  of  instruction 


HOW    TO  PROCEED  IN  CASE  OP  LOSS. 


mi 


are  so  perilous  and  severe  that  none  but  a  brave  man  will  undertake  them. 
The  Commissioners  never  have  to  reject  a  'probationer.'  The  candidate  for 
membership  in  the  department  rejects  himself  usually  at  the  end  of  a  week, 
if  he  hasn't  courage,  ('apt.  McAdam  is  the  instructor  of  t lie  school  and  drill- 
master  of  the  Life-Saving  Corps,  and  the  fireman  who  has  taken  a  thirty-day 
course  in  his  school  is  competent  to  save  life  and  do  heroic  deeds.  When  the 
men  in  blue  are  in  sight  don't  jump.  They'll  climb  walls  and  go  through 
smoke  and  fire.  Their  mission  is  to  save  life,  and  they'd  rather  die  themselves 
than  fail  in  their  duty.  If  by  any  possibility  they  can't  reach  a  window  or  a 
roof  they'll  spread  the  life-net  at  the  base  and  be  ready  to  receive  the  jumper. 
My  final  instructions  are:  Study  the  surroundings  of  your  room  and  building, 
know  the  methods  of  escape,  keep  cool  and — don't  jump." 

The  Chief  adds  advice,  which  probably  every  underwriter 
always  follows,  as  to  what  should  be  done  in  a  hotel  before  a  fire, 
namely : 

"The  first  thing  a  hotel  guest  should  do  on  being  assigned  to  his  room  is  to 
locate  the  nearest  outside  fire-escape.  After  that  he  should  familiarize  himself 
with  the  location  of  the  hall  windows  and  discover  their  relation  to  the  roof  of 
the  adjoining  buildings.  He  should  next  learn  the  position  of  the  stairs  and 
their  top  and  bottom  landings.  The  top  landing  particularly  he  should  know 
all  about,  as  well  as  the  method  of  egress  to  the  roof.  All  this  information  the 
guest  can  acquire  in  ten  minutes  or  less.  After  making  these  investigations, 
should  a  fire  break  out,  he  knows  his  relative  location  and  his  various  avenues 
of  escape. 

Precisely  the  same  rules  apply  to  private  houses  and  flat  buildings,  especially 
in  cities,  where  private  dwellings  are  frequently  five  stories  high." 

HOW  TO  PROCEED  IN  CASE  OF  LOSS. 

If  any  portion  of  the  property  is  saved,  take  immediate  steps 
to  have  it  protected  by  the  assured  from  further  damage,  and 
then  notify  the  Company,  at  its  office,  by  letter  or  telegram, 
according  to  circumstances.  If  the  loss  is  a  severe  one,  a  tele- 
gram should  be  sent  giving  n  umber  of  policy,  probable  per- 
centage  of  loss,  and  names  and  amounts  of  other  companies 
on  the  risk,  that  the  Company  may  consult  with  them  as  to  the 
action  to  be  taken.  The  telegram  should  be  immediately 
followed  by  a  letter,  giving  all  the  particulars  that  can  be 
collected. 

Avoid  unnecessary  words  in  a  telegram,  such,  for  instance,  as 
"send  adjuster,'"  or  "what  shall  I  do?"  Requests  for  instruc- 
tions are  unnecessary.  It  must  be  obvious,  on  reflection,  to  an 
intelligent  agent,  that  the  Company  would  naturally  advise, 


328  CARING   l«'<>n  DAMAGEABLE  GOODS. 

upon  receipt  of  the  information,  without  being  reminded  of  its 
duty. 

The  following  form  of  telegram  may  he  modified  to  suit  cases: 
 Insurance  Company, 

"Total  loss  (or  fifty  per  cent.,  or  otherwise,  as  the  case  may 
be),  twenty-four  twenty-two,  .funics  Broirn:  Home,  jire 
thousand;  Aetna,  jive;  Phenix,  Brooklyn,  ten." 

Richard  Roe,  Agent. 

This  gives  the  Company  all  of  the  principal  facts  necessary 
to  enable  it  to  consult,  as  to  the  adjustment,  with  the  other 
companies  interested. 

Where  a  greater  number  of  companies  are  on  the  risk,  they 
may  be  grouped  according  to  amounts,  to  save  words  and  ex- 
pense, thus:  ''''Home,  Aetna,  Hanover,  five  thousand;  Ni- 
agara, National,  three;  Hartford,  Germania,  twenty-five 
h  n  ad  red . "  This  will  be  important  and  intelligible  information. 
As  a  rule,  however,  it  is  entirely  unnecessary  to  wire  the  names 
of  the  companies,  especially  if  the  agent  lias  properly  filled 
out  the  daily  report  as  to  the  other  companies  insuring  the 
risk-.  Moreover,  where  the  company  has  a  special  agent  to 
adjust  the  loss  (as  most  large  companies  have)  the  information 
as  to  other  companies  is  not  necessary  and  the  expense  of  wiring 
it  should  be  saved. 

When  the  loss  is  small  and  no  immediate  action  is  necessary, 
dispatch  a  letter,  as  soon  as  possible,  but  do  not  telegraph.  It  is 
more  important  to  telegraph,  in  case  of  a  serious  partial 
damage  to  a  stock  of  merchandise,  than  where  the  loss  is  on 
a  building,  as  an  experienced  adjuster,  if  promptly  on  the 
ground,  may  possibly  save  a  serious  damage  from  rust,  mildew, 
or  other  cause. 

Hardware,  and  especially  cutlery,  should  be  unwrapped,  well 
rubbed  off  and  oiled,  as  soon  as  possible.  Dry  goods,  rolls  of 
cloth,  clothing,  etc.,  should  be  opened  out  to  dry  to  prevent 
further  loss  by  heating,  stains  and  mildew.  Such  goods  should 
never  be  piled  up  while  damp.  Tobacco,  stationery,  drugs  and 
stoves  all  need  immediate  care.  The  agent,  in  such  cases, 
should  act  with  decision,  and  especially  if  the  assured  is  un- 


COLLECTING   PACTS  <>K  SUSPICIOUS  FIRES. 

principled  enough  to  object  to  such  precautions,  the  agent 
should  notify  liini  that  it  is  his  duty,  under  the  contract,  to  take 
(  are  of  the  damaged  property,  and  that  the  underwriters  will 
not  he  responsible  for  the  consequences  of  any  neglect  on  his 
part.  Lines  67,  68  and  G9  of  the  Standard  policy  are  as  follows : 
"If  fire  occur  the  insured  shall  give  immediate  notice  of  any  loss  thereby  in 
writing  t<»  this  company,  proteel  the  property  from  further  damage,  forthwith 
separate  the  damaged  and  undamaged  personal  property,  put  it  in  the  best 
possible  order,  make  a  complete  inventory  of  the  same,  staling  the  quantity 
ami  eust  of  each  article  and  the  amount  claimed  thereon." 

The  agent  should  have  supervision  of  the  damaged  property, 
but  it  is  best  to  arrange  the  matter  of  caring  for  it  amicably 
with  the  assured,  convincing  him  that  it  is  to  his  interest.  A 
little  tact  at  this  point  would  be  valuable,  and  an  intelligent 
agent  will  soon  convince  any  ordinary  claimant  that  he  is  simply 
advising  him  in  his  own  best  interest. 

Where  the  building  is  insured  and  is  partially  damaged,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  temporarily  close  the  roof  or  a  broken  side 
wall,  with  cheap  boards,  to  prevent  farther  damage  by  rains. 
Walls,  also,  may  need  shoring  or  propping  to  prevent  their 
being  blown  down. 

Some  persons  suppose  that  they  must  not  touch  anything, 
after  a  fire,  until  the  underwriters  have  examined  the  premises. 
They  should  be  instructed  that  it  is  their  duty  always  to  pro- 
led  the  property  from  further  damage. 

When  the  circumstances  of  a  partial  loss  are  so  suspicious  as  to 
indicate  incendiarism  on  the  part  of  the  assured,  it  may  be  advisa- 
ble to  cancel  the  policy,  (see  ante,  pp.  313,  318),  or  to  employ  a 
constant  and  reliable  night  watchman,  to  keep  the  property 
under  constant  surveillance,  until  the  adjustment  is  consum- 
mated and  the  policy  can  be  taken  up,  in  the  regular  manner. 
Those  who  fail  in  a  first  attempt  to  burn  property  sometimes 
succeed  in  a  second. 

Collecting  the  Facts  of  the  Fire.  Having  taken  every  precaution 
to  save  further  loss,  the  agent  should  endeavor  to  ascertain  the 
cause  of  the  fire,  if  possible,  whether  originating  from  design, 
carelessness,  spontaneous  combustion,  or  other  causes.  He 
should  ascertain  whether  there  were  any  suspicious  circum- 
stances before,  or  at  the  time  of  the  fire,  and  to  succeed,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  proceed  quietly  and  cautiously.    Parties  know- 


330  COLLECTING  FACTS  OF  SUSPICIOUS  FIRES. 

ing  of  suspicious  facts  are  generally  slow  to  communicate  their 
knowledge  or  suspicions.  Always  try  to  find  the  person  who 
teas  first  upon  the  (/round  and  ascertain  what  he  saw,  and 
at  what  hour  of  the  day  or  night  the  fire  was  discovered. 

Find  out  whether  the  building  was  occupied  or  was  stand- 
ing vacant  at  the  time  of  the  fire,  and  if  vacant,  how  long  it 
had  been  so;  whether  it  was  a  paying  investment  to  the  owner 
and  lessee;  whether  it  was  "for  sale,"  (and  if  so,  for  what  price), 
or  in  litigation ;  whether  mortgaged  or  about  to  be ;  if  mortgaged, 
whether  undergoing  foreclosure,  or  whether  the  mortgage  had 
heen  called  in;  whether  any  threats  had  been  made  to  burn  the 
property,  etc. 

If  the  loss  is  on  merchandise,  ascertain  whether  the  stock 
was  full  or  low,  new,  or  old  and  shelf-worn;  whether  the  books 
of  accounts  and  papers  ivere  saved;  whether  any  property 
was  stolen,  at  or  after  the  fire,  and  if  so,  how  much — giving  a 
detailed  statement. 

Not  a  small  portion  of  jewelry  stocks  is,  sometimes,  in  the 
t ranks  of  trarefiiig  salesmen,  though  included  in  the  inventory 
of  the  store ;  and,  in  the  case  of  country  stores,  no  inconsider- 
able portion  of  the  merchandise  may  be,  at  the  time  of  the  fire, 
in  the  wagons  of  peddlers  traveling  through  the  country  and 
selling  for  account  of  the  assured.  Make  careful  investigation 
as  to  such  important  facts,  and  quietly  reserve  them  for  the 
final  settlement. 

Ascertain  whether  the  assured  was  ever  burned  out  before, 
and  if  so,  when  and  where;  whether  insured  at  the  time,  and 
if  so,  in  what  companies. 

It  is,  sometimes,  well  to  examine,  also,  as  to  the  habits  of 
book-keepers,  clerLs  or  other  employees. 

Upon  an  examination  of  the  premises  after  a  suspicious  fire, 
the  agent  .should  carefully  write  out  an  accurate,  detailed 
description  of  the  appearance  of  the  premises.  If  a  stock 
of  merchandise  is  partially  damaged,  he  should  note  the  number 
of  shelves  totally  destroyed,  the  number  partially  destroyed,  and 
whether  they  were  full  or  only  partially  full  of  goods;  the 
appearance  of  counters,  whether  any  goods  were  piled  on  them, 
and  to  what  height ;  the  character  of  the  goods — whether  cheap 
or  expensive;  the  quantity  and  appearance  of  the  debris — some 


MAKE  NO  CHANGE  IN  POLICY. 


331 


kinds  of  merchandise  leave  traces.  Axes  and  hammers  are 
never  destroyed,  pails  leave  hoops,  etc.  He  should  not  trust  to 
his  memory. 

Under  no  circumstances  should  the  agent  make  any  alteration  in  the 
policy,  or  consent  to  any  transfer  or  assignment  of  it,  or  to  any  change 
whatever,  after  a  loss.  He  should  let  everything  remain  in  pre- 
cisely the  same  condition  as  at  the  time  of  the  fire. 

Adjustment  of  the  Loss.  The  agent  should  not  proceed  with 
the  adjustment  of  the  toss  until  instructed  by  the  Company, 
unless  the  circumstances  ore  such  as  to  make  further  loss 
certain,  for  /rant  of  immediate  action,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
damaged,  roof  exposing  a  building  to  the  weather.  Up  to 
the  receipt  of  such  instructions,  the  agent  should  employ  him- 
self merely  in  protecting  the  property,  and  in  gathering  all  the 
information  he  can  as  to  the  cause  of  the  fire  and  particulars  of 
the  loss. 

Partial  Losses  on  buildings  should  be  adjusted  by  appraisement  in 
exceptional  cases  only.  Estimates  should  be  obtained  from  two 
or  more  responsible  builders  as  to  the  amount  f  <  >r  which  each 
will  repair  the  damage  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  assured. 
Blank  estimates  will  be  sent  by  the  Company.  The  amount  of 
the  lowest  responsible  estimate  may  be  offered  by  the  Company 
to  the  assured,  as  he  may  prefer  to  do  the  work  himself,  or  may 
desire  alterations  in  the  plans.  In  case,  however,  the  Company 
elects  to  repair  a  contract  should  be  drawn  (blanks  for  which 
will  be  furnished  by  the  Company)  for  the  builder  to  sign,  in 
which  he  agrees  to  restore  the  property  to  the  same  condition, 
in  all  respects,  as  it  was  in  before  the  fire,  the  Company  agree- 
ing to  pay  him  the  amount  of  his  bid  so  soon  as  the  repairs  are 
completed  and  he  produces  a  certificate  from  the  assured  that 
he  is  satisfied  with  the  manner  in  which  the  repairs  have  been 
made. 

Do  not  deal  with  unprincipled  or  irresponsible  builders, 
who  cannot  be  relied  upon  to  carry  out  their  proposals  to  the 
letter.  The  estimates  of  such  builders,  if  entertained,  might 
work  great  injustice  to  the  assured,  especially  if  he  should 
elect  to  receive  the  amount  of  a  reckless  bid  instead  of 
having  the  property  repaired  by  the  Company. 

When  the  building  is  totally  destroyed,  it  may  be  necessary,  in 


APPRAISAL  OF  PARTIAL  LOSSES. 


case  of  a  disagreement  as  to  its  value,  to  resort  to  an  appraisal 
and  to  require  the  owner  to  produce  the  original  plans  and 
specifications  upon  which  it  was  constructed,  on  which  estimates 
may  be  obtained  to  rebuild;  or  to  furnish  other  satisfactory 
evidence  ti>  the  Company  as  to  the  original  cost  of  the  building, 
unless  the  loss  is  manifestly  greatly  in  excess  of  the  insurance. 
As  a  rule  the  cost  of  replacing  a  building  with  another  of  like 
quality  and  construction,  less  a  proper  depreciation  for  a 
difference  between  new  and  old,  is  the  measure  of  damage. 
In  estimating  depreciation  the  age,  condition,  location  and 
adaptability  of  the  building  to  the  use  to  which  it  is  applied, 
should  be  considered.  Depreciation  is  an  element  which  enters 
into  the  adjustment  of  nearly  all  losses  on  buildings,  and  in 
view  of  the  difference  of  opinion  which  is  likely  to  arise  on  this 
subject  an  appraisal  is  frequently  necessary  to  determine  the 
question,  and  in  such  cases  the  appraisers  estimate  the  cost  of 
rebuilding,  allowing  a  proper  deduction  therefrom  for  depreci- 
ation to  arrive  at  the  cash  value  of  the  structure  at  the  time  of 
the  fire. 

When  personal  or  movable  property  is  damaged,  the  assured  as 
already  stated  and  in  accordance  with  lines  67,  68  and  69  of  the 
Standard  Fire  Insurance  Policy,  must  forthwith  cause  it  to  be 
put  in  order,  assorting  and  arranging  the  various  articles  accord- 
ing to  their  kinds,  separating  the  damaged  from  the  undamaged, 
and  cause  an  inventory  to  be  made  and  furnished  to  the  Com- 
pany of  the  whole,  naming  the  quantity,  quality  and  cost  of  each 
article  at  the  time  of  the  fire,  as  well  as  the  actual  damage  each 
article  has  sustained  by  the  fire.  See  the  conditions  of  the 
policy. 

In  case  of  the  total  destruction  of  movable  property,  and  when 
it  is  not  possible  for  the  assured  to  furnish  schedules  of  the 
whole,  a  schedule  of  all  that  can  be  ascertained  should  be  given, 
and  such  evidence  furnished  as  to  the  balance  of  the  property 
as  shall  be  satisfactory. 

The  damaged  property  belongs  to  the  assured,  he  cannot 
<d>andon  it.  Abandonment  is  not  a  feature  of  fire  insurance, 
which  is  strictly  a  contract  of  indemnity  only. 

Selection  of  Appraisers.  As  before  stated,  losses  on  buildings 
should  not  be  submitted  to  appraisement  until  all  other 


SELECTION  (>K  APPRAISERS. 


333 


propci-  methods  of  adjust  men  ts  ha  re  foiled.  When  an  agree- 
ment, as  to  the  value  of  personal  property,  cannot  he  arrived 
at,  it  may  be  advisable  for  each  party — the  assured  and  the 
agent — to  select  a  disinterested  intelligent  appraiser,  sub- 
mitting the  question  of  damage  to  the  two  so  selected  by  a 
written  agreement.  The  two  appraisers  may  together  choose 
a  third,  in  case  they  cannot  agree;  and  the  award,  in  writing, 
of  any  two  should  be  binding,  as  to  the  value  of  the  property 
and  the  damage. 

Appraisement,  however,  should  be  a  last  resort,  and  not 
taken  (except  in  the  case  of  property  which  will  damage  by 
delay,  as  hereinafter  explained)  until  orders  are  received  from 
the  Company.  It  will  generally  be  found  that  a  reasonable, 
intelligent  and  honest  claimant  and  a  conscientious  adjuster  can 
agree,  without  difficulty,  upon  a  fair  settlement.  Appraisers 
sometimes  lean  unfairly  toward  the  interest  of  a  claimant,  and 
yet  quite  often  do  him  great  injustice. 

The  appraisers  must  examine  each  article,  and  state,  in 
detail,  the  sound,  wholesale  cash  value  of  it  at  the  time  of  the 
fire,  as  well  as  the  actual  amount  of  the  damage.  As  each  item 
is  arrived  at,  it  should  be  entered  clearly,  in  ink,  on  an  inventory 
prepared  with  double  columns  for  "sound  value'1  and  '"amount 
of  damage." 

The  duties  of  the  appraisers  end  with  their  award  as  to  the 
two  items  of  ''sound  value"  and  "damage." 

They  hare  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  liability  of 
the  Company,  or  with  such  items  as  cost  of  removing  prop- 
erty, of  watching  and  caring  for  it,  the  amount  of  profit, 
loss  of  time  or  rents,  or  disarrangement  of  business,  etc., 
and  they  must  not  bring  these  matters  into  their  award,  either 
directly  or  indirectly ;  nor  is  an  appraisement  the  proper  place 
for  the  consideration  of  such  claims  as  for  the  value  of  blankets, 
carpets  or  other  appliances  used  in  protecting  the  property. 

Appraisers  are  not  arbitrators.  They  are  not  to  say  how 
much  the  Company  is  to  pay,  or  to  treat  of  or  mention  its 
liability  in  any  way.  They  have  simply  to  deal  with  the  sound 
value  and  damage  of  the  property  before  them.  The  ap- 
praisement and  award  must  be  under  oatli  and  in  writing. 
(For  form,  see  index]. 


334 


CARIXd    FOR    DAM  A(.|'.A  lU.K  IMIOPKRTY. 


The  Company  will  furnish  hlanks  for  appraisal. 

The  expenses  of  appraisal  are  to  be  divided  equally  between 
the  Company  and  the  assured,  each  paying  one-half. 

The  Company  reserves  (but  seldom  avails  itself  of)  the  right 
under  its  policy  to  take  any  or  all  of  the  appraised  property  at 
its  appraised  value.  This  reservation  is  necessary  to  enable  it 
to  protect  itself  from  a  careless,  ignorant  or  intentionally  ex- 
cessive and  unjust  estimate  of  damage  by  the  appraisers. 

Upon  such  property  as  will  damage  by  delay,  such  as  stocks  of 
fruits,  confectionery,  cutlery,  etc.,  an  appraisal  should  be 
immediately  had;  delay  increases  the  damage,  and  the  property 
can  be  best  cared  for  by  the  owner,  when  his  is  the  sole  interest. 
Agents  are,  therefore,  authorized,  in  such  cases,  to  insist 
upon  an  immediate  appraisal,  unless  they  can  agree  with  the 
owner  as  to  the  amount  of  damage.  By  prompt  action,  in  such 
cases,  the  responsibility  of  caring  for  perishable  goods  will  rest 
upon  the  owner,  who,  by  reason  of  experience  and  acquaintance 
with  them,  is  better  qualified  to  take  the  steps  necessary  to 
prevent  subsequent  damage.  In  all  other  cases,  however,  the 
agent  should  wait  for  instructions  from  the  Company  before 
consenting  to  an  appraisal. 

Do  not  close  an  adjustment  or  admit  any  liability  under 
any  circumstances,  or  consent  to  the  representation  of  this  Com- 
pany by  the  adjuster  of  another  Company,  unless  instructed 
to  do  so.  Upon  the  arrival  of  the  adjuster  of  another  company, 
however,  telegraph  the  fact  to  the  Company,  as  follows: 

 Insurance  Company, 


"John  Jones.  Aetna  adjuster,  here  adjusting  their  loss.,, 
It  may  happen  that  the  Company,  knowing  such  adjuster,  by 
reputation,  to  be  competent  and  honorable,  may  be  willing  to 
entrust  its  interests  to  his  care,  and  be  glad  to  save  the  expense 
of  sending  its  own  adjuster. 

Where  a  claimant  seems  in  undue  haste  to  have  his  loss 
settled,  it  may  be  advisable  to  wait.  Susjiicious  losses  do  riot 
suffer  by  delay.  Be  sure  to  select  honest  appraisers — those 
who  will  do  justice  by  the  assured  not  less  than  by  the  company. 
A  competent,  experienced  adjuster  will,  in  most  cases,  handle 


TELEGRAPHING  COM  ['ANY. 


:;:•>;. 


a  claim  on  personal  property,  stocks  of  merchandise,  &c,  with- 
out having  an  appraisal.  This  is  generally  possible  where  the 
claimant  is  an  honest  man  and  the  adjuster  understands  his 
business. 

In  one  case  coming  to  the  writer's  notice,  one  of  the  most 
capable  and  tactful  adjusters  in  New  York*  proceeded  to  a  store 
to  settle  a  claim  of  $800  on  a  stock  of  boots  and  shoes.  A  hasty 
glance  convinced  him  that  the  assured  was  honestly  mistaken 
in  his  estimate  of  the  damage,  and  when  he  insisted  upon  an 
appraisal  and  asked  the  adjuster  "Whom  would  you  select?" 
the  adjuster  said : 

"I  prefer  you  as  an  appraiser.  From  all  I  hear,  you  are  an 
honest  man,  and  I  am  sure  you  understand  the  value  of  your 
own  goods  better  than  anyone  else ;  suppose  you  and  I  first  try 
to  arrive  at  the  amount  of  the  loss  without  calling  anybody  else 
in.  I  will  take  a  pencil  and  paper,  and  you  examine  each  box 
of  boots  and  shoes  and  tell  me  what  you  think  the  loss  is." 

The  assured  assented,  and  the  two  proceeded  in  this  way  care- 
fully and  fairly,  until  all  the  damaged  goods  had  been  "ap- 
praised" at  the  figure  the  assured  himself  had  named  as  the 
measure  of  damage.  Before  footing  the  columns  of  items,  the 
adjuster  said : 

"Now,  is  there  anything  else  ?  We  want  to  be  sure  you  have 
got  everything." 

"You  have  everything,"  was  the  replj*. 

When  the  sum  total  was  ascertained  it  was  less  than  $150, 
and  the  merchant  expressed  himself  as  perfectly  satisfied. 

Adjusters  of  this  calibre  make  handsome  salvages,  and  satisfy 
the  claimants,  while  there  is  a  class  of  adjusters  who  could  not 
adjust  and  pay  a  total  loss  without  leaving  the  claimant  angry. 

I  cannot  better  describe  the  methods  of  an  intelligent  adjuster 
than  by  emploj'ing  the  language  of  Mr.  R.  J.  Taylor,  as  follows: 

"An  extravagant  claim  is  not  always  evidence  of  dishonest  motive  on  the 
part  of  the  claimant.  It  is  human  nature  to  value  one's  own  possessions  more 
highly  than  those  of  another.  The  property  burned,  by  reason  of  associations, 
may  have  a  sentimental  value  in  the  estimation  of  the  claimant  largely  in 
excess  of  its  actual  value.  Of  course,  the  contract  of  insurance  contemplates 
only  the  'actual  cash  value'  at  the  time  of  the  fire;  yet,  notwithstanding  this 
fact,  it  is  not  the  part  of  the  wisdom  to  rudely  disregard  the  sentimental  view 
of  a  loss  by  a  waive  of  the  hand,  and  bring  the  claimant  down  at  one  fell 


*The  late  Mr.  Charles  0.  Halsey. 


336 


H()\V  TO  ADJUST  LOSSES. 


swoop  to  a  contemplation  of  his  loss  on  the  proper  basis  of  'cash  cost  of  replac- 
ing, less  depreciation.'  It  should  be  the  aim  of  an  adjuster  to  lead  a  claimant 
to  the  acceptance  of  a  proper  adjustment  by  patient  explanations;  hy  good- 
tempered  argument;  by  convincing  him  of  the  integrity  of  your  motives;  thus 
securing  his  confidence,  by  giving  him  a  fair  and  courteous  hearing  on  all 
points  of  difference  that  may  arise,  remembering  always  that  while  an  adjust- 
ment is  a  matter  of  every-day  occurrence  to  an  adjuster,  a  fire  may  be  the 
great  event  in  the  lifetime  of  the  claimant.  To  him  the  adjustment  is  every- 
thing. It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  honest  claimants  should  be  nervous, 
exacting,  unreasonable  and  suspicious  of  the  acts  of  adjusters.  Their  minds 
may  have  been  filled  with  all  manner  of  suspicions,  and  an  unreasonable  claim 
may  have  been  inspired  by  officious  busybodies  who  attend  to  everybody's 
business  but  their  own.  The  proper  treatment  of  a  c  laimant  is  fully  as  im- 
portant in  an  adjustment  as  the  capacity  to  fully  and  clearly  estimate  the 
amount  of  loss.  No  matter  how  accurately  a  claim  may  be  adjusted,  the 
adjuster's  labor  will  be  in  vain  if  he  fails  to  convince  the  claimant  of  the  cor- 
rectness of  his  figures;  and  he  certainly  will  not  be  able  to  do  this,  where  there 
is  any  controversy,  unless  he  has  by  fair  dealing  and  courteous  demeanor 
secured  the  confidence  and  good-will  of  the  claimant. 

The  practical  adjuster  will  not  see  in  the  foregoing  remarks  a  justification 
of  careless  or  loose  adjustments,  nor  for  the  display  of  weak  vertebrae  on  his 
part.  ( >n  the  contrary,  he  must  combine  firmness  with  courtesy.  He  must  be 
able  to  say  NO  and  to  stick  to  it  when  necessary.  The  point  of  the  argument 
is  that,  w  bile  it  is  the  duty  of  the  adjuster  to  ad  just  every  loss  assign,. ,i  to  him 
carefully  and  thoroughly,  he  should  at  the  same  time  treat  the  claimant  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  secure  his  acquiescence  in  the  adjustment  without  losing 
his  friendship  for  the  company." 

"It  is  admitted,''  Mr.  Taylor  continues,  "that  there  are  claimants  whom 
nobody  can  please — claimants  who  take  offence  if  the  slightest  demand  is  made 
on  them  for  data  and  information  relating  to  the  loss — claimants  who  are 
ignorant  of  their  rights  and  stubborn  because  of  their  ignorance — claimants 
w  ho  are  offensive,  unreasonable  and  dishonest— but.  even  in  such  cases  it  is 
only  the  adjuster  who  combines  courtesy  and  tact  with  firmness  who  has  any 
show  at  all  of  securing  a  proper  adjustment.  The  hot-headed  and  sarcastic 
adjuster  is  usually  compelled  to  retire  from  the  case,  and  every  such  occurrence 
strengthens  the  contention  of  the  claimant  and  correspondingly  weakens  that 
of  the  adjuster. 

'A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath.'" 

Such  advice  from  an  adjuster  who  has  spent  a  lifetime  in  the 
business  may  well  be  followed  by  one  who  has  an  honest  desire 
to  learn.  Experience  is  the  best  of  teachers,  and  it  is  less 
expensive,  when  the  experience  is  that  of  others. 

Damage  by  Removal.  Where  goods  are  damaged  by  removal, 
the  loss  and  expenses  of  removal  are  borne  by  the  assured  and 
the  insurance  companies  together,  in  proportion  as  each  is 
interested.    If  the  insurance  companies  have  insurance  upon 


I)AMA(iK  BY  REMOVAL,  EXPLOSION,  ETC 


the  property  to  its  full  value,  they  pay  the  whole  cost  of  removal, 
hut  if  to  the  extent  of  one-half  its  value,  they  pay  one-half  of  the 
damage  and  the  expenses  of  removal,  and  the  assured  pays  the 
other  half.  This  must  impress  any  one  as  an  equitahle  appor- 
tionment. As  the  removal,  in  such  a  case,  is  made  more  in  the 
interest  of  the  assured  than  of  the  companies,  he  should  hear,  at 
least,  an  equal  share  of  the  expense  and  damage,  for  all  of  the 
goods  saved  are  his,  unless  he  saves  more  than  the  uninsured 
portion. 

Damage  by  Explosion.  Such  damage  is  not  a  loss  within  a  fire 
insurance  policy  and  is  expressly  excepted  by  its  terms,  as 
follows : 

"This  company  shall  not  be  liable  for  loss  caused  directly  or  indirectly  by 
invasion,  insurrection,  riot,  civil  war  or  commotion,  or  military  or  usurped 
power,  or  by  order  of  any  civil  authority;  or  by  theft ;  or  by  neglect  of  the 
insured  to  use  all  reasonable  means  to  save  and  preserve  the  property  at  and 
after  a  fire  or  when  the  property  is  endangered  by  fire  in  neighboring  premises; 
or  (unless  fire  ensues,  and,  in  that  event,  for  the  damage  by  fire  only)  by 
explosion  of  any  kind." 

Damage  by  Lightning  is  not  covered  by  the  policy  unless  ex- 
pressly mentioned  in  writing.     (For  form  of  clause  see  index). 

When  the  agent  is  convinced  that  there  is  no  fraud  on  the  part  of 
the  assured  and  that  his  claim  is  an  honest  one,  he  should  place 
himself  on  an  amicable  footing  with  him,  and  assist  him  as 
in  itch  as  possible.  Honest  claimants  should  have  every  facility 
and  assistance  afforded  them.  Assure  them,  at  the  outset,  that 
the  Company  desires  to  do  them  full  justice,  to  pay — not  one 
dollar  more  than  they  have  lost — not  one  cent  less.  An  insur- 
ance company  does  not  want  so-called  "jump"  adjustments, 
where,  the  assured  making  a  round  claim,  like  the  $800  boot 
and  shoe  claim  just  referred  to,  is  offered  $400  by  a  lazy  and 
incompetent  adjuster  as  a  settlement,  without  going  into  the 
matter.  In  the  case  cited  the  company  would  have  lost  more 
than  half  of  the  adjuster's  offer.  On  the  other  hand,  the  assured 
in  some  cases  will  not  receive  all  that  he  is  entitled  to.  It  is 
safe  to  say  that  a  jump  adjustment  does  injustice  either  to  the 
company  or  to  the  claimant,  and  adjusters  of  this  class  should 
be  railroaded  out  of  the  business.  They  have  no  proper  place 
in  it. 

When  it  comes  to  guessing,  the  assured,  with  that  better 


AVOID  JUMP  ADJUSTMENTS. 


knowledge  of  his  property  which  every  claimant  possesses,  can 
heat  the  adjuster  guessing  every  time. 

Such  slovenly  methods  increase  the  sum  total  of  losses  and. 
therefore,  the  fire  cost  and  premium  tax  upon  that  large  majority 
of  property-owners  (more  than  95  $)  who  have  no  fires.  As 
insurance  simply  distributes  the  losses  on  the  unhurned  policy- 
holders, it  is  a  gross  injustice  to  them  to  pay  more  than  the 
actual  damage.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  with  the  best  of  intentions 
on  the  part  of  honest  claimants  and  careful,  fair-minded  ad- 
justers, more  is  paid  for  losses  than  the  actual  measure  of  them, 
so  that  neither  the  company  nor  its  policy-holders  can  afford  to 
have  careless  adjustments.  If  the  fire  losses  paid  by  the  in- 
surance companies  for  the  last  two  years  were  only  ten  per  cent 
in  excess  of  the  actual  measure  of  them,  the  amount  would 
have  been  more  than  double  the  percentage  of  profit  on  the 
earned  premiums  of  the  most  successful  companies  in  the  bus- 
iness. 

It  is  safe  to  assume  that  three-fourths  of  all  the  adverse 
legislation  and  of  all  the  adverse  judicial  decisions  recorded 
against  insurance  companies,  and  rising,  like  Banquo's  ghost, 
to  confront  us  at  every  point  where  vicious  claims  are  contested, 
have  been  placed  upon  the  statute  books  because  of  sharp  and 
unprincipled  adjustments  made  by  men  who  are  unscrupulous 
enough  to  cheat  claimants  and  foolish  enough  afterwards  to 
boast  in  public. 

In  one  case  coming  to  the  writer's  attention,  two  adjusters, 
seated  at  a  hotel  table,  entertained  each  other  with  highly 
colored,  boastful  stories  as  to  adjustments  they  had  made  with 
honest  claimants,  in  the  hearing  of  two  members  of  the  legis- 
lature, as  to  whose  identity  they  were  ignorant.  Is  it  any 
wonder  that  a  valued  policy  law  would  get  the  votes  of  men 
who  had  listened  to  such  a  conversation  ?  No  reputable  insur- 
ance company  desires  an  honest  claimant  to  get  a  cent  less  than 
he  has  lost. 

A  safe  rule,  given  by  the  father  of  one  of  New  York's  ablest 
and  most  successful  millionaires,  in  starting  out  in  life  was : 

"John,  don't  ever  be  more  than  half  as  sharp  as  you  know 
how  to  be." 

We  cannot  amplify  on  this  pithy  advice. 


ASSISTING  HONEST  CLAIMANTS. 


339 


The  great  aim  of  every  adjuster  should  be  to  assist  an  honest 
claimant  in  ascertaining  his  actual  loss;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
to  ferret  out  a  dishonest  claimant  and  bring  the  incendiary  to 
proper  punishment,  securing  his  indictment  through  the  Grand 
Jury.  (We  never  want  a  man  arrested  under  any  circum- 
stances, except  by  the  authorities  after  indictment  by  the  Grand 
Jury,  before  whom  the  underwriter  knowing  the  facts  should 
appear.)  This  would  save  any  suit  for  damages  for  false 
imprisonment  in  case  a  charge  could  not  be  proven,  or  an 
informant  should  be  found  untruthful,  as  is  sometimes  the 
case. 

The  agent  must  not  forget,  however,  that  scrutiny  and  investi- 
gation are  never  objectionable  to  honest  claimants;  indeed,  they 
generally  court  the  most  rigid  investigation.  We  have  fre- 
quently discovered  great  errors  in  the  books  of  account  and 
recollections  of  honest  claimants,  who  have  been  most  ready  to 
admit  these  errors  when  brought  to  their  notice.  Blanks  for 
proofs  of  loss  are  sent  by  the  Company,  to  facilitate  the  collection 
of  losses  by  honest  claimants.  Dishonest  claimants  should  be 
left  to  prepare  their  proofs,  without  any  suggestions,  assistance 
or  blanks  furnished  by  the  agent.  Direct  the  assured,  in  such 
cases,  to  make  his  proofs  in  accordance  with  the  conditions  of 
the  policy,  in  which  full  and  explicit  directions  are  given. 

Payment  of  Losses.  Never  draw  drafts  upon  the  Company  for 
the  payment  of  losses  until  authorized  by  the  Company  to  do 
so,  and  then  only  on  the  form  of  blank  draft,  with  receipt 
attached,  (the  draft  and  receipt  must  not  be  separated),  for- 
warded for  the  purpose  by  the  Company.  The  Company 
altvays  sends  blank  drafts  and  instructions. 

It  is  the  experience  of  the  companies  generally  that  those 
claimants  who,  immediately  after  a  loss,  consult  a  lawyer  and 
place  themselves  in  his  hands,  are  generally  conscious  that  their 
claims  need  external  assistance,  and  such  losses  should  receive 
the  most  rigid  scrutiny.  Under  no  circumstances  should  such 
claims  be  paid  before  the  expiration  of  the  sixty  days  from  the 
filing  of  proofs. 

Hasty  Payments  should  be  avoided.  When  a  case  of  unusual 
hardship  would  seem  to  require  speedy  relief,  and  the  Company, 
in  view  of  all  the  circumstances,  orders  the  amount  paid,  do 


340 


HASTY  PAYMENTS  OF  LOSSES. 


not  advertise  Hie  fact  in  the  newspapers.  Such  advertise- 
ments arc  always  followed  by  applications  for  insurance  on  the 
part  of  an  unprincipled  class  whose  patronage  we  desire  to 
avoid.  They  misconstrue  the  mot  i  re  of  the  pa  /fluent,  and, 
supposing  thai  llie  Company  is  seeking  a  reputation  for  so-called 
"prompt  payments,"  without  proper  investigation,  they  often 
aid  in  increasing  its  opportunities  for  advertising. 

The  practice  of  making  hasty  payments  of  losses  is  not  calcu- 
lated to  commend  a  company  to  an  intelligent  and  desirable 
class  of  customers. 

Discounting  Claims  before  Maturity.  In  those  cases  where  the 
justice  of  the  claim  is  unquestionable  and  all  the  circumstances 
of  the  fire  satisfactory,  and  the  assured  desires  to  use  the  money, 
before  it  is  due,  for  the  purpose  of  his  business  or  to  replace  the 
burned  property,  the  Company  will  allow  payment  requiring, 
o"  course,  a  deduction  for  interest,  that  it  may  not  lose  by  dis- 
turbing its  investments. 

Payments  in  advance  of  maturity,  however,  should  be  made 
with  care.  There  are  many  claims  which  should  wait  the  sixty 
days.  In  the  case  of  a  claimant  in  the  Northwest,  where  one 
of  our  adjusters  paid  a  man  whom  he  had  personally  known  for 
many  years  a  claim,  discounting  it  in  advance  of  maturity,  he 
received,  after  making  the  payment,  an  anonymous  communica- 
tion telling  him  where  he  could  find  all  the  doors,  blinds  and 
movable  portions  of  the  building  which  he  had  just  paid  for, 
concealed  under  a  hay  stack  on  the  premises  of  the  assured. 
Nothing  wras  left  to  him  but  to  commence  an  action  in  court  to 
recover  the  money ;  but  the  accused  escaped  on  a  technicality 
as  to  the  form  of  the  loss  draft  and  the  papers  served  in  the 
case,  and  the  adjuster  was  left  with  the  consolation  that  he  had 
learned  two  important  lessons:  first,  that  a  man  might  be  mis- 
taken, after  long  acquaintance,  in  the  character  of  his  friend; 
and,  second,  that  the  sixty-day  payment  clause  in  a  policy  is  a 
wise  provision. 

In  the  commercial  world  thirty  days  is  regarded  as  cash,  and 
few  lines  of  goods  are  paid  for  within  sixty  days;  so  that  even 
in  the  case  of  a  merchant  who  wishes  to  replenish  his  stock  it  is 
not  always  necessary  that  he  should  pay  cash ;  and  if  the  loss  be 
on  a  building,  the  money  is  not  needed  for  rebuilding,  except  in 


WAIVER. 


341 


installments.  S a  that  the  cases  where  proper  consideration  of 
the  immediate  needs  of  a  c  laimant  is  involved  are  not  necessarily 
numerous. 

Those  companies  who  pay  losses  before  the  smoke  of  a  fire 
has  blown  away,  often  make  discoveries,  in  a  clearer  atmos- 
phere, which  are  not  apparent  at  the  time,  and  find  out  their 
mistake  when  it  is  too  late  to  remedy  it. 

When  a  Loss  is  paid,  cancel  the  Policy,  taking  a  receipt  for  the 
amount  of  the  loss  and  of  the  return  premium,  if  any,  on  the 
face  of  the  policy.  Do  this  whether  the  loss  is  /ess  than  the 
((mount  of  the  policy  or  not. 

In  those  cases  where  it  is  necessary  and  desirable  to  continue 
the  insurance,  it  should  be  done  by  a  new  policy. 

Waiver.  Finally,  there  are  some  things  that  the  agent  must 
certainby  not  do.  He  must  not  waive  any  of  the  provisions  of 
the  policy,  or  the  rights  of  the  company;  and  to  avoid  this  mis- 
take, he  must  not  do,  say  or  Avrite  anything  that  will  have  this 
effect. 

He  must  not  deny  liability,  leaving  that  task,  if  it  is  necessary 
to  take  such  action,  to  the  c<  >mpany.  Even  where  he  has  reason 
to  suspect  fraud,  he  should  not  let  the  claimant  infer  that  the 
company  is  not  liable.  If  convinced  that  the  claimant  is  dis- 
honest, he  should  say  "The  company  does  not  admit  nor  deny 
liability  in  the  matter  of  your  claim;  jour  policy  tells  you  what 
to  do  in  case  of  loss ;  you  must  govern  j-ourself  by  its  conditions 
and  requirements."  In  such  cases  he  should  avoid  such  state- 
ments as  "I  will  see  you  again."  or  "You  will  hear  from  me 
later,"  or  words  of  like  tenor.  The  policy-holder  might  claim 
that  he  had  acted  on  the  suggestion  as  an  explanation  of  not 
doing  all  that  he  was  required  to  do. 

If  the  papers  submitted  as  proofs  of  loss  are  insufficient,  he 
should  let  the  company  decide  the  matter  and  write  the  neces- 
saiy  notice  to  that  effect. 

It  is  probably  unnecessary  to  suggest  to  any  intelligent  man 
that  no  threats  or  intimidations  should  be  used  under  any  cir- 
cumstances. It  ought  also  to  be  unnecessary  to  say  that  the 
agent  should  not  take  any  steps  to  adjust  a  loss  (other  than  that 
( >f  protecting  the  property  especially  an  unroofed  or  open  build- 
ing from  the  weather,  damageable  goods  from  further  injury 


342  THE  GOOD  FAITH  OF  INSURANCE  C  ONTRACTS. 


by  rust,  mildew  or  otherwise)  until  he  hears  from  the  company. 
Most  agency  companies  have  special  agents  and  adjusters  for 
each  State,  who  will  promptly  respond  to  any  message  from  the 
local  agent. 

THE  GOOD  FAITH  OF  INSURANCE  CONTRACTS. 

No  contracts  known  to  the  commercial  world  are  so  generally 
lived  up  to,  without  quibbling  or  evasion,  as  are  Insurance 
policy  contracts  on  the  part  of  the  companies  making  them. 
Owing  to  the  neglect  and  carelessness  of  the  insured,  there  is 
none  which  might  be  so  easily  and  frequently  avoided,  on 
technical  grounds,  notwithstanding  which  they  are  generally 
(always,  by  honorable  companies)  fulfilled  to  the  very  spirit  of 
their  terms,  whenever  fraud  is  not  manifest  on  the  part  of  the 
policy-holder. 

In  ordinary  business  transactions,  if  the  endorser  of  a  note  is 
not  informed  of  its  protest,  through  the  inadvertence  or  igno- 
rance of  the  holder,  he  rarely,  if  ever,  fails  to  take  advantage 
of  a  release  which  the  law  gives  him  on  merely  technical  grounds, 
notwithstanding  that  he  may  not  be,  in  any  way,  a  sufferer 
by  reason  of  such  want  of  notice  and,  notwithstanding, 
that  the  moral  obligation  of  suretyship  remains  unim- 
paired. Not  so  with  the  underwriter.  Every  month  in  the 
year  he  pays  claims,  without  litigation,  which  he  might  avoid 
on  the  most  clearly  settled  principles  of  law — claims  for  many 
times  the  amount  of  ordinary  business  transactions,  and  which, 
if  appealed  to  the  courts,  could  not  be  enforced ;  and  yet  when,  in 
consequence  of  some  flagrant  and  inexcusable  disregard  of  right, 
a  liberal  sum  is  offered  by  way  of  compromise  settlement  of 
what  is  really  no  legal  claim  whatever,  the  Company  is  assailed 
with  unjust  criticisms,  and  with  the  cry  of  unfair  treatment — 
raised,  it  is  true,  most  loudly  by  those  who  are  anxious  to  coerce 
the  payment  of  unjust  demands  and  for  their  own  selfish  pur- 
poses, but — too  often  for  their  own  real  advantage — finding  an 
echo  in  the  sympathies  of  many  who  are  content  to  sit  in  judg- 
ment, without  taking  that  trouble,  which  simple  justice  requires, 
of  examining  into  the  merits  of  the  case. 

It  is  far  from  uncommon  to  hear  those  complain  of  printed 


THE  GOOD  FAITH  OF  INSURANCE  CONTRACTS. 


343 


conditions  in  a  policy  who  are  too  indolent  to  read  them,  and 
who  are,  probably,  not  aware  of  the  fact  that  if  the  conditions 
of  the  policy,  instead  of  being  plainly  printed  on  its  face,  for 
their  information,  were  left  to  be  inferred  by  the  law  (which  is 
very  jealous  in  guarding  the  rights  of  that  party  to  a  contract 
who  relies  entirely  upon  the  honor  and  good  faith  of  the  other), 
the  interest  of  the  underwriter  would,  in  many  cases,  be  still 
better  protected  than  now.  The  moment  a  company  defines  the 
conditions  of  its  policy,  it  becomes  responsible  for  omissions,  and 
places  itself  under  the  well-known  rule  of  construction,  by  which 
a  contract  is  held  to  permit  much  that  is  not  expressly  prohibited. 

"If  he  who  could  and  ought  to  have  explained  himself  clearly 
and  plainly  has  not  done  it,  it  is  worse  for  him ;  he  cannot  be 
allowed  to  introduce  subsequent  restrictions  which  he  has  not 
expressed." — Vattel's  "Law  of  Nations,"  Book  ii,  Chap.  xvii. 

It  may,  therefore,  indeed  be  questioned,  whether,  in  the  at- 
tempt to  place  clearly  before  the  assured,  in  the  policy,  the  con- 
ditions upon  which  it  is  based,  the  underwriter  does  not  lose 
many  advantages  which  a  blank  contract  would  secure  before 
a  court  of  law,  by  the  mere  inference  and  operation  of  the  law 
itself. 

With  a  policy  en  tirely  f  ree  f  rom  conditions  of  any  kind, 
for  instance,  a  company  would  be  protected  by  conditions  which 
are  implied  by  la  w.  Under  such  a  contract  it  would  be  secured, 
not  less  thoroughly  than  now,  against  the  unreasonable  claim 
of  one,  for  example,  who  should  change  the  occupation  of  a 
building,  insured  as  a  dwelling  house,  into  that  of  a  planing 
mill,  without  its  consent.  In  such  a  case,  it  would  simply  be 
necessary  for  the  company  to  say :  '  'In  to  this  contract  we  never 
en  tered.  We  insured  a  dwelling,  but  it  has  been  changed  to  a 
more  dangerous  risk,  for  which  we  would  have  charged  a  higher 
rate."  It  would  require  no  policy  condition  to  protect  the  com- 
pany from  the  consequences  of  such  an  increase  of  the  hazard, 
and  when  it  calls  the  attention  of  the  assured  to  the  fact  that 
any  increase  of  the  hazard  will  vitiate  the  policy,  by  clearly 
printing  the  statement  on  the  face  of  the  contract,  it  does  so 
gratuitously,  and  in  a  spirit  of  fairness  which  is  not  always 
appreciated. 

The  right  of  a  landlord  to  be  consulted  as  to  any  change  in 


344     HONORABLE  DEALING  <»F  INSURANCE  COMPANIES. 


the  uses  or  occupation  of  bis  property  by  ;i  tenant  is  universally 
recognized ;  it  should  be  remembered  tbat  the  contingent 
interest  of  an  underwriter  in  an  insured  building  is  frequently 
measured  by  no  smaller  sum  than  its  full  value. 

The  following  extracts  from  the  decisions  of  eminent  jurists 
show  clearly  that  no  policy  condition  is  necessary  to  protect  an 
insurance  company  against  those  who  are  dishonorable  enough 
to  conceal  important  and  material  facts,  or  who  procure  their 
insurance  by  misrepresentation  or  fraud. 

Angell  says : 

'  In  every  sort  of  insurance,  whether  Fire,  Life  or  Marine,  it,  is  held  to  be 
one  of  the  plainest  principles  of  equity,  that  a  contract,  which  one  party  has 

been  induced  to  enter  into  from  his  ignorance  of  the  thing  concealed,  shall  not  be 
enforced  against  him  by  the  other  who  has  concealed  il  " 

Lord  Mansfield  said: 

"Good  faith  forbids  either  party,  by  concealing  what  he  privately  knows, 
to  draw  the  other  into  a  bargain,  from  his  ignorance  of  that  fact  and  his  believ- 
ing the  contrary." 

Chief-Justice  Marshall  said : 

"The  contract  of  insurance  is  one  in  which  the  underwriters  generally  act 
upon  the  representation  of  the  assured,  and  that  representation  ought,  con 
sequently,  to  be  fair,  and  to  omit  nothing  which  is  material  for  the  under- 
writer to  know." 

Judge  Story  said : 

"In  such  cases,  the  underwriter  necessarily  reposes  a  trust  and  confidence 
in  the  assured,  as  to  all  the  facts  and  circumstances  affecting  the  risk,  which 
an-  peculiarly  within  his  knowledge,  and  which  are  not  of  a  public  and  general 
nature,  or  which  the  insured  knows  or  is  bound  to  know." 

Chief-Justice  Gibson  said: 

"The  contract  of  insurance  is  eminently  a  contract  of  good  faith.  It  is  not 
sufficient  for  the  insured  to  answer  all  the  questions  propounded  to  him.  Like 
a  witness  on  the  stand,  he  is  bound  to  tell  the  whole  truth,  without  waiting  to  be 
interrogated." 

As  before  stated,  it  is  in  a  spirit  of  fairness,  and  that  the 
policy-holder  may  be  informed  for  his  own  safety,  that  com- 
panies print  clearly  in  their  policies,  even  those  important  con- 
ditions which  would  be  inferred  by  law  from  the  very  spirit  of 
the  contract;  and  the  business  man  who  places  a  policy  in  his 
office  safe,  without  once  reading  it  through,  has  only  himself  to 
blame  if  he  suffers  the  consequences  of  a  negligence,  which  he 
would  not  exhibit  as  to  the  most  insignificant  of  other 


SMALL  percentage  of  contested  claims. 


345 


business  papers.  Says  an  able  writer  on  Commercial  Law: 
"A  majority  of  well-trained  and  careful  business  men,  who 
bave  large  amounts  at  tbe  risk  of  fire,  and  whose  indemnity 
depends  upon  the  policies  of  insurance  which  they  hold,  and 
upon  their  conforming  to  the  terms  and  conditions  thereof, 
never  read  the  cut/re  contents  of  a  single  policy  of  in- 
surance held  by  them,  or  examine  the  conditions  and  require- 
ments thereof,  with  a  view  to  ascertain  whether  they  are  con- 
forming thereto.  It  is  not  an  unusual  thing  for  a  man,  the 
main  bulk  of  whose  property  has  jnst  been  destroyed  by  fire,  to 
get  out  from  his  .safe  and  read,  for  the  first  time,  his  con- 
tracts of  indemnity!''''  And  he  adds,  with  much  truth,  "The 
business  of  insurance  is,  fortunately  for  the  business  com- 
munity, mainly  managed  and  controlled  by  men  whose  high 
character  and  usually  clem'  sense  of  equity  prevent  them 
from  availing  themselves  of  immaterial  or  technical  objec- 
tions, except  in  cases  where  they  believe  there  has  been 
fraud." 

A  glance  at  the  small  proportion  of  losses  contested  by  com- 
panies wall  establish  the  truth  of  this  statement. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  1901,  the  reports  of  the  companies 
showed  that  a  sum  not  equal  to  two  per  cent,  of  the  amount 
of  losses  paid  by  them  during  that  year  were  in  suit  at  its 
close;  and  as  those  losses  in  suit  were  the  result  of  an  average 
of,  at  least,  three  years'  business,  it  follows  that  the  losses 
contested  are  less  than  one  per  cent,  of  the  whole  amount 
of  losses  incurred! 

When  it  is  remembered  how  many  fraudulent  claims  are 
made  upon  underwriters,  it  becomes  a  serious  question — not 
whether  too  many  claims  are  contested  by  them — but  whether 
enouqli  are  resisted  to  protect  tlaj  interests  and  ensure  the 
security  of  their  more  honest  claimants  ! 


i 


EXPOSURES  TO  BRICK  BUILDINGS. 


One  of  the  most  important  and  difficult  problems  connected 
with  estimating  the  proper  rate  of  a  building  is  that  of  measur- 
ing the  effect  upon  it  of  other  exposing  risks.  The  following 
tables  were  computed  by  me  for  estimating  this  hazard,  while 
at  work  as  chairman  of  the  Universal  Schedule  Committee.  I 
have  already  treated  of  this  subject  in  a  general  manner  on 
pages  62  to  72,  but  the  rules  and  tables  for  computing  the  cost 
of  an  exposure  which  follow  will.  I  believe,  commend  them- 
selves as  based  upon  correct  assumptions  of  hazard.  They  can 
be  used  for  any  system  of  rating,  whether  the  "Universal"  or 
any  other,  but  they  presuppose  a  correct  rate  for  the  exposure, 
by  whatever  process  reached,  as  a  necessary  factor  in  computing 
the  exposure  charge. 

It  will  be  conceded  that  the  correct  measure  of  the  exposure 
to  a  brick  building  by  another  of  similar  hazard  sufficiently  near 
to  it  to  cause  damage  would  be  such  percentage  of  the  occupied, 
exposed  rate  (No.  131,  page  21  of  the  Universal  Schedule)  of 
the  exposing  building  (after  deducting  whatever  may  have  been 
added  in  its  rate,  for  the  exposure  to  it  by  the  risk  which  is  to 
be  rated)  as  would  pay  for  the  damage.  There  should  be  first 
eliminated  from  the  rate  of  the  exposure,  it  will  be  conceded, 
whatever  may  have  been  included  in  it  for  the  exposure  to  it  by 
the  risk  to  be  rated ;  otherwise,  the  effect  would  be  to  charge  for 
the  exposure  of  the  risk  itself. 

The  percentage  of  the  exposure  rate  to  be  added  to  the  risk  to 
be  rated  should  vary,  not  only  with  the  distance  or  intervening 
space  between  the  two  risks  but,  also,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  construction  and  occupancy  of  the  exposure  and  the 
probabilities  of  its  having  frequent  fires  and  intense  fires  causing 
total  destruction,  or  what  may  be  termed  its  "ignitibility"  and 
"combustibility." 


EXPOSURES  TO  BKICK  BUILDINGS. 


347 


Inasmuch  as  the  Universal  Schedule,  by  its  occupied  and 
exposed  rate  (No.  131),  will  have  measured  all  important  feat- 
ures of  the  exposure — construction,  area,  height,  ignitibility  and 
combustibility  of  contents  and  the  exposures  to  it  of  other 
hazards  than  the  risk  to  be  rated — a  percentage  of  its  rate  charged 
will  be  the  proper  measure  of  its  influence  upon  the  risk. 

By  way  of  illustration,  if  the  occupied,  exposed  rate  of  a  risk 
is  90  cents  and  this  90  cents  includes,  say  10  cents,  which  has 
been  added  for  the  exposure  of  the  risk  to  be  rated,  80  cents  is 
the  net,  occupied,  exposed  rate  the  percentage  of  which  should 
be  added  to  the  risk  to  be  rated  to  measure  whatever  danger 
may  be  apprehended  from  the  proximity  of  the  exposing  hazard. 
If  the  risk  would  be  damaged  to  the  extent  of  say  $2,000  by  the 
burning  of  the  exposure  then  the  rate  of  the  risk  should  be  in- 
creased by  such  amount  as  would  yield  a  premium  on  $2,000  at 
the  rate  (80  cents)  of  the  hazard  which  would  cause  the  loss, 
whose  probabilities  of  burning,  &c,  are  indicated  or  measured 
by  its  rate  of  80  cents.  If  the  risk  to  be  rated  is  one  which 
carries  $10,000  insurance,  then  it  is  clear  that  the  Company  in- 
suring it  will  be  carrying,  in  addition  to  its  own  hazard,  a 
liability  to  loss  of  $2,000  by  the  burning  of  the  exposure,  and 
should  receive  for  such  risk  $16  additional  premium  ($2,000  at 
a  rate  of  80  cents).  To  secure  $16  on  $10,000  insurance,  would 
require  an  addition  to  the  rate  of  the  risk  (whatever  its  rate 
may  be)  of  16  cents  per  $100,  and  if  the  specific  rate  of  the  risk 
be  60  cents,  its  exposed  rate  would  be  76  cents;  if  1  the  exposed 
rate  would  be  116,  &c.  As  before  stated,  the  probabilities  of 
damage  must  be  determined  by  considering  the  intervening 
space  and  the  character  and  construction  of  either  or  both  of 
the  two  buildings,  not  forgetting  their  relative  height. 

It  is  difficult  to  reduce  all  of  these  considerations  to  a  uniform 
rule,  but  the  following  rules  and  tables  will  enable  a  rating 
expert  to  approximately  estimate  the  exposure  in  all  cases, 
having  in  mind  certain  important  considerations  or  propositions 
hereinafter  explained. 


348 


EXPOSURES  TO  BRICK  BUILDINGS. 


RULE  FOR  ESTIMATING  EXPOSURES 

OF  BRICK  BUILDINGS  TO   BRICK    BUILDINGS  WITH  OPENINGS 
WHERE  THE  SCHEDULE  RATE  OF  THE  EXPOSURE  DOES 
NOT  EXCEED  THAT  OF  THE  RISK  BY  MORE 
THAN  50  CENTS. 

RULE:  If  the  intervening  space  be  less  than  100  feet,  add 
T2u  of  1  fc  of  the  exposure  rate  for  each  foot  that  the  inter- 
vening space  is  less  thou  100  feet  in  width,  on.  "protected 
risks'''1  (/.  e.  irith  hi/drants  icithin  ."><  M  i  fret ),  and  same  amount 
for  each  foot  less  than  120  feet  on  "unprotected"  risks. 

For  example,  if  the  distance  between  the  risk  and  its  exposure 
be  90  feet,  the  addition  would  be  of  1  $  for  each  of  the  ten 
feet  less  than  100,  or  2$  of  the  exposure  rate.  If  the  exposure 
should  be  only  50  feet  distant,  the  charge  should  be  j%  of  1  %  of 
the  rate  of  the  exposure  for  each  of  the  50  feet  that  the  distance 
is  less  than  100  feet,  or  10$.  If  the  exposure  is  only  10  feet 
distant,  the  addition  would  be  18$  of  the  exposure  rate.  At 
this  distance,  with  openings,  the  two  risks  would  be  nearly  one 
hazard  and  the  situation  would  be  almost  identical  with  a  risk 
of  the  combined  area  of  the  two,  making  allowance  for  division 
walls,  and  charging  for  extra  staircases,  elevators,  tenants,  &c,  ; 
see  note  item  No.  62,  U.  M.  S. 

The  prevailing  practice,  at  10  feet,  under  such  circumstances, 
has  been  to  make  the  rates  of  the  two  risks  equal,  inasmuch  as 
the  intervening  distance  is  so  slight  that  the  probabilities  are 
that  both  would  burn  together,  but  such  estimate  would  over- 
look an  important  fact,  viz.,  that  all  fires  are  not  total.  In  risks 
of  ordinary  hazard,  brick  mercantile  risks,  for  example,  70$  are 
under  $100  and,  under  the  protection  of  fire  departments,  not 
exceeding  5  fo  are  total.  It  is  seldom  that  partial  losses  in  a 
brick  building  damage  other  risks.  Therefore,  in  estimating 
the  danger  of  an  exposure,  that  portion  of  its  Schedule  rate 
which  is  intended  to  measure  the  claims  for  partial  losses 
although  forming  a  proper  part  of  the  loading  of  the  rate  of  the 
exposure  itself  ought  not  to  charged  to  the  risk  exposed.  It 
should,  moreover,  be  remembered  that,  even  in  the  case  of  fires 
totally  destroying  an  exposure,  there  are  some  chances  that,  at 
a  distance  of  only  10  feet,  the  exposed  building  would  escape, 


KULE  FOR  ESTIMATING  EXPOSURES,  ETC. 


349 


by  reason  of  the  nature  and  direction  of  the  wind  at  the  time  of 
the  fire.    (See  diagrams,  page  68  etc.) 

The  measure  of  exposure  damage  of  a  building  ten  feet  dis- 
tant, with  window  openings  in  both,  however,  ought  not  to 
differ  materially  from  what  would  be  the  rate  of  both  risks  if 
they  were  computed  as  one  risk  of  the  total  area,  allowing  the 
deduction  for  the  division  walls  (item  No.  62)  and  charging  for 
the  extra  tenants,  stairways,  &c.  In  other  words,  the  rate  of 
two  50  foot  front  risks,  within  ten  feet  of  each  other,  with  open- 
ings in  both  ought  certainly  not  be  greater  than  that  of  a 
100'xlOO'  risk,  calculating  the  area,  occupancy,  extra  tenants, 
&c,  as  per  the  Schedule.  In  such  a  case  there  would  be  a 
charge  for  area  under  No.  59,  24  cents  (less  deduction  for  two 
subdividing  walls),  charge  for  at  least  one  extra  tenant,  2  cents, 
an  extra  staircase,  extra  elevator,  heating  apparatus,  etc.,  all 
subject  to  deductions  for  proximity  to  hydrants,  155,  etc.,  (there 
would  he  no  deductions  from  exposures,  charge  for  which  is 
net,  see  No.  130)  which  would  bring  the  two  rates  very  closely 
together. 

In  estimating  the  probabilities  of  ignition  by  a  burning  ex- 
posure, the  law  of  physics  as  to  the  radiation  of  heat  at  given 
distances  does  not  apply  until  the  brick  wall  of  the  exposing 
building,  if  not  that  of  the  risk  also,  has  succumbed.  Especially 
in  case  of  an  exposure  with  a  blank  wall,  but  also  in  the  case  of 
a  wall  with  window  openings,  the  question  whether,  at  the 
given  distance,  the  probabilities  are  in  favor  of  destruction  of 
the  risk  by  the  exposure  is  one  of  underwriting  judgment  and 
not  of  science,  depending  upon  the  construction  of  the  wall,  the 
nature  and  size  of  openings,  &c,  and  the  possibilities  of  a 
collapse  which  would  expose  the  risk  to  the  full  effect  of  the 
volume  of  fire  in  the  exposing  building. 

RULE  WHERE  THE  RATE  OF  THE  EXPOSURE 
MATERIALLY  EXCEEDS  THAT  OF  THE  RISK. 

Where,  however,  the  rate  of  one  risk  is  materially  greater 
than  that  of  the  other,  indicating  greater  ignitibility  and  com- 
bustibility, something  should  be  added  to  the  minor  hazard  for 
the  excess  rate  of  the  major  hazard,  so  that  while  an  ordinary, 


15511 


EXPOSURES  TO   P.KKK  BUILDINGS. 


mercantile  risk  would  not  add  materially  to  another  of  like 
hazard,  a,  planing-mill,  subject  to  more  frequent  fires  and  more 
intense  combustion,  ought  to  add  a  percentage  of  its  excess  rate, 
gradually  increasing  with  the  deficiency  distance  between  the 
two.  Thus  each  additional  stratum  or  layer  of  hazard,  so  to 
speak,  should  be  provided  for.  This  fact  is  frequently  over- 
looked in  tables  for  computing  exposure  hazard. 

The  danger  from  an  exposure  increases  not  only  inversely 
with  the  distance  between  the  two.  but  also  directly  as  the  rate 
of  exposure  exceeds  that  of  the  risk,  indicating  greater  igniti- 
bility,  combustibility.  &c.  If  one  should  approach  a  fire  with 
a  thermometer,  the  mercury  would  rise  with  each  foot  of 
approach.  It  would  also  rise  in  proportion  to  the  intensity  and 
volume  of  the  fire.  The  exposure  of  a  1  #  risk  by  a  1  %  risk 
would  be  greater  at  10  feet  distant  than  at  GO  feet  distant,  but 
the  exposure  of  a  3/o  risk  at  10  feet  would  also  be  greater  than 
that  of  a  1  $>  risk  at  the  same  distance.  The  difference,  more- 
over, is  not  a  pro  rata  or  single  percentage  increase.  These 
considerations,  therefore,  give  rise  to  the  following  rule : 

RULE:  Calculate  the  addition  in  rate  for  exposure  on 
the  basis  of  ivhat  it  would  be  if  both  hazards  were  similar, 
viz.,  for  so  much  of  the  rate  of  the  exposure  hazard  as 
equals  the  rate  of  the  risk  itself,  and  add  to  the  amount  TV 
of  lfc  FOR  each  100  cents  of  rate  that  the  exposure  exceeds 
that  of  the  risk,  for  each  foot  of  deficiency  distance  as 
per  Table  B,  in  case  the  risk  is  "protected  "  or  by  Table  D 
if  not  "protected." 

For  example,  suppose  a  2$  risk  exposes  a  1  fo  protected  risk 
at  20  feet.  There  should  be  added  to  the  Ifc  risk  16  cents  by 
Table  A  and  8  cents  by  Table  B — in  all  24  cents;  so  that  the 
exposed  rate  would  be  1. 24. 

Where  the  major  or  greater  exposure  hazard  is  not  directly  opposite, 
but  to  one  side  of  the  line  of  frontage,  calculate  the  exposure  by 
the  risk  opposite,  which  will  contain  in  its  rate  the  exposure  of 
any  major  hazards  in  the  same  row  or  block. 

Prevailing  Wind.  If  the  prevailing  wind  blows  from  exposure 
toward  risk,  increase  exposure  charge  in  Tables  A  and  C  10^; 
if  from  risk  toward  exposure,  decrease  exposure  charge  10 


GLASS  FRONTS  OR  SIDES,  ETC. 


:!.-)] 


Glass  fronts  or  sides.  If  the  building  has  an  excessive  amount 
of  glass  in  its  walls,  show-windows,  etc.,  for  display  of  goods, 
exceeding  in  glass  area  70  %  of  the  square  surface  of  the  first, 
second  or  other  stories,  increase  the  amount  of  exposure  charge 
by  10$  of  its  amount  for  the  first  or  grade-floor  glass  story,  and 
by  20$  for  the  second  story  and  10$  for  each  additional  glass 
story,  but  not  exceeding  a  total  which  shall  increase  the  rate 
of  the  risk  to  exceeding  80  $  of  a  higher  rated  exposure.  For 
example,  if  the  exposure  charge  is  20  cents  and  there  be  two 
glass  stories,  the  charge  should  be  26  cents.  If  one  glass  story, 
grade  floor  22  cents,  &c. 

If  the  exposure  has  glass  sides  or  stories  toward  the 
risk,  increase  the  exposure  charge  20  $  for  each  glass  story  above 
the  first. 

Many  of  our  city  store  buildings  have  so  much  glass  in  their 
enclosing  walls  that  they  are  no  stronger  for  resisting  fire  than 
so  many  glass  show  cases. 

Shingle  roofs.  The  tables  are  intended  for  buildings  having 
metal,  tile,  slate  or  approved  gravel  roofs.  If  the  risk  has  a 
shingle  roof,  increase  the  exposure  charge  50 $  of  its  amount 
(not  50  $  of  the  rate  of  the  exposure)  but  not  exceeding  a  sum 
which  would  make  the  rate  of  the  risk  equal  to  that  of  the  ex- 
posure. 

Frame  exposures  to  Brick  Buildings.  Charge  50$  more  than 
for  Brick  exposure  as  per  Tables  A  and  C,  (Tables  E  and  F  are 
intended  for  Brick  and  Stone  buildings  only)  but  not  exceeding 
a  sum  which  shall  make  the  rate  of  the  building  equal  to  80  $  of 
that  of  the  frame  building. 

Wooden  Cornices.  Wooden  mansard.  &c.  Even  if  building  has 
blank  wall,  charge  the  same  per  tables  as  for  buildings  with 
openings,  at  the  given  distance. 

Buildings  with  Stone  Fronts.  Increase  the  final  exposure  charge 
by  10$  of  its  amount  if  plain  finish  and  by  20$  of  its  amount  if 
carved  or  ornamental  finish.  For  example,  the  charge  for  ex- 
posure being  10  cents,  if  plain  stone  front,  should  be  11  cents 
and  if  ornamental,  12  cents. 

Stocks.  If  building  has  blank  wall  toward  exposure,  charge 
30  $  less  on  stock  than  on  building.  Grade  floor  Stocks  in  un- 
protected buildings,  50$  less  than  charge  on  building  (stocks 


EXPOSURES  TO   BRICK  BUILDIXOS. 


above  grade,  same  charge  as  building).  Stocks  in  Standard 
buildings,  one-half  the  charge  for  exposure  to  building,  no 
matter  on  what  floor  located. 

Height.  If  the  risk  is  less  than  five  stories  high,  deduct  from 
the  total,  final  exposure  charge,  15$  thereof  for  each  story  less 
than  five  in  height,  and  add  15$  for  each  story  in  excess  of  five. 

Height  of  exposure.  If  the  exposure  is  less  than  five 
stories  high,  deduct  10  $  of  charge  for  each  story  less  than  five 
but  add  25  $  for  each  story  over  five.  For  example,  the  ex- 
posure for  a  2$  risk  at  20  feet  being  32  cents,  if  only  two  stories 
high  30$,  or  it  cents,  should  be  deducted,  making  the  charge 
21  cents. 

Buildings  adjoining  each  other.  Where  brick  or  stone  buildings 
adjoin  each  other  in  blocks,  a  charge  should  be  made  as  per 
Tables  E  and  F  for  exposure.  As  already  stated,  these  two 
tables  are  not  intended  for  frames. 

Defective  walls.  Walls  having  deficiency  charges  under  No.  39 
or  No.  41  of  the  Schedule  should  entail  a  greater  charge  for  ex- 
posure as  per  tables.  If  the  two  adjoining  walls  are  inde- 
pendent, it  may  be  that  the  two,  although  one  may  be  defective, 
would  be  equivalent  to  a  fire  stop  and  one  half  the  charge  may 
be  made — see  tables  E  and  F. 

Wall  not  through  Roof.  If  division  wall  between  two  adjoining 
risks  does  not  extend  through  roof,  cutting  off  roof  timbers, 
charge  same  as  per  tables  E  and  F  for  communications  above 
first  floor  with  single  fire  door. 

Falling  Wall  Hazard.  If  the  adjoining  building  be  of  greater 
height  than  the  risk  to  be  rated  by  a  difference  of  50  feet  or 
over,  increasing  the  danger  of  falling  on  the  risk,  charge  not 
less  than  2  $  of  the  rate  of  exposure,  in  addition  to  the  Table 
charges.  In  case  there  are  windows  or  other  openings  in  the 
excess  height,  charge  for  exposure  to  the  higher  building  by 
the  lower,  as  per  tables  E  and  F,  and  one-half  as  much  to  the 
lower  building  for  the  exposure  by  the  higher,  unless  the 
windows  in  the  higher  are  not  within  6  feet  of  the  roof  of  the 
lower,  in  which  case  charge  one-fourth;  see  Tables  E  and  F. 

If  the  exposed  side  or  surface  of  the  risk  be  less  than  75  running 
feet,  deduct  1  $  of  the  exposure  charge  for  each  foot  less ;  for 


EXPOSURE  OF  EXCEPTIONAL  AREAS,  ETC. 


353 


example,  if  the  front,  rear  or  side  wall  exposed  be  50  feet,  de- 
duct ->.v,  ;  if  40  feet,  35<;  if  25  feet,  50$.  If  the  side  or  .sur- 
face of  the  exposure  toward  the  risk  be  less  than  75  running 
feet,  deduct  }4  of  1  $  for  each  foot  less.  No  deduction  under 
these  items,  however,  if  the  exposure  building  contain  Oils 
or  other  "grease  risks,"  Wholesale  Drugs,  stocks  of  Furni- 
ture, Agricultural  Implements,  Carriage  or  Wagon  materi- 
als or  other  ivood  risks — hazards  of  intense  combust ibil it;/. 

Exposure  of  exceptional  areas.  If  the  exposure  has  an  unbroken, 
ground  floor  area  exceeding  10,000  square  feet,  increase  the  final 
exposure  charge  30$,  and  a  further  5$  for  each  1,000  square 
feet  of  area  in  excess  of  10,000. 

Unbroken  areas  and  large  risks  of  this  character  when  once 
thoroughly  on  fire  have  an  exposure  effect  which  the  best  fire 
departments  are  seldom  able  to  control. 

Fire  Shutters — These,  while  supposed  to  be  equal  to  blank 
walls,  are  worth  little  more  than  half  their  theoretical  value 
within  a  distance  of  40  feet. 

For  fire  shutters  to  the  risk  deduct  50  $  of  charge. 
"    "         "       "exposure    "     30$  "  " 
"    "         "       "both  risk  and 

exposure  deduct  60$  "  " 

If  intervening  distance  exceeds  40  feet,  increase  the  percent- 
age of  deduction  by  1  $  for  each  foot  that  the  distance  exceeds 
40  feet,  not  exceeding  a  total  deduction  of  90$. 

Analysis  of  exposure  hazard.  It  is  sometimes  the  case  that  a 
special  hazard  of  high  rate  may  have  its  least  dangerous  portion, 
the  office  building  or  warehouse,  for  example,  nearest  the  risk, 
while  the  more  hazardous  portion  may  be  sufficiently  remote  to 
justify  calculation  of  the  exposure  by  that  portion  which  would 
endanger  the  risk.  The  New  York  Building  Law,  for  example, 
requires  that  all  theatres  having  stores  upon  the  street  front 
shall  have  such  stores  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  theatre  by  a  fire 
wall.  In  this  case  it  would  be  unjust  to  include  in  the  exposure 
to  a  building  opposite  the  full  charge  for  the  rear  portion  or 
more  dangerous  section  of  the  theatre.  Judgment  must  be 
used  in  such  cases,  and  the  same  rule  should  govern  for  calcu- 
lating the  exposure  as  if  the  two  parts  were  separate  risks,  the 
more  dangerous  portion  exposing  the  less  hazardous. 


354 


EXPOSURES  TO  BRICK  BUILDINGS. 


If  both  risk  and  exposure  rates  are  less  than  1  ;,  pro-rate  for  both; 

for  example,  the  exposure  of  a  1  %  risk  at  20  feet  being  16  cents 
(Table  A)  the  exposure  of  a  25  cent  risk  would  be  4  cents,  and 
to  a  25  cent  risk  1  cent. 

EXPOSURE  RATING  SLIP. 

These  various  considerations  have  been  provided  for  in  a 
rating  slip  arranged  for  easy  computation,  and  the  operation  is 
less  complicated  than  a  perusal  of  the  foregoing  paragraphs 
would  seem  to  indicate. 

The  tables  A  and  C  were  arrived  at  in  the  following  manner: 
The  effect  of  an  exposure  being,  as  already  stated,  inversely 
as  the  distance  and  directly  as  to  ignitibility,  combustibility, 
weakness  of  construction,  &c,  of  the  exposure,  it  follows  that 
the  proportion  of  an  exposure  rate  to  be  added  to  a  risk  should 
be  increased  as  the  distance  between  the  two  decreases,  and 
also  in  proportion  as  the  rate  of  the  exposure  exceeds  that 
of  the  risk  to  be  rated.  On  this  basis,  120  feet  being  regarded 
as  a  safe  distance  in  unprotected  risks  and  100  feet  in  the  case 
of  protected  risks,  two-tenths  of  one  per  cent  of  the  exposure 
rate  is  added  for  each  foot  of  the  deficiency  distance,  or  2fo  of 
the  rate  for  each  10  feet  less  than  the  safe  distance;  provided, 
however,  that  the  rate  of  the  exposure  does  not  exceed  that  of 
the  risk  and  that  they  are,  therefore,  similar  hazards.  On  this 
basis  if  the  separating  distance  on  a  protected  risk  is  70  feet,  6 ft 
should  be  added;  if  60  feet,  8^;  if  50  feet,  10 if  10  feet,  18  f,, 
&c,  &c. 

Tables  B  and  D  are  arrived  at  by  computing  the  exposure 
charge  for  each  100  cents  of  rxcESS  of  exposure  rate,  in 
accordance  with  the  rule  already  stated  of  adding  TV  of  1$  for 
each  foot  of  deficiency  distance  for  each  100  cents  of  rate  that 
the  exposure  exceeds  that  of  the  risk.  On  this  basis,  in  the 
case  of  a  protected  or  fire  department  risk  at  70  feet  distant,  3$ 
of  the  excess  exposure  rate  should  be  added  for  each  100  cents 
of  such  excess,  at  60  feet  4$;  at  50  feet,  5#;  at  10  feet  9  &c. 
Thus,  if  the  exposure  rate  exceeds  that  of  a  risk  by  2$  at  10  feet 
distance,  18$  of  such  2fc,  or  36  cents,  should  be  added.  If  the 
exposure  rate  exceeds  that  of  the  risk  by  300  cents,  at  30  feet 
distance,  7  %  of  the  excess  rate  for  each  100  cents  of  excess,  or 


ORDER  OF  COMPUTATION. 


355 


21$  thereof,  (amounting  to  63  cents)  should  be  added  for  the 
excess  exposure;  see  table  B. 

It  is  thus  necessar}-  to  have  two  sets  of  tables,  for  while  a  pro- 
rata percentage  addition  would  measure  the  exposure  of  risks 
of  the  same  hazard,  such  an  addition  would  not  be  sufficient  for 
the  exposure  to  a  risk  of  minor  hazard  by  one  of  greater  danger. 
The  risk  would  increase  in  proportion  to  the  difference  in  hazard, 
and  after  adding  for  the  excess  as  per  table  B  and  D,  the  ex- 
posure charge  for  so  much  of  the  exposure  as  equals  its  own 
rate  must  be  added ;  otherwise  a  small  excess  might  be  the  only 
charge  made  in  high  rated  risks  of  nearly  the  same  rate. 

The  mistake  too  often  made  of  adding  to  the  risk  the  same 
percentage  of  the  rate  of  the  exposing  building,  no  matter 
whether  the  exposure  be  a  high  rated  risk  or  a  low  rated  risk, 
is  more  fully  explained  on  pages  72,  and  73  (see  ante.)  For 
example,  it  is  customary  in  most  tables  for  computing  exposure 
rates,  like  Table  ''A,"  for  instance,  where  a  1$  exposure  is  18 
cents,  to  add  1.26  (which  would  be  18$  of  7$,)  for  exposure  to 
a  1$  risk  by  a  7$  risk,  instead  of  first  taking  18  cents  for  the 
exposure  of  1$  of  the  exposure  and  adding  3.24  for  the  600  cents 
excess  of  the  exposure  rate.  This  would  make  3.42  as  an  ex- 
posure charge,  the  1$  risk  being  rated  4.42  and  the  7$  risk 
7.18.  Where  the  same  percentage  is  taken,  as  is  so  frequently 
the  case,  the  \i  risk  would  be  rated  at  2.26,  and  any  under- 
writer, at  this  great  difference  between  the  two  rates,  would 
select  the  7  $  hazard  for  a  smaller  line. 

No  other  difference  than  that  of  the  foregoing  rules  should  be 
made  between  fire  department  and  non-fire  department  towns, 
inasmuch  as  the  Universal  Schedule,  in  its  key-rate  and,  also, 
in  the  subsequent  deductions  for  proximity  to  hydrants,  steam- 
engines,  etc.,  will  have,  at  No.  131,  correctly  measured  and 
considered  the  difference  between  protected  and  unprotected 
risks  in  the  probabilities  of  controlling  and  extinguishing  a  fire 
and,  therefore,  of  preventing  its  spread.  The  question,  at  this 
point,  becomes  simply  one  of  physical  volume  and  distance. 

Order  of  computation.  The  accompanying  rate  sl'p  shows  the 
order  in  which  the  computation  of  exposure  hazards  should  be 
made. 

It  may  be  claimed  that  the  detail  features  herein  treated  are 
too  numerous  and  the  computation  suggested  too  complicated, 


356 


EXPOSURES  TO  BRICK  BUILDINGS. 


but  there  are  no  considerations  mentioned  which  an  intelligent 
expert  would  overlook  in  estimating  exposure  danger,  and  he 
certainly  cannot  be  hindered  by  having  a  list  of  them  with  a 
charge  for  each. 

N.  B. — The  criticism  has  been  made  of  this  scheme  of  ex- 
posure charges  that  because  risks  of  intense  combustibility,  such 
as  oil  storks  or  wood  workers,  would  be  more  likely  to  destroy 
buildings  exposed  by  them  than  would  stocks  of  the  same  high 
rate  though  of  a  harmless  character,  like  millinery,  hops,  wall- 
paper, etc.,  a  higher  percentage  of  the  rates  of  risks  of  intense 
combustibility  should  be  added  to  measure  the  exposure  danger. 
But  this  view  overlooks  an  important  fact,  viz.,  that  it  is  the 
percentage  of  the  rate  of  the  exposure  building,  and  not  of  its 
stock  or  contents,  which  is  used  for  exposure  charges.  The 
question  whether  contents  of  great  ignitibility  or  intense  "com- 
bustibility*' will  burn  the  building  which  contains  them  is 
identical  with  that  of  whether  they  will  damage  an  exposed  risk 
and  is  measured  in  the  rate  of  the  exposure  building.  Stocks 
of  wall-paper  or  millinery  in  a  building  exposing  another  would 
themselves  be  rated  high  because  of  their  susceptibility  to  dam- 
age, but  the  building  containing  them  would  not,  for  they  do 
not  make  hot  fires  or  increase  the  rate  of  a  building.  On  the 
other  hand,  oils  in  a  building  exposing  another,  might  not 
themselves  be  rated  higher  than  millinery  or  wall-paper,  but 
the  building  containing  them  would  be  rated  higher  than  one 
containing  the  harmless  stocks  named ;  and  it  is  the  percentage 
of  this  higher  building  rate  which  is  used  for  the  exposure 
charge.  If  the  exposure  charge  on  this  basis  is  deemed  in- 
adequate to  measure  the  probabilities  of  the  destruction  of  the 
exposed  risk,  it  would  argue,  not  that  the  percentage  of  exposure 
is  wrong,  but  that  the  rate  of  the  exposing  building,  containing 
the  oils,  etc.,  is  inadequate,  and  if  the  rate  of  the  building 
containing  the  oils  is  not  high  enough  to  measure  the  proba- 
bilities of  its  destruction  by  its  contents,  it  should  be  raised. 
Of  course,  if  the  oils  will  not  destroy  their  own  building  they 
cannot  destroy  the  building  of  the  exposure. 


Edition  Jntr  ISM. 


//.. 


RATING  SUP.-Exposures  Brick  Bpcs, 


N.  R— Cairn  laic  tin-  exposure,  a*  ]iri  I  aide,  for  given 
distance  or  condition  for  each  side  anil  enter  in  its  col- 
umn, then  ndd  or  subtract  from  charge  as  follows;  cor- 
rj \ds  the  not  result  by  successive  processes  down  the 
t'ulnmu  T • '  th.'  hnilniti. 

Front  Ri-ht 

A  "'H'" 

Rear 
C 

( teft 

'if 

Buildings  Separated.— With  openings. 

N.  B. — (Wooden  Roof,  Cornice  or  Wooden 

Mansard  same  as  openings.) 
Blank  Wall  of  Risk  toward  exposure,  deduct  i  of 

charge  if  protected  (i.  e.  fire  Dipt.)  §  if  not.) 

No  deduction  if  wooden  roof,  cornice  ot  man- 

"       "      of  Exposure  toward  risk,  deduct  J  ii 

protected  )  if  not.) 
"        "       To  both  deduct  ill)  per  cent  if  protected 

<*  if  not.) 

Openings  not  opposite  to  each  other  deduct  30  per 

'*       on  grade  or  first  floor  only,  deduct  25  per 

Fire  Shatters.— To  window  openings  of  risk  dedue 
50  %  of  charge. 
"       "       To  window  openings  of  exposure  de 
duct  30  %. 

"  "  to  Both  risk  and  exposure  deduct  60* 
If  the  intervening  di-tariceexceeris  40  feet  in 
crease  the  percentage  of  deduction  by  1  56 
for  each  foot  that  distance  exceeds  40  fee 
not  exceeding  a  total  deduction  of  90#. 

Shingle  Roof  TO  Risk  increase  charge  50  per  cent  bu 
not  exceeding  a  sum  which  would  make  risk 
equal  rate  with  exposure. 

If  Buildings  Adjohiiug— Charge  as  per  table  E  and  F 

log  mill-  -if  -  m.l.<|...<ii>!.  i.t  «ini..ui   i.ni.iiilc iti-.n  mr 

Curried  ithm-i-  r..of     Ki-r  .  vnriii .1.  .  if  rl-K  !>.-  No  4ii  tun. 
exposure  N.>        »nv  eixtli  ■>!  <"i ,  [a  ..rl.'.u.-  Bli.,ul.J  I. 
Btithil  for  No.  123 

N.  B.— No  deduction  for  Fine  Door?  lo  rom 
munlcutkm.,,   If  .-xj-onire  be  mi  un.  or  "Omaie' 
bus.— rate  as  one  hazard. 

Wall  not  through  Roof. — If  division  wall  between  twe 
adjoining  risks  dues  not  extend  through  roof 
cutting  off  roof  timbers,  charge  same  as  pet 
tables  E  and  F  for  communications  above 
first  floor  with  single  fire  door. 

Rate  of  Exposure  less  than  1  per  cent.,  pro-rate 
charge. 

Length  of  Exposed  Side  of  Risk.— Leas  than  75  run 
ning  feet,  1  per  cent,  less  for  each  foot.  Nc 
deduction  ij  .l.Iji-iinn^  with  communication. 

"      op  Exposure. — Less  than  75  feet  i  per  cent 
less  for  each  foot. 

fN.  B.— Nr.  deduction  under  these  Ilema,  however,  U 
the    esp-iMirL'    tiuil'lin^  i.  utalri   lia/aMa   i.f  irjlrns* 
ct.nibuBill.i'ii^ -i  nl~  -r  -iticr  ■  ctoi."*  ricks"  \Mmle 
■ftleOru^-s.  r.l..tka   .if    1  uniiltir.-    Aim.  nlinr.il  ling  ]L- 
menu,  Carriam*  or  \\  «■,'>>»  materials  or  other  w.km 

Height  of  Exposure.— If  less  than  rive  stories  deduct  U 
per  cent,  for  each  story  let!  than  live   If  ovei 
5  stories  add  25  per  cent,  for  each  story  over  5 

Falling  Wnll  Hazard.— Add  not  less  than  2  per  cent 
of  the  rate  of  the  exposing  risk. 

Glass  Front  or  Side  of  Risk.— Increase  charge  10  pe 
cent,  if  first  story,  2l>  per  cent  for  second,  am 
ten  per  cent,  for  each  additional  story. 
"      "    of  Exposure. — Increase  charge  30  per  ceo 
for  each  glass  story  above  hrst  or  grade  door 

Stone  Front. — If  plain  finish  increase  charge  10  per 
cent.    It  carved  or  ornamental  liuisb  iucrcu.-i 
20  per  cent, 

LargeCubroken  Area  of  Exposure  exceeding  lO.nnr 
suuare  feet  increase  charge  80  per  cent,  anc; 
add  a  further  5  per  cent  for  each  1,000  in  ex 
cos  Of  10.000. 

Frame  Exposure  increase  charge  ."ill  per  cent,  but  noi 
exceeding  a  sum  which  shall  make  rate  ol 
risk  equal  to  80  per  cent  of  exposure 
N.ite.  Table*  E  and  V  1-  r  flu.  Inir.u LuILIil^t  =r, 
Intended  tor  Hrick  and  Stone  IiqiI.iIdks  .mly. 

Prevailing  Wind.— If  toward  risk  increase  charge  10 
per  cent.  If  toward  exposure  decrcu«t 
charge  10  per  cent. 

If  both  Risk  ami  Exposnre  rate  are  below  1  percent 
take  such  percentage  of  final  result  as  the 
rate  of  ri-k  bears  to  one  per  cent.  e.  g .  if  05 
cents,  65  per  cent;  if  45  cents,  45  per  cent  dV 

Total  Exposure  Charge  for  all  sides. 
Height  of  Risk.— If  under  5  stories  high,  deduct  15  per 
cent  of  total  charges  (or  each  storv  less  than 
five.    If  over  five  stories  high  add  16  per 
cent  for  each  story  over  live. 
Stocks. — If  building  separated  has  blank  wall  toward 
exposure,  charge  8u  per  cent,  less  on  stock 
than  on  building. 

Grade  Floor  Stocks  In  unprotected  build. 
Ings  50  per  cent  less  than  charge  on  building 
(stocks  above  grade,  vune  charge  as  building  ) 
Stocks  in  Standard  buildings  one-half  the 
the  charge  for  exposure  to  building  no  matter 
on  what  floor  located. 

table  a.   PROTECTED  RISKS— SEPARATED. 

(i.  e.  wilkin  500  feet  of hydrants.) 
BB1CK  BCILDISGS    BI  BBICK  BUILDINGS  VT1TB  0PE5I50S. 


Exposure  DLstaoce 
Separating  Space. 


ale  of  j^Rataof  j^Raleof  |^Rate  of  |  Rat*  of  |  Bate  of 


100  cents  200  ceo 


io  feet. 

.tScts 

.36  as 

•S4Cts 

.72CIS 

..jocts 

i.o8cts 

l.2t>CtS 

20  " 

.16  " 

■3'  " 

.48  » 

.64  " 

.80  " 

.96  " 

1. 12  " 

JO  « 

.14  " 

.28  " 

.42  « 

.56  " 
.48  " 

•70  " 

.84  " 

.98  " 

40  " 

.12  " 

.24  " 

.36  « 

.60  ■' 

.72  " 

■84  " 

5°  " 

.10  " 

•3°  " 

•4»  " 

•So  " 

.60  ■' 

.70  " 

60  •• 

.08  " 

!i6  " 

.24  " 

.32  " 

.40  " 

.48  » 

.56  " 

70  « 

.06  " 

.18  " 

.24  " 

•30  jj 

.36  " 

.42  » 

80  " 

.04  " 

!o8  " 

.12  u 

.16  « 

.24  " 

.28  « 

9»  " 

.04  " 

.06  » 

.08  " 

.10  " 

.12  " 

.14  " 

100  " 

.00  " 

.00  11 

.OO  " 

If  the  rate  be  less  than  1  <,  reduce  prorata. 
RULE;  If  the.  rnte  of  the  exposnre  does  not  exceed  that  of  the  risk  by 
more  than  50  cents,  add  the  amount  named  in  the  above  table,  A ',  for  the given  distance. 

If  the  rutc  oftlie  exposure  exeeeils  that  of  the  risk  by  more  than  50  tents, 
add  the  amount  ttamrd  in  the  above  table  for  so  much  of  the  rate  of  the  exposure  as  equals 
the  rate  of  theiiii  itself,  and  also  the  amount  for  the  given  distance  in  the  following 
table  for  such  amount  as  the  exposure  exceeds  the  rate  of  the  risk. 

Foreiample,  If  it  t  riot  c*poirs  a  1  *ri»k  nt  SOfi-ct,  ibc  amount  named  for  1  « In  the  at-OTH 

lihlu  otipoflle  20  fi-.-I  In  It.  .  inf.  r,  1 1  tj  in  Tal.le  ii  In  Ion  IVr  W  >  o  1  I-  i-irr  —  i .  ft  cents  ninkiu?  a 
total  of  24  cents  If  a  3  1  nek  exposes  a  2  x  risk,  the  airo-iini  f,,r  :  in  Table  A  above  at  20  feet 
Is  83  cents,  and  fur  mr.  tenia  t  \c.  -*  In  1  nl.k  It  ln  |..w  1- S  cnn.  nutm;  n  total  or  40  cents. 
Thn?  the  tale  of  the  risk  would  be  S  40  TI.e  hi,  rate  of  ti,.>  :!  :  risk  muuii  be  that  of  200 
cents  In  Table  A  at  21)  feet,  9i  cent*,  makim*  total  exposed  rate  3  33. 

If  risk  ii  as  blank  wall  toward  exposure  deduct  four- fifths  amounts  named  In 
Tables,    If  risk  bus  openings,  but  BXPOntM  has  iilamk  wall  toward  risk, 
deduct  one-half  amounts  named  in  the  Tables. 
If  both  walls  blaxk,  deduct  ninety  per  cent  of  amount  named  In  T  .'  :•  -. 
If  opentnos  kot  oppositf-  each  other,  deduct  30  £.   If  openings  on  grade 
floor  only,  deduct  25  %. 
For  flue  smrrTEBS  to  the  risk  deduct  50  %  of  charge, 
"    *'      "  "  exposure   "    80  %  '*  ** 

"    "      11  "  both  risk 

and  exposure    "     AO  <  "  " 
If  intervening  distance  exceeds  40  feet  increase  the  percentage  of  deduction 
by  1  $  for  each  foot  that  the  distance  exceeds  40  feet,  not  exceeding  a  total 
deduction  of  90  Jt. 


TABLE  B. 

Exposure  DlBtaucc 

Separating  Space. 

ADD  TO  ABOVE  FOR  EXCESS  OF  EXPOSURE  RATE. 

100-, it» 

Add  for 
200,,.  ,  - 

A, Id  for 
CXCCSS 

Add  for 
l't(T^ 

Add  for 
600  ecu 

excess 

Add  for 
600  ateoti 
excess 

Add  for 
700  cents 

excess 

to  feet. 

30  " 
40  « 
S»  " 

.09CtS 
.08  " 
■07  " 
.06  " 

.05  " 

.36  cts 

.32  " 
.28  " 

.24  " 

•  St  CIS 
.72  " 
.63  " 

•54  " 
•45  " 

I.44C1S 
1.28  " 

!96  " 

.80  " 

--. r,Cts 

■  75  " 
1.50  « 
1.25  « 

3.24cta 
2.88  " 
2.52  " 
2.16  •' 
1.80  •• 

).  4  ] ,.  u 
3-9»  " 
3-43  " 
2.94  " 
2  45  " 

60  " 
70  " 
80  " 
90  " 

.04  " 
•°3  X 
.02  " 

!i6  " 
.12  " 
.08  " 
.04  '1 

.36  ■' 
.27 

.18  •' 
.09  « 

.64 " 
.48  •' 
•32  " 
.16 

1.00  " 
•75  " 
.50  " 
.25  " 
.00  " 

1.44  " 
1.08  " 
.72  " 
.36  v 

1.96  " 
■■47  " 
.98  « 
.49  " 

.00  " 

PROTECTED   RISKS— ADJOINING 


BUILDINGS 
ADJOINING  * 

!(.,■,.  of  Km.-  i.r  tin:-  (.filtjiti'  ^1 

loifeS  200  et»lu3  eti  400  cu 

Rate  c-flltete  of 
Exp're  Kip're 
600  cie|600  cie 

Rate  of 
700  c» 

Walls  noi  Deficient  exceed- 
ing 10  cents  under  Nob.  38  or  30. 

.04 

cents 

,24 

.28 

Walls  Deficient  (exceeding 

10  ceuts  under  38  or  39. 

If  one  wall  deficient  ono-balf  chg. 

.06 
■°3 

.06 

.18 

.09 

.24 
.12 

•3° 

•■5 

•36 
.18 

.42 
.21 

Wall  Higher  and  openings 
tn  eicees  height,  on  hleher  building 
Charge  on  lower  building. 

.08 

■24 
.rc 

■36 
•15 

.48 

.20 

.60 
•25 

•72 
■3° 

.84 
•35 

(Trade  floor  wltb  single  Are  door 

(If  double  doors,  one-half  charges/ 
N.  B  -No  deduction  ron  Fire- 

Ilo.,|i-.    if  !■■,], o-iir.-    I,i    mi  1  III.  oil 

.08 
.14 

.16 
.28 

.42 
■54 

•5» 
•72 

.70 
.90 

.84 
1.08 

.98 
1.26 

Party  Wall  with  deficiencies 
not  over  2i  cents  under  40  or  41. 
Party  Wall  if  deficiencies  ex- 
coed  21  rent*  under  40  and  41,  or  If, 
ai  1  1    run  of  wall  Is  less  than  U 

.03 
.08 

.06 
.16 

.18 
.24 

•24 
•32 

•3° 
.40 

.36 
.48 

•42 
5« 

Wall  Longer  ok  Shorter,  openings  being  at  riylit  angles,  charge  one-fourth  of 
what  would  be  charge  for  distance  between  nearest  openings  by  tables  A  and  B. 

*  Where  the  Oerupaney  Table  first  column  charge  of  the  adjoining  exposure  ex- 
ceeds that  of  the  rtsk,  add  one-sixth  of  the  excess  to  above  charges  unless  the 
separating  walls  nre  independent,  without  communications  and  carried  above  roof . 

RULE  i    If  the  rate  of  the  exposure  does  not  exceed  that  of  the  risk 

by  more  than  5U  cents,  add  the  amount  named  ni  the  above  table. 

If  the  rate  of  the  exposure  exceeds  that  of  the  risk  by  more  than  50  cents, 
add  the  amount  named  in  the  above  table  for  so  much  of  the  rate  of  the  exposure  as 
equals  the  rate  of  the  risk  itself,  and  also  the  amount  for  the  deficiency  in  the 
following  table  for  such  amount  as  the  exposure  exceeds  that  of  the  risk. 


BUILDINGS 
ADJOINING. 

i^o 0  •  - 

2  00  ■  - 

■1,1,1  'or 
300  ■  - 

too  ■  - 

boo ,  '-- 

Idd  f,,r 
600  r„ 

Add  for 
700  n 

Walls  not  DEFlClENTexceed- 
lug  10  cenls  uuder  Nos  38  or  3B. 

■°3 

■'5 

'•45 

"s,i 

'•25 

I.80 

2-45 

Walls  Deficient  exceeding 

10  cents  under  38  or  30. 

If  one  wall  deficient  one-half  chg. 

.08 
■°4 

.3a 
.16 

•72 

■36 

1.28 

'■■4 

I.OO 

2.88 
■■44 

392 

1.96 

Wall  Higher  and  openings 
lb  excess  belgbt  charge  on  higher 

Charge  on  lower  building. 

.08 

.24 

•54 
•■5 

.96 

■  •SO 
•25 

2.16 
■3° 

2.94 

•35 

B'd'gs  Communicating  on  the 

63 
1.89 

grade  Door  with  single  Are  door. 
(If  double  doors,  ont-balf  charges.) 

.06 
.18 

.28 
.62 

2.12 
2.44 

2-  75 

3-  25 

3.52 
4.24 

443 
5-41 

Pabtv  Wall  with  deficiencies 

Party  Wall  if  deficiencies  ex- 
1  i-dl  .'i  cents  under  40  aud  41,  or  If 

Inches  thick. 

.06 
.09 

.20 
.36 

•54 
.St 

.96 
■■44 

■■5° 
2.25 

2.16 
3»4 

2.94 
4.41 

EXPOSURES  TO  BRICK  BUILDINGS. 


351 


table  a.    PROTECTED  RISKS-SEPARATED. 

(*.  e.  within  500  feet  of  hydrants.) 
BRICK  BUILDINGS    BY  BRICK  BUILDINGS  WITH  OPENINGS. 


Exposure  Distance 
or 

Separating  Space. 

Rate  of 
Exposure 
100  cents 

Rate  of 
Exposure 
200  cents 

Rate  of 

Exposure 
300  cents 

Rate  of 
Exposure 
400  cents 

Rate  of 
Exposure 
500  cunts 

Rate  of 
Exposure 
60,0  cents 

Rate  of 
Exposure 
700  cents 

AMOUNT  TO  BE 

ADDED 

FOR  EXPOSURE. 

IO 

feet. 

.18  Cts 

•36 

cts 

•54Cts 

•  72CtS 

-9octs 

i.oScts 

1. 26cts 

20 

it 

.16 

(l 

•32 

<( 

.48 

41 

.64  " 

.80  " 

.96  " 

1. 12  " 

3° 

(C 

.14 

a 

.28 

II 

.42 

41 

.56  " 

.70  " 

.84  " 

.98  " 

40 

.12 

tt 

.24 

14 

•36 

(I 

.48 " 

.60  " 

.72  " 

.84  " 

5° 

a 

.TO 

tt 

.20 

•30 

II 

.40  " 

.50  " 

.60  " 

.7C  " 

60 

<< 

.08 

.16 

CI 

.24 

II 

,  ,  II 
•6  - 

.40  " 

.48  " 

.56  " 

70 

tt 

.06 

a 

.12 

it 

.18 

II 

.24  " 

.30  " 

.36  « 

.42  " 

80 

tt 

.04 

tt 

.08 

II 

.12 

II 

.16  " 

20  " 

.24  « 

.28  " 

90 

it 

.02 

a 

.04 

it 

.06 

<l 

.08  " 

.10  " 

.12  " 

•14  " 

100 

.OO 

tt 

.00 

11 

.00 

II 

.00  " 

.00  " 

.00  " 

.OO  " 

If  (he  rate  be  less  than  1     reduce  pro-rata. 
RULE:   If  the  rate  of  the  ex5)osure  docs  not  exceed  that  of  the  risk  by 

more  than  50  cents,  add  the  amount  named  in  the  above  table.  A,  for  the  given  distance. 

If  the  rate  of  the  exposure  exceeds  that  of  the  risk  by  more  than  50  cents, 
add 'the  amount  named  in  the  above  table  for  so  much  of  the  rate  of  the  exposure  as  equals 
the  rate  of  the  ;  is/i  itself,  and  also  the  amount  for  the  given  distance  in  the  following 
table  for  such  amount  as  the  exposure  exceeds  the  rate  of  the  risk. 

For  example,  if  n  2  %  risk  exposes  a  1  %  risk  at  20  fret,  the  amount  named  for  1  %  in  the  above 
table  opposite  20  fe<  t  is  II)  cents,  and  in  Table  li  below  for  100  cents  excess  is  8  cents  makine  a 
total  of  24  cents.  If  a  3  t  risk  exposes  a  2  %  risk,  the  amount  for  2  %  in  Table  A  above  at  20  feet 
is  32  cents,  and  for  100  cents  excess  in  Table  B  below  is  8  cents,  making  a  total  of  40  cents. 
Thus  the  rate  of  the  risk  would  be  2.  40.  The  exposed  rate  of  the  3  %  risk  would  be  that  of  200 
cents  in  Table  A  at  20  feet,  32  cents,  making  total  exposed  rate  3.  32. 

If  risk  has  blank  wall  toward  exposure  deduct  four-fifths  amounts  named  in 
Tables.  If  risk  has  openings,  but  exposure  has  blank  wall  toward  risk, 
deduct  one-half  amounts  named  in  the  Tables. 

If  botii  walls  blank,  deduct  ninety  per  cent  of  amount  named  in  Tables. 

If  openings  not  opposite  each  other,  deduct  30  %,  If  openings  on  grade 
floor  only,  deduct  25  %, 

For  fire  shutters  to  the  risk  deduct  50  %  of  charge. 
"    "       "  "  exposure    "     30  %  "  " 

"    "       "  "both  risk 

and  exposure    "     GO  %  "  " 
If  intervening  distance  exceeds  40  feet  increase  the  percentage  of  deduction 
by  1  %  for  each  foot  that  the  distance  exceeds  40  feet,  not  exceeding  a  total 
deduction  of  90  %. 


TABLE  B. 


ADD  TO  ABOVE  FOR  EXCESS  OF  EXPOSURE  RATE. 


Exposure  Distance 
or 

Separating  Space. 

Add  for 
1 00  cents 

excess 

Add  for 
200  cents 

excess 

Add  for 
300  cents 

excess 

Add  for 
400cents 

excess 

Add  for 
500  cents 

excess 

Add  for 
600  cents 

excess 

Add  for 
700  cents 

excess 

IO 

feet. 

.09 

cts 

.36  cts 

.81  cts 

i-44Cts 

2.  25CtS 

3-24Cts 

4.4icts 

20 

11 

.08 

.32  " 

.72  " 

1.28  " 

2.00  " 

2.88  " 

3.92  " 

3° 

11 

.07 

.28  " 

.63  « 

1. 12  " 

1.75 " 

2.52  " 

3-43  " 

40 

(i 

.06 

.24  " 

•54  " 

.96  " 

1.50  " 

2.16  " 

2.94  " 

5° 

11 

•°5 

11 

.20  " 

•45  " 

.80  " 

1.25  " 

1.80  " 

2.45  " 

60 

11 

.04 

.16  " 

.36  « 

.64  " 

1.00  " 

1.44  " 

1.96  " 

70 

II 

•03 

u 

.12  " 

.27  " 

.48  " 

•75  " 

1.08  " 

1.47  " 

80 

11 

.02 

.08  " 

.18  " 

.32  " 

.50  " 

72  " 

.98  " 

90 

II 

.01 

11 

.04  " 

.09  ' 

.16  " 

.25  " 

'36  " 

•  49  " 

100 

11 

.00 

ii 

.OO  " 

.00  " 

.00  " 

.00  " 

.00  i: 

.00  " 

.358  EXPOSURES  TO  BRICK  BUILDINGS. 


table  e.  PROTECTED    RISKS— ADJOINING 


BUILDINGS 
ADJOINING  * 

Rate  of  Rate  of 
Kxp're  1  Kxp're 
1  00  cts  200  cts 

Rate  of!  Rate  of 
Kxp're  Exp're 
300  cts!400  cis 

Rate  of 
Kxp"re 
500  cte 

Rale  of 
Kxp're 
600  cts 

Rate  of 
Exp'ie 
700  eta 

AMOUNT  TO  BE  ADDED  FOR  EXPOSURE. 

Walls  not  Deficient  exceed- 
ing 10  cents  under  Nos.  38  or  39. 

cents 
.02 

cents 
.04 

cents 
.  I  2 

cents 
.16 

cents 
.20 

cents 
.24 

cents 
.28 

Walls  Deficient  exceeding 

10  cents  under  38  or  39. 

If  one  wall  deficient  one-half  chg. 

.06 
•03 

.1  2 

.06 

.l8 

.09 

.24 
.12 

•3° 
•15 

•36 
.18 

.42 
.21 

Wall  Higher  and  openings 
in  excess  height,  on  higher  building 
Charge  on  lower  building. 

.08 

.02 

.24 
.  IC 

•36 
•15 

.48 
.20 

.60 
•25 

.72 
•3° 

.84 

•35 

B'd'gs  Communicating  on  the 
grade  floor  with  single  fire  door 
If  above  grade  floor   "      "  " 
(If  double  doors,  one-half  charges.) 

N.  B  — No  DEDUCTION  FOU  FlHE- 
Donrts,  if  exposure  be  an  Oil  or 
"Grkase"  risk — ra teas  one  hazard. 

.08 
.14 

.16 

.28 

.42 

•54 

•56 
.72 

.70 
.90 

.84 
I.08 

.98 
1.26 

Party  Wall  with  deficiencies 
not  over  24  cents  under  40  or  41 . 
Party  Wall  if  deficiencies  ex- 
ceed 24  cenis  under  40  and  41.  or  if, 
any  portion  of  wall  is  less  than  12 
inches  thick. 

•°3 
.08 

.06 
.16 

.18 
.24 

.24 

•32 

■30 
.40 

.36 
.48 

.42 
•56 

Wall  Longer  or  Shorter,  openings  being  at  right  angles,  charge  one-fourth  of 
what  would  be  charge  for  distance  between  nearest  openings  by  tables  A  and  B. 


*  Where  the  Occupancy  Table  first  column  charge  of  the  adjoining  exposure  ex- 
ceeds that  of  the  risk,  add  one-sixth  of  the  excess  to  above  charges  unless  the 
separating  walls  are  independent,  without  communications  and  carried  above  roof. 

RULE  :   If  the  rate  of  the  exposure  does  not  exceed  that  of  the  risk 

by  more  than  50  cents,  add  the  amount  named  in  the  above  table. 

If  the  rate  of  the  exposure  exceeds  that  of  the  risk  by  more  than  50  cents, 
add  the  amount  named  in  the  above  table  for  so  much  of  the  rale  of  the  exposure  as 
equals  the  rate  of  the  risk  itself,  and  also  the  amount  for  the  deficiency  in  the 
folloiving  table  for  such  amount  as  the  exposure  exceeds  that  of  the  risk. 


BUILDINGS 
ADJOINING. 

Add  to  Above  for  Excess 

of  Exposure  Rate. 

Add  for 
100  els 

excess 

Add  for 
200  cts 

excess 

Add  for 
300  Clr 

excess 

Add  for 
400  cts 

excess 

Add  for1 
500  cts 

excess 

Add  for 
600  cts 

excess 

Add  for 
700  cts 

excess 

Walls  not  Deficient  exceed- 
ing 10  cents  under  Nos.  38  or  39. 

cents 

•°3 

cents 
■'5 

cents 
•45 

cents 
80 

cents 
1-25 

cents 
I.80 

cents 
2-45 

Walls  Deficient  exceeding 

10  cents  under  38  or  39. 

If  one  wall  deficient  one-half  chg. 

CO  -t- 
O  O 

•32 
.16 

.72 

•36 

I.28 
I.14 

2.00 
1.00 

2.88 

1.44 

3-92 
1.96 

Wall  Higher  and  openings 
in  excess  height  charge  on  higher 
building. 

.08 

.24 

•54 

.96 

i-5° 

2.  l6 

2.94 

Charge  on  lower  building. 

.02 

.IO 

.15 

.20 

•25 

•3° 

•35 

B'd'gs  Communicating  on  the 
grade  floor  with  single  fire  door. 

.06 

.28 

.63 

2.12 

2-75 

3-52 

4-43 

If  above  grade  floor   "      "  " 
(If  double  doors,  one-half  charges.) 

.18 

.62 

1.89 

2.44 

325 

4.24 

5-4i 

Party  Wall  with  deficiencies 
not  over  24  cents  under  40  or  41. 

.06 

.20 

•54 

.96 

i-5° 

2.16 

2.94 

Party  Wall  if  deficiencies  ex- 
ceed 24  cents  under  40  and  41,  or  if, 
any  portion  of  wall  is  less  than  12 
inches  thick. 

.09 

•36 

.81 

I.44 

2.25 

3-24 

4.41 

EXPOSURES  TO  BRICK  BUILDINGS. 


359 


table  c.  UNPROTECTED  RISKS-SEPARATED. 

{not  within  500  feet  of  hydrants.) 
BRICK  BUILDINGS  BT  BRICK  BUILDINGS  WITH  OPENINGS. 


Exposure  Distance 
or 

Separating  Space. 

Rate  of 
Exposure 
1  00  cents 

Rate  of 
Exposure 
200  cents 

Rate  of 
Exposure 
300  cents 

Rate  of 
Exposure 
400  cents 

Rate  of 
Exposure 
600  cents 

Rate  of 
Exposure 
600  cents 

Rate  of 
Exposure 
700  cents 

AMOUNT  TO  DE  ADDED  FOR  EXPOSURE. 

IO 

feet. 

.22  cts 

•44 

cts 

.66  cts 

.88  cts 

I.IOCtS 

I-32CtS 

1 

•54Cts 

20 

(i 

.20  " 

.40 

1 1 

.60  " 

.80 

it 

1. 00  " 

1.20  " 

.40  " 

3° 

i« 

.18  " 

•36 

it 

•54  " 

.72 

tt 

.90 " 

1.08  " 

1 

.26  " 

40 

i< 

.16  " 

•32 

a 

.48  " 

.64 

tt 

.80  " 

.96 " 

.12  " 

5° 

tt 

.14  " 

.28 

tt 

.42  " 

•56 

.70  " 

.84 " 

98  " 

60 

tt 

.12  " 

.24 

1 1 

.36  " 

.48 

t« 

.60  " 

.72  " 

84  " 

70 

tt 

.10  " 

.20 

tt 

.30  " 

.40 

.i 

.50  " 

.60  " 

70  " 

80 

it 

.08  " 

.16 

tt 

.24  " 

•32 

.40  " 

.48 " 

56  " 

90 

tt 

.06  " 

.  1 2 

.18  " 

.24 

if 

.30  " 

.36 " 

42  " 

100 

it 

.04  " 

.08 

tt 

.12  " 

.16 

It 

.20  " 

•24::j 

28  " 

I  IO 

tt 

.02  " 

.04 

it 

.06  " 

.08 

.10  " 

.12 

14  « 

1 20 

tt 

.00  " 

.00 

tt 

.00  " 

.00 

tt 

.00  " 

.00 " 

00  " 

If  the  rate  be  less  than  1      reduce  pro-rata. 
RULE:   If  the  rate  of  the  exposure  does  not  exceed  that  of  the  risk  bv 

more  than  50  cents,  add  the  amount  named  in  the above table,  C,  for  the  given  distance. 

If  the  rate  of  the  exposure  exceeds  that  of  the  risk  by  more  than  50  cents, 
add  the  amount  named  in  the  above  table  for  so  much  of  the  rate  of  the  exposure  as 
equals  the  rate  of  the  risk  itself,  and  also  the  amount  for  the  given  distance  in  the 
following  table  for  such  amount  as  the  exposure  exceeds  that  of  the  risk. 

For  example,  if  a  2  %  rNk  exposes  a  1  7  rNl<  at  2)  feet,  the  amount  named  for  1  ;5  in  the  above 
table  opposite  20  feet  is  20  cents,  aud  in  Table  D  below  for  100  cents  excess  is  10  cents,  making 
a  total  of  30  cents. 

If  risk  has  blank  wall  toward  exposure  deduct  two-thirds  amounts  named 
in  Tables.    If  risk  has  openings,  but  exposure  has  blank  wall  toward  risk, 
deduct  one-third  amounts  named  in  the  Tables. 
If  both  walls  blank,  deduct  three-fourths  amount  named  in  Tables. 
If  openings  not  opposite  each  other,  deduct  30  %.    If  openings  on  grade 
floor  only,  deduct  25  %. 
For  fire  shutters  to  the  risk  deduct  50  $>  of  charge 
"         "       "  exposure    "     30  <fo  " 
"  both  risk  and 
exposure  deduct  60  %  " 
If  intervening  distance  exceeds  40  feet  increase  the  percentage  of  deduction 
by  1  %  for  each  foot  that  the  distance  exceeds  40  feet,  not  exceeding  a  total  de- 
duction of  90  %. 


TABLE  D. 


cXCESS  Of  EXPOSURE  RATE. 


or 

Separating  Space. 

Add  for 
lOOccnts 

excess 

Add  for 
200  cents 

excess 

Add  for 
300  cents 

excess 

Add  for 
400  cents 

excess 

Add  for 
500  cents 

excess 

Add  for 
600  cents 

excess 

Add  for 
700  cents 

excess 

IO 

feet. 

.  1 1  cts 

.44  cts 

.99  cts 

i-74Cts 

2.75cts 

3  96cts 

5-39cts 

20 

.1 

.10 

it 

.40 

tt 

.90  " 

1.60  " 

2.50  " 

3.60 

ii 

4  9.°  " 

3° 

it 

.09 

it 

•36 

11 

.81  " 

1.44  " 

2.25  « 

3-24 

it 

4.41 

40 

it 

.08 

it 

•32 

it 

.72  " 

1. 18  " 

2.00  " 

2.88 

it 

3.92  " 

5° 

.07 

tt 

.28 

tt 

.63  « 

1. 12  " 

'•75  " 

2-52 

it 

3-43  " 

60 

tt 

.06 

tt 

•  24 

tt 

•54  " 

.96  " 

1.50  " 

2.16 

ii 

2.94  " 

70 

tt 

.05 

<< 

.20 

<t 

•45  " 

.80  41 

1.25  « 

1.80 

it 

2.45  " 

80 

tt 

.04 

tt 

.16 

tt 

.36  « 

.64  " 

1. 00  " 

1.44 

it 

1.96  " 

90 

tt 

•03 

it 

.  1 2 

<t 

.27  " 

.48  " 

,  -75  " 

1.08 

if 

t.47  " 

100 

11 

.02 

if 

.08 

it 

,18  " 

.32  " 

1  -5°  " 

•  72 

(( 

.98  " 

1 10 

11 

.01 

<< 

.04 

tt 

.09  " 

.16  " 

|  -25  " 

•36 

ii 

•  49  " 

1 20 

tt 

.00 

tt 

.00 

tt 

.00  " 

.00  " 

|  .00  " 

.00 

ii 

1  .00  " 

360  EXPOSURES  TO  BRICK  BUILDINGS. 


table  f.       UNPROTECTED  RISKS-ADJOINING 


BUILDINGS 
ADJOINING.* 

3ate  of 
Exp're 
100  cis 

[?ate  of  1 
Exp're 
200  Cts 

Rate  of 
Exp're 
300  cts 

Hate  of 
Exp're 
400  cis 

Kate  of 
Exp're 
500  cis 

Rate  of 
Exp're 
600  cts 

Rate  of 
Exp're 
700  eta 

AMOUNT  TO  BE  ADDED  FOR  EXPOSURE. 

Walls  not  Deficient  exceed- 
ing 10  cents  under  Nos.  38  or  30. 

cents 

•°3 

cents 
.06 

cents 
.18 

cents 
■32 

cents 
.40 

cents 
.48 

cen  ts 
•56 

Walls  Deficient  exceeding 

10  cents  under  38  or  39. 

If  one  wall  deficient  one-half  chg. 

.IO 

.20 
.IO 

•3° 

•is 

.40 
.20 

•5° 
•25 

.60 

•3° 

.70 

•35 

Wall  Higher  and  openings 
in  excess  height,  on  higher  building. 
Charge  on  lower  building. 

.10 

•32 

.  I  2 

.48 

.18 

.64 

2  A 

.80 

"20 

.96 
^6 

1. 1 2 

42 

B'd'gs  Communicating  on  the 
grade  floor  with  single  lire  door. 
If  above  grade  floor  "      "  " 
(If  double  doors,  one-half  charges.) 

N.  B.  — No  DEDUCTION  FOR  FlRE- 

DOORS,  if  exposure  be  an  On.  or 
"Grease"  risk — rateasone  hazard. 

.10 

.18 

.20 
•36 

•54 
.66 

■7- 
.88 

.90 
I.  IO 

1.08 
1.32 

1.26 

i-54 

Tarty  Wall  with  deficiencies 
not  over  24  cents  under  40  or  41 . 
Party  Wall  if  deficiencies  ex- 
ceed 21  cents  under  40  and  41,  or  if. 
any  portion  of  wall  is  less  than  12 
inches  thick. 

.04 

.  I  2 

.08 
.24 

.30 
|  .36 

.40 

.4s 

■5° 

|  .60 

.60 
•72 

.70 
.84 

Wall  Longer  or  Shorter,  openings  being  at  right  angles,  charge  one-fourth  of 
what  would  be  charge  for  distance  between  nearest  openings  by  tables  A  and  B. 


*  Where  the  Occupancy  Table  first  column  charge  of  the  adjoining  exposure  ex- 
ceeds that  of  the  risk,  add  one-sixth  of  the  excess  to  above  charges  unless  the 
separating  walls  are  independent,  without  communications  and  carried  above  roof . 

RULE  :   If  the  rate  of  the  exposure  does  not  exceed  that  of  the  risk 

by  more  than  50  cents,  add  the  amount  named  in  the  above  table. 

If  the  rate  of  the  exposure  exceeds  \  hat  of  the  risk  by  more  than  50  cents, 

add  the  amount  named  in  the  above  table  for  so  muck  of  the  rate  of  the  exposure  as 
equals  the  rate  of  the  risk  itself,  and  also  the  amount  for  the  deficiency  in  the 
following  table  for  such  amount  as  the  exposure  exceeds  that  of  the  risk. 


BUILDINGS 
ADJOINING. 

Add  to  Above  for  Excess  of  Exposure  Rate. 

Add  forUdd  for 
100  cts  200  cts 

excess  excess 

Add  for 
300  CIS 

excess 

Add  for 
400  cts 

excess 

Add  for 
500  cis 

excess 

Add  for  Add  for 
600  cts'700  cts 
excess  excess 

Walls  not  Deficient  exceed- 
ing 10  cents  under  Nos.  38  or  39. 

cents 
.04 

cents 
.20 

cents 

•54 

cents 
96 

cents 

1  5° 

cents 
2.  16 

cents 
2  94 

Walls  Deficient  exceeding 

10  cents  under  38  or  39. 

If  one  wall  deficient  one-half  chg. 

.10 
.06 

•40 
.20 

.90 
•45 

I.60 
.80 

2.50 
i-25 

3.60 
I.80 

4.90 
2-45 

Wall  Higher  and  openings 
in  excess  height  charge  on  higher 
building. 
Charge  on  lower  building. 

.IO 

•03 

•36 

.12 

.72 
.18 

1. 18 

•24 

2.00 

•30 

2.88 
•36 

3-92 
•42 

B'd'gs  Communicating  on  the 
grade  floor  with  single  fire  door. 
If  above  grade  floor   "      "  " 
(If  double  doors,  one-half  charges.) 

.09 
•27 

.36 
.98 

.81 
2.43 

2.44 
2.74 

3-25 
3  75 

4.24 
4.96 

5-4i 

6.39 

Party  Wall  with  deficiencies 
not  over  24  cents  under  40  or  41. 

Party  Wall  if  deficiencies  ex- 
ceed 24  cents  under  40  and  41,  or  if, 
any  portion  of  wall  is  less  than  IS 
inches  thick. 

•07 
.11 

•25 

•44 

.72 

•99 

1. 18 

i-74 

2.00 
2.75 

2.88 
3-96 

3-92 

5-39 

NATIONAL  BOARD  RULES  FOR  THE  CONSTRUCTION 
OF  FIRE  DOORS  AND  SHUTTERS. 


(The  following  are  the  rules  and  requirements  of  The  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 
By  writing  to  the  Company  or  to  the  General  Agent  of  the  National  Board 
at  New  York,  they  may  be  secured  in  pamphlet  form.) 

Class  A. 

Rules  for  the  Construction  of  Standard  Tin-Clad  Fire  Doors. 

1 .  Openings  in  Wall.  To  be  as  few  and  made  as  small  as  the  nature  of 
the  business  will  permit.  Walls  to  present  smooth  masonry  surface  without 
any  wood  trimming. 

2.  Sills,  a.  To  be  of  stone,  built  into  wall  at  least  six  inches  at  each 
end,  and  extended  under  and  flush  with  outer  surface  of  door.  (See  Figs  1 
and  3.)  or, 

b.  To  be  of  wrought  iron  or  steel  plate  not  less  than  %  inch  in  thickness, 
on  brick,  stone  or  concrete  support,  built  into  wall  at  least  six  inches  at  each 
end  and  extended  under  and  flush  with  outer  surface  of  door.    (See  Fig.  2.)  or, 

c.  To  be  of  concrete  placed  between  suitable  angle  irons  and  made  flush 
with  their  upper  surfaces.  This  angle  iron  to  be  placed  on  each  side  of  the 
wall,  to  be  not  less  than  y%  inch  in  thickness,  to  have  faces  of  equal  width,  to 
extend  six  inches  beyond  the  opening  at  each  end,  to  be  held  in  place  by  |^-inch 
bolts  run  through  the  wall  and  to  have  its  horizontal  face  extend  under  and  its 
edge  flush  with  the  outer  surface  of  the  door.    (See  Fig.  4.) 

It  is  of  particular  importance  that  the  workmanship  be  first  class  when  the  plate  or  angle  iron 
sills  are  used.    No  wood  or  other  combustible  material  to  be  laid  over  any  sill. 

3.  Lintel.  Preferably  to  be  brick  arch,  but  subject  to  the  approval  of 
the  Underwriters  having  jurisdiction.  Stone  or  tin-clad  wood  lintels  not  ap- 
proved. 

4.  Size  and  Shape  of  Door.  a.  Sliding  doors  to  overlap  sides  and  top 
of  opening  four  inches.  Top  of  door  to  conform  to  incline  of  rail,  %  inch  to 
one  foot. 

b.  Swinging  doors  to  shut  into  a  brick  rabbet  in  wall  or  into  a  2'/4x2}4 
xX-inch  angle  iron  rabbet  secured  on  each  side  with  2^-inch  bolts  through  the 
wall,  or  into  an  approved  door  frame  of  iron.    (See  Fig.  5.) 

5.  Wood-Work.     a.    Stock  to  be  sound,  well  seasoned  white  pine,  or 


302 


F1KK  DOORS  AND  SHUTTERS. 


similar  non-resinous  wood,  dressed,  tongued  and  grooved  boards  not  over  six 
inches  in  width. 

Wood  containing  sap,  pitch  or  moisture  of  any  kind  is  liable  when  heated,  to  generate  gas, 
which,  if  confined  under  the  tin  casing,  may  gather  sufficient  force  to  burst  open  the  covering, 
thus  exposing  the  wood  work  to  fire  and  rendering  the  whole  door  liable  to  destruction;  for  this 
reason,  only  clear  dry  btock  should  be  used. 

b.  Tlie  thickness  of  the  door  required  in  each  case  to  be  determined  by  the 
Underwriters  having  jurisdiction.  When  door  is  placed  on  one  side  of  wall 
only,  it  shall  be  not  less  than  2]/2  inches  in  thickness;  when  doors  are  placed 
on  both  sides  of  wall,  each  door  shall  be  nut  less  than  2  inches  in  thickness. 

c.  When  the  door  is  to  be  2%  inches  thick,  three  equal  thicknesses  of 
boards  to  be  used,  the  outside  layers  to  be  vertical  and  the  inner  layer  hor- 
izontal.   (See  Fig.  6.) 

d.  A  2-inch  thick  door  to  be  made  of  two  thicknesses  of  one-inch  boards, 
one  layer  to  be  vertical  and  the  other  diagonal  or  at  right  angles.   (See  Fig.  7.) 

e.  Layers  to  be  securely  fastened  together  by  wrought  iron  clinch  nails 
driven  in  flush  and  clinched  so  as  to  leave  smooth  surfaces  on  both  sides  of  the 
door.    (See  Fig.  8.) 

f.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  all  edges  and  corners  smooth  and  square. 

6.  Tin  Covering.  1 'lie  fire-res i 'st  i ng  value  of  a  wood  door 
encased  in  tin  depends  upon  the  exclusion  of  oxygen  from 
the  wood,  thereby  retarding  or  preventing  combustion.  To 
obtain  this  result  the  tin  must  be  so  applied  that  during  ex- 
posure to  fire  the  tin  will  neither  leave  the  door  nor  will 
any  joints  or  seams  buckle  open  by  expansion  so  as  to  ex- 
pose the  ivood.  In  covering  the  door  follow  carefully  every 
specification  given  below: 

a.  Use  tin  plates  14x20  inches,  "IC"  charcoal,  108  lbs.  to  the  box. 

The  best  grade  is  cheapest  in  the  end.   Never  use  zinc  to  cover  a  fire  door.    Use  no  solder. 

b.  When  the  door  is  to  be  exposed  to  dampness  "terne"  plates  should  be 
used. 

c.  All  joints  should  be  locked  yz  inch  and  nailed  under  seams  (except  on 
edge  of  door)  as  illustrated.    (See  Figs.  9,  10,  11,  12,  13  and  14.) 

d.  Cover  four  corners  first.  For  each  corner  of  door  use  a  whole  sheet  of 
tin  without  cutting,  making  a  mitre  fold  instead  of  a  mitre  joint  or  seam, 
driving  two  nails  under  each  fold.    (See  Figs.  15,  16,  17  and  18.) 

e.  Next  cover  the  edges  with  sheets  of  the  same  size  (or  long  strips,  if 
preferred)  and  lock  into  corner  pieces  with  a  joint  like  Fig.  14,  but  without 
nail.    (See  Fig.  19.) 

f.  Then  apply  side  sheets,  starting  with  first  sheet  at  right  hand  lower 
corner;  (See  Figs.  19a  and  Vdb.)  then  all  horizontal  seams  when  completed  will 
be  like  Fig.  14,  except  the  last  seam  at  the  top  of  door,  which  will  be  like 
Fig.  12.    All  vertical  seams  will  be  like  Fig.  12. 

g.  Complete  the  tinning  of  one  side  before  beginning  the  other.  (See 
Fig.  20. 


STANDARD  TIN-CLAD  FIRE  DOORS. 


363 


h.  Nails  to  be  barbed  1)4  inches  long  for  2^  inch  doors,  and  inches  long 
for  2-inch  doors,  flat  heads.  Use  five  nails  on  each  side  and  four  nails  on  each 
end  of  each  sheet. 

i.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  sheets  as  flat  against  door  as  possible  in 
order  to  avoid  air  spaces. 

7.  Hardware  for  Sliding  Doors.  Complete  the  tinning  before 
attaching  any  hardware.    (See  Rule  No.  9.) 

a.  Track.  To  be  of  best  quality  flat  rolled  steel,  ^-inch  thick  by  3}4 
inches  wide  and  bolted  every  2}4  feet  with  ^-inch  bolts  running  through  the 
wall,  having  nut  and  flanged  washer  on  the  opposite  side. 

b.  Hangers.  To  be  of  wrought  metal,  ^x3>£  inches,  and  attached  by 
}i-mch  bolts.  Wheel  to  have  not  less  than  H-inch  bearing  on  axle,  roller 
bearing  preferred,  and  to  be  of  malleable  or  wrought  iron.    (See  Fig.  21.) 

c.  The  long  end  of  hanger  to  be  not  less  than  18  inches,  and  to  be  drilled 
for  not  less  than  two  |dnch  carriage  bolts.  For  doors  less  than  6  feet  wide 
two  hangers  are  sufficient;  for  doors  over  6  feet  wide,  three  hangers  to  be  used. 

d.  Binders.  Wrought  iron  binders  %-inch  x  3i  inches,  drilled  for 
inch  bolts.  Each  binder  to  have  an  angle  flange  at  back  end,  1  inch  deep  to 
notch  in  wall,  or  to  have  two  bolts,  to  prevent  sagging.  Two  binders  are  re- 
quired, one  at  side  near  floor,  and  one  at  same  side  near  top,  into  both  of  which 
the  door  closes.  (See  Fig.  22.)  A  roller  guide  to  be  located  near  bottom  of 
door  at  opposite  side  from  binder  stops.  Guide  to  be  of  wrought  metal,  \  x  2 
inches,  the  base  to  be  U  shape,  countersunk  in  floor  and  wall  and  bolted  to 
wall.    (See  Fig.  23.) 

e.  C hafing  Strips.  One  strip  of  1-inch  half-round  iron  to  be  screwed 
to  door  on  side  next  wall,  located  one-third  the  distance  from  bottom  to  top  of 
door,  parallel  to  door  track.  Ends  to  be  six  inches  from  side  of  door.  (See 
Fig.  24.)  A  flat  piece  of  metal  to  be  attached  to  front  of  door  to  take  the  wear 
of  roller  guide.  Strips  to  be  screwed  to  door  and  heads  of  screws  to  be  coun- 
tersunk.   (See  Fig.  25.) 

f.  Handles.  Two  required.  One  large,  heavy  wrought  iron,  bow- 
shaped  handle  to  be  bolted  to  front  of  door.  (See  Fig.  25.)  One  on  back  to 
be  countersunk  flush  with  surface  of  door.  (See  Fig.  24.)  The  two  may  be 
attached  by  the  same  through  bolt. 

g.  Bumper  Shoes.  Two  made  of  -jV  -  inch  plate  iron,  placed  on  door 
where  it  strikes  the  binders  in  closing.    (See  Figs.  24  and  25.) 

h.  Weight.  Should  be  flat  and  slightly  in  excess  of  weight  required  to 
balance  door. 

i.  Weight  Cord.    To  be  hard  plaited,  not  twisted. 

j.  Fusible  Links.  Which  will  fuse  at  160  degrees  F.,  to  be  applied 
in  a  manner  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Underwriters  having  jurisdiction. 

8.  Hardware  for  Swinging  Doors.   (See  Rule  No.  9.) 

a.     Wall  Eyes.    Wrought  iron,  for  %  inch  pin,  built  in  wall  or  bolted 


FIRE  DOORS  AND  SHATTERS. 


through  wall  with  ^-ineh  bolt,  with  T?tf -inch  iron  washer  each  side.  Bolts 
should  always  be  put  through  brick  work  far  enough  from  edge  of  opening  to 
prevent  weight  of  door  loosening  the  masonry.    (See  Fig.  28.) 

b.  Hi  nge.  Wrought  iron,  %-inch  x  2\  inches,  bolted  to  door  with  four 
2-6-inch  bolts,  hinge  to  extend  three-quarter  way  across  door.  (See  Figs.  27, 
28  and  29.) 

c.  Latch.  Wrought  iron,  3g-inch  x  2  inches,  bolted  to  door  with  %-inch 
bolts.    Keeper  to  be  wrought  iron  and  also  bolted  to  door.    (See  Fig.  30.) 

d.  (Jdtch.  Heavy  wrought  iron  built  in  wall  or  bolted  through.  (See 
Fig.  30.) 

9.  Fastening  Hardware  to  Doors,  ah  wrought  iron  si, raves,  hinges 

and  latches  t<>  be  secured  by  bolls  passing  through  door,  the  head  of  bolt 
resting  against  a  washer  next  to  the  tin,  the  nuts  being  against  the  wrought 
iron.  Do  not  use  scrjsws  to  attach  any  hardware  except  chafing  strips,  bum- 
pers and  automatic  attachment. 

Do  not  use  builders'  ordinary  east  iron  hardware.    Use  only  best  quality  of  bolts. 

10.  Approved  Door  Frame  of  Iron.    (See  Fig.  5.) 

a.  Jumbs.  To  be  made  of  rabbetted  2  J -inch  angle  iron  J^-inch  thick 
and  held  firmly  in  place  by  at  least  three  ^-inch  bolts  each  side,  passing 
through  wall. 

b.  Metal  Hill.  (See  Rule  No.  2  b.)  To  be  well  secured  to  the 
iron  frame. 

c.  Catches  for  latches,  also  the  pin  blocks  to  receive  the  hinges,  to  be  of 
heavy  wrought  iron  and  properly  riveted  to  the  iron  frames. 

1 1.  Setting  up  or  Hanging  of  Doors.  Do  not  hang  door  from 
wood  frame  even  if  frame  is  tin-clad.  Do  not  plug  the 
wall  with  ivood  or  lead  to  which  to  fasten  door  or  shutter 
supports.    Do  not  use  screws  of  any  kind  to  hang  the  door. 

a.  Sliding  Poor.  Stand  door  on  sill  in  its  proper  position  when  closed, 
and  slip  under  door  a  strip  of  wood  ^-mch  thick.  Bolt  the  track  in  place  at 
an  incline  of  }(  of  an  inch  to  the  foot,  Distance  between  the  top  of  door  and 
bottom  of  track  should  not  exceed  %  of  an  inch.  Place  the  hangers  on  the 
track  and  mark  Ideation  of  bolt  holes  on  the  door,  locating  hangers  over  track 
bolts.  Bore  holes  exactly  where  marked and  then  bolt  hangers  to  door.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  prevent  sagging  of  door  so  it  will  not  chafe  on  sill  when  it 
closes. 

Next  apply  trimmings  to  door  and  adjust  binders  and  catch,  then  the  auto- 
matic appliances. 

When  necessary,  a  light  framework  of  slats  should  be  built  outside  of  sliding  doors  to  pre- 
vent piling  of  stock,  etc.,  against  them. 

b.  Stringing  Door.  In  locating  holes  for  the  hinges,  the  front  of 
door  should  be  raised  a  little  higher  to  avoid  sagging  against  Moor;  otherwise 
follow  directions  for  sliding  door. 


STANDARD  TIN-CLAD  FIRE  SHUTTERS. 


365 


12.    Vertical  Door.    Arranged  to  (troid  (iccuhntts.  (See 

b  l(J.  "'/.)  a.  Under  special  conditions  where  swinging  or  horizontally 
Sliding  doors  cannot  be  used  an  automatic  vertical  door  may  be  arranged. 
(See  Fig.  81.) 

b.  The  construction  of  the  door  proper  to  be  the  same  as  that  of  other  tire 
doors,  but  special  hangers  and  trimmings  are  necessary. 

c.  Malleable  or  wrought  iron  wheels  to  be  used. 

d.  The  cord  connecting  with  fusible  link  is  attached  to  lower  part  of  door 
passing  over  its  proper  pulley  to  the  left  and  supporting  the  smaller  weight. 
The  heavier  weight  is  permanently  connected  by  a  wire  cable  to  the  upper 
loop  at  top  of  door,  and  is  adjusted  to  prevent  the  sudden  dropping  of  the 
door,  but  allowing  it  to  close  when  link  fuses. 

1  3.     Painting.    Bright  tin  fire  doors  resist  fire  better  than  if  painted. 

Do  not  paint  the  doors  unless  it  is  necessary  and  not  until  they  have  first 
been  given  a  coat  of  asphal'tum.  A  light  colored  paint  does  not  absorb  heat- 
so  readily  as  dark  colored  paint. 

14.  Care  and  Maintenance,  a.  Fire  doors  should  be  ready  for  instant 
use  at  all  times,  therefore  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  surroundings  clear  of  every - 
thing  that  would  be  likely  to  obstruct  or  interfere  with  their  free  operation, 
l  in  y  should  be  kept  closed  and  fastened  at  night  and  on  Sundays  and  holidays, 
and  whenever  the  openings  arc  not  in  use. 

b.  Never  lack  any  tin  on  a  tin-clad  door.  When  tin  becomes  worn  sub- 
stitute new  sheets  in  the  same  manner  as  when  covering  a  new  door. 

15.  Placard.  Notice — Watchman  w  ill  please  see  that  this  door  is  kept 
closed  at  night  and  when  factory  is  shut  down,  and  that  it  is  in  perfect  work- 
ing order. 

Class  B. 

Rules  for  the  Construction  of  Standard  Tin-Clad  Fire  Shutters. 

16.  Tin-Clad  Fire  Shutters.    (See  Fig.  32.)   a.  To  be  hung  next 

to  masonry,  either  overlapping  window  opening  4  inches  or  fitting  close  inside 
opening. 

b.  Construction  to  be  same  as  for  tire  doors  except  that  only  two  thick- 
nesses of  %-inch  boards  are  required,  layers  of  boards  to  be  at  right  angles. 

c.  When  made  in  pairs,  the  edges  coming  together  should  be  flush  (not 
rabbeted.) 

d.  Tin  covering  to  be  the  same  as  for  fire  doors  except  that  seams  should 
lie  made  with  the  upper  sheet  lapping  outside  of  under  one  so  as  to  shed  water. 

e.  Hinges  to  be  wrought  iron  -inch  x  1  ;4  inches.  Same  to  be  secured 
by  bolts  passing  through  shutter  with  washers  under  bolt  heads. 

f.  Substantial  wrought  iron  pin  or  eye  blocks  to  be  securely  set  in  wall  or 
bolted  through  wall. 

g.  Shutters  to  be  secured  shut  by  an  iron  bar  yi-\uch  x  11  inches,  same  to 


:;i;t; 


KIKK   DOOKS   AMi  SHl'TTKRS. 


be  bolted  through  shutter  and  at  least  one  in  three  on  each  floor  above  the  first 
to  be  constructed  so  that  it  cau  be  operated  from  both  inside  and  outside. 
( latches  to  be  bolted  to  shutter 

h.  When  sliding  shutters  are  used  outside  (should  not  be  if  avoidable,) 
metal  shields  should  lie  provided  to  prevent  accumulation  of  snow  or  ice  on 
the  track. 

17.  Painting.  A  light  colored  paint  is  recommended  for  tire  shutters 
but  first  give  them  a  coat  of  asphaltum.    (See  Rule  No.  13.) 

18.  Care  and  Maintenance,  a.  Fire  shutters  should  be  ready  for  in- 
stant use  at  all  times,  therefore  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  surroundings  clear 
of  everything  that  would  be  likely  to  obstruct  or  interfere  with  their  free 
operation.  They  should  be  kept  closed  and  fastened  nights,  Sundays  and 
holidays,  and  whenever  the  openings  are  not  in  use. 

b.  Never  tack  any  tin  on  a  tin-clad  shutter.  When  tin  becomes  worn  sub- 
stitute new  sheets  in  the  same  manner  as  when  covering  a  new  shutter. 

Class  C. 

Rules  for  the  Construction  of  Special  Fire  Doors  for  Necessary 
Shaft  and  Belt  Openings  in  Fire  Walls. 

19.  Shaft  Openings.  Special  device  for  preventing  spread 
of  fire  through  necessary  shaft  openings  in  fire  walls  (See 
Fig.  35.) 

a.  To  be  made  of  two  thicknesses  of  ^-inch  narrow,  matched,  thoroughly 
seasoned  boards,  put  together  at  right  angles  and  securely  nailed  with  wrought 
iron  clinch  nails.    (See  Rule  5.) 

b.  To  be  covered  with  heavy  tin  plates,  locked  joints,  nailed  under  seams, 
as  per  specifications  for  Tin-clad  Fire  Doors.    (See  Rule  6.) 

c.  To  be  hinged  to  single  stud  bolt  in  wall  and  retained  at  bottom  by 
proper  reverse  angle  iron  securely  bolted  to  the  wall. 

20.  Belt  Openings.  Double  door  to  protect  belt-openings 
through  wall.    {See  Fig.  33.) 

a.  To  be  made  of  two  thicknesses  of  ^-inch  boards.  Otherwise  follow 
specifications  in  rule  5,  and,  so  far  as  possible,  in  rule  6  of  specifications  for 
Tin-clad  Fire  Doors. 

b.  To  be  provided  with  two  suitable  hooks  and  staples  for  holding  doors 
closed. 

c.  To  slide  in  upper  and  lower  guard  rails  or  channels  retaining  the  doors 
in  place.  Channels  to  be  made  of  2%x214x  # -inch  angle  irons  securely  riveted 
together  and  secured  by  ^-inch  bolts  through  the  wall.  Z  bars  of  proper 
dimensions  may  be  used  if  obtainable.  Channels  to  be  long  enough  to  retain 
doors  when  open. 

d.  A  metal  hood  constructed  as  shown  in  Fig.  34  may  be  used  if  securely 


AUTOMATIC  TRAP  DOORS  FOR  STAIRWAYS,  ETC. 


367 


fastened  to  the  wall.  Hoods  should  be  constructed  of  heavy  galvanized  iron, 
without  the  use  of  solder. 

Metal  hoods  arc  inferior  to  the  double  doors  and  should  be  used  only  when  the  doors  are  not 
practicable. 

Class  D. 

Rules  for  the  Construction  of  Automatic  Trap  Doors  for  Stairways 
and  Stairway  Enclosures. 

21.  Automatic  Trap  Doors  for  Stairways.  Occasionally  it  is 
necessary  to  have  an  open  stairway,  and  in  such  cases  an 
automatic  trap-door.    (See  Figs.  36  and  37.) 

a.  If  the  floor  is  not  more  than  1 inches  thick,  the  door  shall  be  made  of 
lj^-inch  sound,  well  seasoned,  narrow,  matched  boards,  with  battens  screwed 
on. 

b.  If  the  floor  is  more  than  1  \l  inches  thick,  the  door  shall  be  as  just  de- 
scribed, and  shall  have  standard  lock-jointed  tin  covering  as  required  for  fire 
doors,  on  the  under  side,  the  tin  extended  over  the  edges  and  nailed  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  door. 

c.  Hinges  to  be  of  heavy  wrought  metal  with  straps  extending  well  onto 
the  door. 

d.  To  be  balanced  with  a  weight  on  a  cord  running  over  double  pulley  on 
wall,  a  fusible  link  being  inserted  at  point  where  cord  is  fastened  to  the  door, 
so  that  door  will  close  automatically  in  the  event  of  fire. 

If  door  is  heavy  it  should  have  a  balance  weight  attached  by  wire  cable  to  prevent  accident, 
and  a  gravity  catch  to  hold  the  door  when  closed.  (See  Vertical  Fire  Door  Specifications,  also 
Fig.  36.) 

e.  To  be  provided  with  a  wrought  metal  bow  high  enough  to  form  a  stop 
which  will  prevent  the  door  being  raised  to  a  vertical  line,  thus  keeping  it  in 
such  position  that  it  is  sure  to  drop  when  link  melts.  Bow  to  be  securely 
fastened  to  the  upper  side  of  the  door  so  that  it  will  serve  as  a  handle.  (See 
Fig.  37.) 

22.  Stairway  Enclosures.  (See  Figs.  38  and  39.)  (Buildings 
of  ordinary  construction.) 

a.  Stairways  to  have  separate  enclosure  for  each  flight,  not  less  than  1^ 
inches  thick,  made  tight  and  kept  in  repair.  If  approved  fire-proof  material 
is  not  used,  enclosure  to  be  made  of  two  thicknesses  of  matched  boards,  or  of 
tongued  and  grooved  or  splined  planks. 

Double  boarding  is  preferable  to  single  planking,  as  it  is  not  so  liable  to  warp  and  open  up 
at  the  seams. 

b.  To  be  provided  with  a  door  at  each  flight,  preferably  at  bottom. 

c.  Doors  to  be  not  less  than  li  inches  thick  and  unless  standard  iron  or  tin- 
clad,  to  be  constructed  of  two  thicknesses  of  matched  boards  or  of  tongued 
and  grooved  or  splined  planks.  Heavy  wrought  iron  hinges,  latches  and 
catches  to  be  attached  by  bolts. 


368 


FIRE  DOORS  AND  SHUTTERS. 


d.  Doors  to  he  kept  closed  and  latched  when  not  in  use.  It  is  preferable 
to  attach  a  stout  spiral  spring  to  all  doors  to  keep  same  closed  automatically, 
and  doors  which  are  kept  open  during  working  hours  to  be  held  so  by  a  book 
attached  to  a  fusible  link  located  as  high  ou  door  as  convenient.  (See  Fig.  38.) 

e.  Glass  windows  if  needed  in  stairway  enclosure  or  door,  to  be  fixed  (not 
swinging)  and  of  approved  wired  glass  properly  set. 

23.  Stairway  Enclosures.  {Buildings  of  fire-proof  or  mill 
const  ruction.) 

Stair  openings  in  buildings  of  such  construction  not  'cut  off"  in  fire-proof 
shafts  are  a  violation  of  a  most  prominent  principle  of  such  construction. 

When  they  exist,  however,  they  should  be  enclosed  by  fire-proof  material 
under  special  specifications. 

Class  E. 

Roles  for  the  Construction  of  Automatic  Elevator  Traps. 

24.  Automatic  Elevator  Traps,  a.  Open  elevator  shafts  and  hatch- 
ways shall  be  provided  at  each  floor  opening  with  a  trap  door  which  opens 
and  closes  as  the  elevator  passes. 

b.  If  the  floor  is  of  ordinary  construction,  or  not  more  than  \^-\nah  thick, 
the  trap  door  shall  be  made  of  l#-inch  sound,  well  seasoned,  narrow,  matched 
boards  with  battens  screwed  on. 

c.  If  the  floor  is  of  mill  construction,  or  more  than  1%  inches  thick,  the 
trap  door  shall  be  as  just  described  and  shall  have  standard  lock-jointed  tin 
covering,  as  required  for  fire  doors,  on  the  under  side,  the  tin  extended  over 
all  edges  including  hole,  if  any,  for  cable,  and  nailed  on  the  upper  side  of  door. 
The  hole  for  cable,  if  any,  shall  be  as  small  as  possible. 

d.  When  the  trap-door  is  closed  it  shall  extend  beyond  the  opening  on  all 
sides. 

e.  Elevator  left  at  a  landing  shall  not  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  a  trap  door. 

A  trap  opened  and  closed  by  the  moving  elevator  is  regarded  as  distinctly  superior  to  other 
devices  and  should  be  generally  used.  However,  if  not  employed,  owing  to  high  speed  of  eleva- 
tor or  other  cause,  automatic  traps  should  be  placed  at  each  floor.  They  should  be  constructed 
as  above,  secured  by  stout  wrought  iron  hardware  attached  by  bolts:  be  held  open  by  a  fusible 
link  located  on  shaft  side  of  door;  be  actuated  from  behind  by  heavy  spring  which  upon  fusing 
of  the  link  will  push  trap  beyond  a  vertical  position  so  it  will  close  by  gravity;  and  be  kept 
closed  except  during  working  hours. 

Class  F. 

Rules  for  the  Construction  of  Standard  Iron  Doors,  Vault  Pattern. 

The  following  specifications  ore  for  doors  covering  open- 
ings not  to  exceed  fifty  square  feet  in  area.  Doors  for 
larger  openings  require  special  treatment. 

25.  Doors. 

To  be  placed  on  each  side  of  opening  in  fire  wall. 


STANDARD  IRON  DOORS,  VAULT  PATTERN. 


369 


26.  Sills,  a.  To  be  of  iron  or  steel  and  raise'l  not.  less  than  two  inches 
above  the  floor  on  each  side  of  the  wall.    (See  Figs.  40  and  42.) 

b.    If  of  plate  iron  or  steel,  the  edges  to  be  securely  fastened  to  1  J  x  1|  x 
inch  angle  iron,  or  heavier,  on  the  inner  side  of  the  wall  frame.  (Sec  Fig.  49.) 
In  all  cases  the  sill  to  rest  substantially  on  the  solid  brick  wall,  and  to  extend 
to  the  upper  edges  of  the  wall  frame. 

27.  Basement  Floor,  t  o  be  of  stone  or  concrete  where  the  doors  are 
to  swing.  In  no  case  to  be  of  wood  unless  the  doors  swing  clear  of  floor  at 
least  six  inches. 

28.  Wall  Frame,  a.  To  be  made  of  4  x  3  x  ^-inch  angle  iron,  (See 
Figs.  40  and  41)  or  of  4  x  ^-inch  bar  iron  stiffened  by  \\  x  \\  x  J^-inch  angle 
iron  riveted  on  the  back.  The  latter  frame  is  more  suitable  for  flush  doors. 
(See  Fig.  42.) 

b.  The  bottom  pieces  of  frame  to  project  two  inches  above  floor.  (See 
Fig.  42.) 

Where  the  gliding  door  is  used,  t lie  bottom  pieces  of  the  wall  frame  may  consist  of  the  angle 
irons  forming  the  lower  channels.    (See  Fig.  49.) 

c.  Each  set  of  wall  frames  to  be  connected  by  bars  of  1}(  x  ^T-inch  iron 
spaced  not  over  24  inches  apart  all  around,  except  where  sill  acts  in  place  of 
bars,  (See  Figs.  40  and  41)  or  by  f£-inch  bolts  through  the  wall  and  spaced  not 
over  24  inches  apart.    (See  Fig.  42. ) 

Connections  of  V/°  x  1^  x  !4-inch  angle  iron  in  the  upper  corners  can  he  used  to  advantage 
when  the  angle  iron  wall  frame  is  used.    (See  Figs.  40  and  41.) 

d.  Top  and  bottom  pieces  of  wall  frame  to  be  joined  to  side  pieces  by  wide 
splice  plates  of  f^-inch  iron  securely  riveted  in  place.    (See  Fig.  41.) 

29.  Door  Plates,  a.  To  be  of  T35  -inch  iron  or  steel  thoroughly  straight- 
ened.   Single  plates  to  be  used  where  practicable. 

b.  To  overlap  wall  frame  at  least  one  inch  on  all  sides;  or  if  doors  are  flush, 
to  shut  into  at  least  5^-inch  rabbet  all  around,  formed  by  angle  on  back  of  wall 
frame. 

c.  To  be  securely  riveted  to  the  panel  frame  and  panel  bars.   (See  Rule  31.) 

d.  Where  two  plates  are  used  the  joint  to  be  reinforced  by  3  x  T35-ineh 
strip  or  splice  plate  securely  riveted  to  each  plate.  Rivets  on  splice  plate  to 
be  staggered  and  not  to  exceed  9  inches  apart  on  each  plate. 

30.  Panel  Frame.    {See  Figs.  43  and  44.) 

a.  To  be  made  of  2  x  2  x  ^-inch  angle  iron,  continuous  with  bent  corners  or 
with  corners  reinforced  by  fillet  angles  where  joined.  Fillet  angles  to  be  se- 
curely riveted  in  place. 

b.  To  be  stiffened  with  2  x  2  x  Sg-mch  angle  iron  panel  bars  with  ends  off-set 
so  as  to  extend  over  sides  of  frame,  or  ends  may  be  fastened  with  fillet  angles. 

c.  Each  frame  to  be  provided  with  at  least  two  panel  bars  and  where  doors 
exceed  seven  (7)  feet  in  height  panel  bars  not  to  exceed  two  feet  apart. 

d.  To  be  placed  as  near  the  edges  of  the  door  plate  as  practicable. 

31.  Riveting.  Rivets  to  be  of  Norway  iron,  at  least  Y%  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  and  spaced  not  over  six  inches  apart.    Steel  rivets  should  not  be  used. 


370 


FIRE  DOORS  AND  SHUTTERS. 


As  the  fire  resisting  qualities  of  the  iron  door  depends  largely  on  proper  riveting,  the  rivets 
should  he  properly  placed  and  carefully  drawn  up. 

32.  Hinges.    (See  Figs.  40,  4%,  46  and  46.) 

a.  Doors  to  be  hung  to  wall  frame  by  at  least  three  wrought  iron  hinges, 
care  being  taken  to  install  them  in  exact  alignment. 

b.  Hinges  riveted  to  wall  frame  to  be  at  least  4x3  inches  and  made  of 
inch  iron  or  heavier.    To  be  fastened  by  at  least  three  J^-inch  rivets. 

c.  Hinges  on  door  to  be  constructed  of  2  x  %-inch  bar  iron  bent  to  overlap 
the  panel  frame  on  the  hinge  side.  Upper  and  lower  hinges  to  extend  across 
I  he  door  to  panel  frame  on  opposite  side.  Center  hinge  to  extend  at  least  one- 
half  of  the  distance  across  the  door.  To  be  securely  riveted  to  door  plate  and 
through  panel  frame  on  each  side. 

d.  Pins  to  be  of  )£-inch  turned  steel. 

33.  Lever  Bars.    {See  Figs.  46  and  47.) 

a.  Doors  to  be  secured  by  at  least  three  lever  bars  of  1£  x  J^-inch  iron, 
working  together.  Upper  and  lower  lever  bars  not  to  exceed  twelve  inches 
from  upper  and  lower  edges  of  door  opening. 

b.  To  be  operated  from  either  side  of  door,  to  swing  freely  on  %-inch  pin 
or  rivet,  to  be  provided  with  proper  keepers  securely  riveted  on  outside  of 
door  and  with  proper  spring  to  insure  latching. 

c.  To  freely  enter  catches  made  of  ^-inch  Norway  iron  securely  riveted 
through  the  wall  frame. 

34.  Double  Swinging  Doors  in  Pairs.    (See  Fig.  47.) 
Double  swinging  doors  in  pairs  refer  to  a  pair  of  doors 

on  each  side  of  the  fire  wall. 

a.  Construction  to  conform  generally  to  foregoing  rules. 

b.  To  have  two  opposite  doors  fastened  together  by  hooks  of  ^-inch  round 
iron,  bolts  or  spring  catches  at  top  and  bottom. 

c.  Right  hand  door  to  fold  over  left  hand  door  lapping  at  least  one  inch, 
or,  where  the  doors  are  flush,  to  fold  into  rabbet  of  at  least     of  an  inch. 

d.  Catches  to  be  of  £-inch  Norway  iron  securely  riveted  through  door 
plate  and  angle  iron  panel  frame. 

35.  Sliding  Doors.   Not  self-closing.    (See  Figs.  48  to  51.) 

a.  Construction  to  conform  generally  to  rules  for  Swinging  Doors. 

b.  Panel  frames  to  be  placed  at  extreme  edge  of  door  plates. 

c.  To  slide  in  channels  at  the  top  and  bottom.  Bottom  channel  to  be 
formed  by  two  angle  bars  2i  x  y%  and  1^  x  %  inches.  Top  channel  to  be 
formed  by  two  angle  bars  2  x  Y%  and  \\  x  %  inches.  Channels  to  be  securely 
riveted  or  bolted  to  the  wall  frame,  and  where  they  extend  beyond  the  wall 
frame,  to  be  firmly  bolted  to  the  wall  by  expansion  bolts  (4  x  4|  in.)  The  lower 
channel  to  extend  beyond  the  wall  frame  at  least  twelve  inches  on  the  side 
toward  which  the  door  opens. 

d.  To  lap  wall  frame  at  least  two  inches  at  the  sides  and  at  least  one  inch 
at  the  top  and  bottom. 


STANDARD  IRON  DOORS,   VAULT  PATTERN. 


371 


e.  To  be  secured  both  in  front  and  back  by  at  least  two  lugs  or  binders  on 
each  side,  made  of  Jg-inch  round  iron  passing  through  holes  in  the  angle  iron 
panel  frame  when  the  door  is  closed.  Lugs  to  be  so  arranged  that  they  will 
bind  door  to  the  wall  frame  when  it  is  closed  and  latched.  Lugs  to  be  securely 
riveted  or  bolted  to  the  wall  frame  and  in  such  manner  as  to  prevent  turning. 
(See  Figs.  50  and  51.) 

f.  Hangers  to  be  of  the  anti-friction  pattern  and  securely  fastened  to  the 
door  plate  by  at  least  four  one-half  inch  machine  bolts  at  each  fastening.  At 
least  two  hangers  to  be  placed  on  each  door.    (See  Figs.  48  and  49.) 

g.  Wheels  to  be  of  cast  iron  3^  x  4i  inches,  and  may  be  constructed  with 
curved  grooves  so  as  to  bear  only  on  each  edge  of  the  1  -inch  track.  (See  Fig.  49.) 

h.  Track  to  be  without  incline,  of  ^  x  5^-inch  iron  securely  riveted  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  angle  iron  channel  and  to  be  perfectly  true  and  without 
obstruction  to  wheels.    (See  Fig.  49.) 

i.  Doors  to  be  provided  with  a  latch  formed  of  2  x  fl  inch  iron  to  which 
the  handle  is  fastened.    (See  Fig.  51.) 

j.  When  necessary  a  light  frame-work  of  slats  should  be  built  outside  of 
sliding  doors  to  prevent  piling  of  stock,  etc..  against  them. 

36.  Automatic  Sliding  Doors,  a.  The  fusible  link  to  be  so  arranged 
that  when  it  gives  way  under  heat  a  sufficient  excess  in  weight  will  be  exerted 
to  pull  and  latch  the  door  closed. 

b.  The  cord  on  the  latch  side  to  be  of  flexible  phosphor  bronze,  securely 
attached  to  the  door.  The  cord  to  which  the  link  is  attached  may  be  of  the 
usual  form  if  desired.    Link  to  be  so  placed  as  always  to  be  in  door  opening. 

c.  The  cord  sheaves  to  be  securely  fastened  to  the  wall  with  expansion 
bolts,  to  be  provided  with  bronze  bearings,  and  so  constructed  that  the  cord 
cannot  jump  the  groove. 

d.  The  weight  on  the  side  toward  which  the  door  closes  to  be  inclosed  in  a 
suitable  box  to  prevent  molestation. 

e.  Latch  to  be  provided  with  a  suitable  coiled  spring  for  holding  it  in  place 
and  to  insure  fastening. 

37.  Automatic  Swinging  Doors.  Require  a  different  arrangement  of 
the  link  and  weights  closing  the  doors.  Weights  to  be  properly  boxed  and 
placed  between  doors  Cords  to  pass  through  holes  drilled  in  wall  frame  and 
to  be  so  arranged  in  sheaves  that  the  fusing  of  the  link  will  release  sufficient 
weight  to  pull  and  latch  the  door  closed.  Fusible  links  to  be  placed  near  the 
ceiling  and  arranged  so  that  the  fusing  of  the  link  on  either  side  of  the  wall 
will  operate  both  doors.  Several  links  may  lie  placed  on  either  side  if  desired. 
The  cords  closing  doors  should  be  sufficiently  weighted  to  keep  them  taut 
when  the  doors  are  opened  and  closed. 

38.  Automatic  Swinging  Doors  in  Pairs.  To  be  so  arranged  that  the 
right  hand  doors  will  fold  over  left  hand  doors.  This  requires  an  automatic 
stop  or  trigger  at  the  top  of  the  doors  which  will  hold  the  right  hand  door 
sufficiently  open  to  allow  the  lef  hand  door  to  close  first.  The  closing  of  the 
left  hand  door  releases  the  trigger  and  allows  the  remaining  door  to  close. 


FIRE  DOORS  AND  SHUTTERS. 


The  left  hand  floor  to  be  provided  with  spring  bolts  or  latches  at  both  top  and 
bottom.  These  to  In-  operated  from  either  side  of  the  dour  by  proper  handles 
at  the  center. 

39.  Standard  Sheet  Iron  Doors.    These  doors  are  lighter  than  the 

vault  doors  and  differ  from  them  in  the  following  particulars: 

a.  Xo.  12  ^age  sheet  iron  or  steel  is  used  instead  of  j\-inch  plate. 

b.  I'anel  frames  and  liars  an-  made  <  "  2  x  2  x  ^-ineli  angle  iron  instead  of 
2  x  2  x  %-inch. 

Standard  sheet  iron  doors  may  be  used  in  less  closely  built  tip  districts  anil 
in  localities  where  exposure  is  not  liable  to  be  severe.  They  are  not  recom- 
ini  nded. 

40.  General  Notes  on  Construction,    ah  materials  used  should  be 

carefully  and  thoroughly  straightened  before  the  door  is  put  together.  Scrap 
or  short  pieces  not  to  be  used  where  such  material  should  be  avoided.  Rivets 
to  be  drawn  tight  and  all  parts  thoroughly  painted  with  iron  oxide  mixed  with 
boiled  oil.  Doors  to  be  made,  finished  and  hung  in  a  thoroughly  workmanlike 
manner. 

41 .  Setting  up  Doors.  The  thickness  of  the  wall  should  be  accurately 
measured  so  that  the  bars  or  bolts  fastening  wall  frame  together  can  be  cut  to 
the  exact  length.  If  the  door  is  not  installed  when  the  wall  is  erected,  or  is 
not  placed  in  an  old  opening,  the  opening  should  be  cut  larger  than  the  frame 
and  the  jambs  built  up  to  the  proper  size,  using  cement  mortar  and  thoroughly 
pointing  up  around  frames. 

Frames  to  be  set  perfectly  level  and  plumb  and  doors  hung  so  as  to  fit  the 
wall  frame  closely  all  around.  All  doors  to  swing  or  slide  freely  and  without 
binding,  care  being  taken  to  see  that  the  latches  or  lever  bars  fasten  properly. 

42.  Care  and  Maintenance.  Fire  doors  should  be  ready  for  instant 
use  at  all  times,  therefore  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  surroundings  clear  of 
everything  that  would  be  likely  to  obstruct  or  interfere  with  their  free  oper 
ation.  They  should  be  kept  closed  and  fastened  at  night  and  on  Sundays  and 
holidays,  and  whenever  the  openings  are  not  in  use  All  parts  should  be  kept 
thoroughly  painted. 

43.  Placard.  Notice  —Watchman  will  please  see  that  this  door  is  kept 
closed  at  night  and  when  factory  is  shut  down,  and  that  it  is  in  perfect  working 
order. 

Class  G. 

Rules  for  the  Construction  of  Standard  Iron  Shutters, 

44.  Standard  Iron  Shutters.    {See  Figs.  52  and  53.  ) 

a.  To  be  made  of  No.  14  gage  sheet  iron  or  steel  and  so  as  to  lap  the  wall 
at  least  1^  inches  all  around.  The  bottom  of  the  shutter  to  fit  the  sill  closely 
if  it  is  not  practical  to  lap  it. 

b.  Frames  to  be  of  1\  x  }(-mch  angle  iron  with  not  less  than  two  cross  bars 


STANDARD  IRON  SHUTTERS. 


373 


of  the  same  material.  Shutters  over  six  feet  in  height  to  have  cross  bars  not 
exceeding  t  wo  feet  apart.    Frame  to  enter  wall  opening  when  shutter  is  closed. 

Continuous  welded  frames  and  cross-bars  of  \y3  x  }4  inch  iron  are  often  used,  but  are  not 
considered  the  full  equivalent  of  the  angle  iron  frame.  The  welded  frame  is  often  necessary 
when  folding  shutters  are  used. 

C.  To  have  not  less  than  two  lever  liars  of  \\  x  fg-inch  iron  and  where 
over  six  feet  in  height  lever  bars  not  to  exceed  two  feet  apart.  Lever  bars  to 
work  together  by  |^  inch  connecting  rod  and  fasten  into  substantial  lugs  riv- 
eted on  each  shutter  or  to  proper  fastenings  in  the  brick  wall  if  the  shutters 
are  single. 

Lever  bars  to  extend  at  least  one-third  of  the  distance  across  the  opposite 
shutter  when  double  shutters  are  used. 

d.  Hinges  to  be  of  2  x  lX  \nch  iron  extending  at  least  three-fourths  of  the 
way  across  the  shutter.  Hinges  not  to  exceed  two  feet  apart,  when  the  shut- 
ter is  over  six  feet  in  height. 

e.  Pin  blocks  or  shutter  eyes  to  be  securely  set  in  brick  wall  preferably 
while  building.  On  finished  buildings  pin  blocks  or  eyes  should  be  firmly  set 
in  holes  drilled  in  brick,  and  fastened  with  iron  wedges  and  cement.  Pins  to 
be  of  half-inch  round  iron. 

f.  Rivets  to  be  of  iron  at  least  T5g  inch  in  diameter  and  spaced  not  exceed- 
ing 6  inches  apart. 

g.  Hooks  or  gravity  catches  in  wall  to  be  provided  to  hold  shutter  in  pos- 
ition when  open. 

h.  At  least  one  shutter  in  three  on  each  floor  above  the  first  to  be  constructed 
so  that  it  can  be  operated  from  the  inside  and  outside.  Handles  on  outside  to 
be  so  constructed  that  they  can  be  operated  by  hand  or  pike  pole: 

i.  Shutters  to  be  thoroughly  painted  with  two  coats  of  iron  oxide  and 
boiled  oil  or  equivalent. 

45.  Care  and  Maintenance.  Fire  shutters  should  be  ready  for  instant 
use  at  all  times,  therefore  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  surroundings  clear  of 
everything  that  would  be  likely  to  obstruct  or  interfere  with  their  free  oper- 
ation. They  should  be  kept  closed  and  fastened  nights,  Sundays  and  holidays, 
and  whenever  the  openings  are  not  in  use.  All  parts  should  be  kept  thorough- 
ly painted. 

46.  Steel  Roll  Fire  Door  and  Shutter,   should  not  be  used  where 

Standard  fire  doors  and  shutters  can  be  employed.  Otherwise  for  front  or 
rear  openings,  exposed  across  narrow  streets  or  alleys,  they  are  recommended, 
if  of  improved  construction. 


374 


FIRE  DOORS  AND  SHUTTERS. 


FIRE  DOORS  AND  SHUTTERS. 


375 


370 


FIRE  DOORS  AND  SHUTTERS. 


FIRE  DOORS  AND  SHUTTERS. 


379 


380 


FIRE  DOORS  AND  SHUTTERS. 


FIRE  DOORS  AND  SHUTTERS. 


381 


FIRE  DOORS  AND  SHUTTERS. 


FIRE  DOORS  AND  SHUTTERS. 


383 


384 


FIRE  lux  His  ANT)  SHUTTERS. 


FIRE  DOORS  AND  SHUTTERS. 


385 


FIRE  DOORS  AND  SHUTTERS. 


387 


FIRE  DOORS  AND  SHUTTERS. 


389 


FIRE  POORS  AND  SHUTTERS. 


Showing  Position  of  Lu_gi  or  Binders 


■nT  -w  ttj-  mas  -N-  -+J 

x    ve     Z.  X    2  o 
CM  ±  CQ 


2  « 


E 
a 

=  ~»1  ^ 
m    C1  c 

5  sz; 


392 


FIRE  DOOKS  AND  SHUTTERS. 


:  fir* 

y 'i'^^'M'i 

±k\ :  rr,>.,-nv 

M 

*  I. 

.1        1  f? 

1,  .  ,,       In,       1  . 

3i  1  i  1  i 

.1  '  l  r 

r'  i: !  ,i, 

i  ■  i  ;  .'i  

i    i  j  i, 

i  i'  i 

1  ■  i  1  "i 

i1  i  !  i  1 

r;[  i  !  i 
i:  |  i  ]  ! 

nm,t  i  !  :.i 

kn 1  ir 

"'"liter8 
on 

1    "l  ] 

Fip53  Iron  Shutters  Closed. 


SPECIAL  HAZARDS   HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


Manufacturing  or  "special  hazards,"  so-called,  have,  as  a 
whole,  been  unprofitable  to  insurance  companies.  This  result 
in  profit  and  loss  is  not  apparent  in  the  totals  of  the  published 
annual  statements  of  the  companies,  but  glaring  differences  as 
to  results  by  classes  appear  in  their  analysis  tables. 

The  use  of  the  various  products  of  petroleum,  not  only  for 
lights,  but  in  the  processes  of  many  manufactures;  such,  for 
instance,  as  rubber  works,  shoe  factories,  printing  offices,  bleach- 
eries  and  print  works,  dye  works,  plumbing  and  gas  fitting; 
gasolene  soldering  pots,  etc.,  etc.,  has  probably  had  much  to 
do  with  the  increase  in  the  number  of  fires  in  manufacturing 
risks  over  those  of  former  years.  The  enmity  of  dissatisfied  or 
discharged  hands,  also,  especially  in  seasons  of  strikes,  some- 
times leads  to  fires,  and  is  a  danger  which  should  be  carefully 
considered ;  it  may  be  regarded  as  always  present,  to  the  extent 
of  being  considered  an  average  danger,  throughout  all  classes 
for  large  territories.  Employers  who  are  constantly  quarreling 
with  their  help,  particularly,  are  not  safe  men  to  insure,  and 
should  be  avoided. 

Of  course,  the  operation  of  mechanical  force  and  of  chemical 
combinations  would  naturally  involve  greater  fire  hazard  than 
the  simple  storage  of  inert  substances  in  warehouses,  and  it  is 
important  that  precautions  as  to  cleanliness,  management,  fire- 
extinguishing  appliances,  &c,  &c,  should  be  more  rigidly 
observed  in  manufacturing  risks  for  this  reason. 

Indeed,  there  is  no  process  of  manufacture  which  involves 
motion  of  any  kind,  or  which  depends  upon  the  principles  of 
chemical  combination,  which  is  not  dangerous  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree.  It  should  be  remembered,  as  already  stated,  that 
heat  results  from  almost  every  operation  of  force.    So  accurately 


■A'M 


SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


has  science  determined  this  fact  that  it  is  now  known  that  heat 
has  its  exact  mechanical  equivalent  (Joule's  Law.)  A  weight 
of  772  pounds  falling  through  one  foot  of  space  will  generate 
heat  enough  to  raise  one  pound  of  water  one  degree  Fahrenheit; 
and,  reversing  the  operation,  one  pound  of  water  falling  through 
one  degree  of  temperature  will  produce  force  enough  to  raise  a 
weight  of  772  pounds  one  foot  high  (772  "foot  pounds"),  thus 
showing  that  heat  and  force  are  exactly  convertible  into  each 
other.  The  insurance  inspector  should  educate  himself  to  the 
point  where,  in  the  interest  of  his  company  and,  also,  in  the 
interest  of  his  customer,  he  may  point  out  the  hazards  which 
both  wish  to  escape.  The  honest  manufacturer,  who  is  doing 
a  steady,  profitable  business,  is  frequently  injured  beyond  the 
amount  of  actual  fire  damage,  in  the  interruption  of  his  business 
and  will  always  be  found  receptive  for  suggestions.  It  is  a  duty 
growing  out  of  community  relation  that  each  member  of  a  com- 
munity should  contribute  for  the  benefit  of  his  fellow  citizens,  of 
the  knowledge  acquired  by  him  in  his  calling,  and  the  under- 
writer should,  therefore,  fit  himself  so  as  to  be  able  to  advise  his 
customer  not  only  as  to  methods  which  would  tend  to  prevent 
fires,  but  as  to  economies  in  manufacturing  operations  which 
would  save  him  loss  of  money  in  unnecessary  expense.  Such 
an  insurance  inspector  would  always  be  welcome,  and  his 
reception  would  be  very  different  from  that  which  often  greets 
the  surveyor  at  the  threshold  of  a  manufactory,  whose  owner 
has  been  annoyed  with  one  incompetent  inspector  after  another, 
until  he  is  in  no  amiable  mood  either  to  answer  questions  or  to 
permit  inspection. 

The  importance  of  general  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  in- 
surance inspector  who  desires  not  merely  to  save  his  company 
from  loss  but,  also,  to  enable  it  to  receive  a  premium  upon  a 
risk  so  improved  by  his  intelligent  suggestion  that  it  may  be 
safely  insured,  does  not  require  argument.  With  this  aim  in 
view,  he  should  keep  pace  with  discoveries  in  mechanics,  chemis- 
try and  applied  sciences,  in  which  more  rapid  progress  is  observ- 
able in  the  development  of  economic  processes  of  manufacture 
than  in  safeguarding  these  processes  as  to  the  danger  of  fire. 
When  the  writer  of  this,  and  many  of  his  readers,  studied 
chemistry,  years  ago,  there  were  only  sixteen  elements,  of  which 
hydrogen  was  the  basis.    There  are  now  nearly  ninety.    All  of 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


395 


the  gases  have  been  liquefied ;  and  the  chemist  of  that  period  as 
compared  with  the  professor  of  the  new  chemistry  of  to-day 
would  be  little  better  than  the  alchemist  of  olden  time. 

To  the  average  chemist  fire  is  simply  an  incident  of  chemical 
reaction  and  receives  from  him  no  more  consideration  than 
such  phenomena  as  the  casting  of  a  white  precipitate  in  a 
chemical  process,  or  the  discoloration  of  his  blue  litmus  paper  in 
contact  with  an  acid.  He  regards  spontaneous  combustion  and 
ignition  as  an  oxidation  no  more  notable  than  the  rusting  of  an 
iron  nail,  which  to  him  is  only  another  form  of  combustion,  the 
quantity  of  heat  given  out  depending  for  its  intensity  only  upon 
the  time  over  which  the  action  is  extended,  rust  being  simply 
a  slower  combustion  than  that  of  burning  tow  or  that  which 
ensues  when  metal  is  consumed  in  pure  oxygen. 

The  insurance  inspector  should  have  in  mind,  therefore,  at  all 
times,  the  danger  of  chemical  combinations,  which  may  cost 
his  company  thousands  of  dollars,  not  merely  in  the  manufactur- 
ing portion  of  a  risk,  but  in  the  warehouse  connected  with  it, 
where  inert  substances  may,  if  mixed  together  through  an  acci- 
dental breakage  of  their  packages,  cause  a  fire  as  inevitably  as 
if  a  lighted  match  were  applied  to  flax.  When  a  mixture  of 
potassium  chlorate  and  sugar,  for  example,  is  touched  with  a 
drop  of  oil  of  vitriol  fire  instantaneously  occurs. 

There  are  numerous  chemicals  which  are  harmless  until  united 
with  others,  but  which  in  combination  with  comparatively  harm- 
less organic  substances,  such  as  sugar,  flour,  sawdust,  or  such 
chemicals  as  sulphur,  turpentine,  etc.,  would  cause  serious  ex- 
plosions, like  that  in  the  case  of  the  Tarrant  building  in  New 
York,  which  lately  destroyed  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars 
worth  of  property  and  resulted  in  the  death  of  unsuspecting 
citizens  who  were  compelled  to  work  for  a  livelihood  amid 
dangers  of  which  they  were  necessarily  ignorant.  In  this  in- 
stance the  explosion  was  caused,  probably,  by  a  combination  of 
potassium  chlorate  with  sulphur,  but  it  may  have  been  one  of  a 
dozen  combinations  possible  and  common  to  miscellaneous  chem- 
icals stored  in  juxtaposition.  The  average  chemist  who  under- 
stands the  chemical  reaction  of  mixing  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid 
with  turpentine  will  yet  complacently  observe  their  juxtaposition 
in  a  warehouse  where  a  broken  carboy  or  a  leaking  barrel  might 


396 


SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


living  about  an  inextinguishable  fire.  He  also  knows  that 
chlorine,  bromine  or  iodine  would  have  a  similar  effect.  In  the 
same  manner  the  combinations  of  potassium  or  sodium  nitrates 
or  chlorates  with  sulphur,  charcoal,  etc.,  may  result  in  the  ex- 
plosive properties  of  gunpowder  of  which  they  are  the  in- 
gredients. It  is  supposed  that  the  great  conflagration  in  New 
York  of  1845  was  caused  by  the  combination  of  saltpetre  with 
the  carbon  of  charred  bags  or  burned  merchandise  and  sulphur. 

Indeed  the  inspector  should  always  bear  in  mind  that  such 
combinations  may  actually  be  brought  about  by  the  efforts  of 
firemen  to  extinguish  a  fire.  An  inch-an<l-;i-quarter-hose  stream, 
with  an  initial  pressure  at  the  nozzle  of  eighty  pounds  to  the 
square  inch,  would  be  a  disturbing  factor  in  a  room  filled  with 
miscellaneous  chemicals  and  cause  inextinguishable  combina- 
tions of  substances  supposed  to  be  properly  separated.  I  need 
not  suggest  what  would  be  the  effect  of  phosphorous  deprived 
of  its  water  covering  and  distributed  over  other  merchandise. 

One  of  the  most  disastrous  explosions,  resulting  in  loss  of  life 
and  property,  occurred  recently  from  the  storage  of  potassium 
chlorate  on  the  same  floor  with  sulphur,  sugar  or  some  other 
organic  substance.  This  salt  deflagrates  violently  with  com- 
bustible matter  and  is  liable  to  explode  by  friction  or  blows,  and 
for  this  reason  is  not  used  in  making  gunpowder,  potassium 
nitrate  being  preferable  for  that  purpose. 

A  dangerous  compound  is  produced  by  the  contact  of  chlorine 
with  ammoniacal  salt,  resulting  from  the  chemical  reaction  of 
chlorine  gas  passed  into  solution  of  ammonia.  In  a  fire,  nitric 
acid  would  form  a  most  dangerous  compound  with  hot  powdered 
charcoal  or  with  warm  oil  of  turpentine,  and  for  this  reason 
should  be  stored  under  conditions  preventing  such  combinations. 

Chloric  acid  may  be  so  concentrated  as  to  set  fire  to  paper  or 
other  dry  organic  matter  b}T  reason  of  the  fact  that  it  is  so  easily 
deoxydized  by  combustible  substances.  Nitrogen  chloride  is 
probably  one  of  the  most  dangerous  explosive  substances  known. 

But  the  chief  reason  why  so  many  special  hazards  burn  is  the 
want  of  foresight  on  the  part  of  manufacturers,  and  of  oversight 
on  the  part  of  underwriters,  in  not  securely  separating  from  the 
great  bulk  of  property  exposed  to  a  fire  those  dangerous  jjro- 
cesses  which  might  easily  and  at  small  cost  be  entirely  isolated. 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


397 


It  is  too  frequently  the  case  that  a  dry  kiln,  for  example,  involv- 
ing a  value  of  only  a  few  hundred  dollars,  is  unnecessarily  so 
located  as  to  inevitably  burn  the  entire  plant  when  it  could  be 
isolated  so  as  to  burn  without  a  loss  greater  than  the  value  of 
its  own  contents.  Agents  should  aim  to  have  risks  subdivided 
in  this  manner  to  insure  greater  safety  and  lower  rates  for  the 
larger  values.  Where  rates  are  intelligently  made,  the  owner 
is  sometimes  handicapped  for  the  entire  life  of  the  structure 
with  a  higher  rate  charge  on  the  entire  value  at  risk,  when  he 
might  have  been  called  upon  to  pay  it  only  on  a  small  amount 
of  specific  insurance  in  the  limited  area  of  danger. 

It  took  years  of  losses  to  convince  the  owners  of  cotton-mills 
that  the  picker  should  be  in  a  separate  structure  from  the  mill, 
and  it  may  require  more  years  of  disaster  to  convince  owners  of 
flour-mills,  planing-mills,  paper-mills  and  other  special  hazards 
that  safety  and  economy  lie  in  similar  subdivisions  of  their  risks, 
so  that  the  whole  property  need  not  be  lost  by  a  single  accident. 

On  the  top  floor  of  a  large  department  store  in  one  of  our 
Western  cities,  where  a  millii  >n  dollars  of  insurance  was  carried, 
the  writer  found  a  waste  picker  employed  for  tearing  up  jute 
and  other  dangerous,  ignitible  materials  for  the  manufacture 
of  cheap,  upholstered  furniture  and  so  endangering  the  entire 
plant  and  increasing  the  cost  of  insurance  each  year  to  the 
extent  of  ten  times  the  value  of  this  department  of  the  store, 
when  the  whole  thing  might  have  been  kept  in  a  small,  cheap 
building  outside.  The  owner  was  prompt  to  act  upon  so  obvious 
a  suggestion,  and  possibly  a  million  dollar  loss  may  thus  have 
been  prevented. 

On  the  top  floor  of  the  large  Coronado  Hotel,  at  San  Diego, 
Cal.,  the  writer  found  the  shop  for -upholstering  and  repairing 
broken  furniture,  with  heating  of  glue,  &c.  The  work  could 
just  as  well  have  been  done  in  a  small,  inexpensive  building, 
where  it  would  not  have  endangered  life  or  property. 

It  should  be  the  business  of  underwriters  to  suggest  and 
enforce  these  improvements  by  discriminating  rates.  When 
special  hazards  are  constructed  with  reference  to  the  rules  of 
prudence  and  common-sense,  each  establishment  being  divided 
into  two  or  more  distinct  risks,  the  more  dangerous  portions, 
such  as  dry-rooms,  paint-rooms,  picker-rooms,  boiler-rooms,  oil 


398 


SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


storage  rooms,  etc.,  being  completely  isolated,  so  that  their 
burning  will  not  endanger  the  larger  values,  we  may  expect  to 
see  planing-mills  and  other  dangerous  specials  insured  at  rates 
which  their  owners  can  better  afford  to  pay,  but  which  will,  at 
the  same  time,  yield  a  profit  instead  of  a  loss  to  the  insurance 
companies  themselves. 

It  is  possible,  by  the  judicious  division  of  even  the  most 
dangerous  risks,  to  confine  a  fire  to  a  comparatively  small  value, 
and  thus  materially  to  improve  them.  A  very  large  percentage 
of  almost  every  manufacturing  risk  involves  no  greater  hazard 
than  that  of  a  storage  warehouse,  and  might  be  insured  at  ware- 
house rates  but  for  unnecessary  and  inexcusable  exposure  of 
large  values  to  dangerous  processes.  The  owner  who  subjects 
the  whole  of  his  property  to  the  consequences  of  a  single  accident 
has  no  one  but  himself  to  blame  if  the  underwriter  who  insures 
his  risk  points  out  the  danger  and  charges,  on  the  whole  value 
at  risk,  the  proper  rate  due  to  the  most  hazardous  portion. 

Agents  cannot  be  too  careful  or  thorough  in  their  inspection 
of  special  hazards.  Every  part  of  each  building  should  be 
examined,  from  sub-cellar  to  garret.  Closets,  work  bench 
drawers,  tool  chests,  dark  attics,  and  all  concealed  places  should 
be  examined  for  oily  rags  or  oily  cotton  waste.  All  concealed 
places  are  dangerous. 

While  it  is  important  that  they  should  notice  every  detail  of 
construction  and  management,  it  is  often  the  case  that  careful 
men  overlook  vital  faults  which  may  involve  the  destruction  of 
a  building,  such  as  stone  pillars,  naked  iron  columns  and  un- 
protected ironwork  generally.  A  fire  emphasizing  the  import- 
ance of  going  to  the  very  roof  of  a  building  occurred  August  10, 
1902,  in  the  Bank  of  New  York  Building,  No.  48  Wall  Street, 
and  illustrated  the  utter  unreliability  of  unprotected  iron  as  a 
building  material.  This  building  was  intended  to  be  fireproof. 
It  was  occupied  throughout  for  offices  only,  and  there  was 
nothing  in  it  more  combustible  than  office  furniture.  But  it 
happened  that  a  lawyer's  office  was  being  redecorated  and  the 
furniture  was  temporaril)"  placed  in  the  hallway,  where  its 
ignition  from  a  fire  caused,  probably,  by  the  spontaneous  com- 
bustion of  painters'  greasy  overalls,  afforded  a  strong  draft 
through  a  light-shaft  extending  from  the  second  floor  to  the 
roof. 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


399 


The  roof  was  built  of  4-inch  tiles,  between  2^ -inch  inverted 
T-irons,  resting  on  5-inch  I-beams,  and  supported  on  light  steel 
angle-iron  trusses.  The  tiles  were  covered  with  flat,  one-inch, 
roofing  tiles,  laid  in  an  asphaltum  composition.  When  the  beat 
reached  the  attic,  in  which  several  of  the  employes  slept,  it 
warped  and  twisted  the  ironwork  of  this  roof  so  that  the  T  and 
angle-iron  failed  to  carry  the  superimposed  weight  and  the  roof 
was  wrecked.  If  the  ironwork  had  been  protected  merely  by  a 
suspended  metal  and  plaster  ceiling  (although  this  is  usually  an 
inadequate  protection)  it  is  not  likely  that  it  would  have  been 
injured.  Probably  every  inspector  of  this  building  had  over- 
looked this  vital  fault,  if,  indeed,  he  went  so  far  in  the  course  of 
his  inspection  as  this  attic  space  or  cockloft. 

There  are  many  inspectors  of  the  casual  kind  who  would  have 
described  this  attic,  even  if  they  had  climbed  so  high,  as  a 
fireproof  room  with  an  iron  and  tile  roof,  whereas  a  wooden 
beam  roof  would  probably  have  stood  better. 

The  accompanying  illustration  shows  the  twisting  of  the  iron- 
work. The  heat  which  wrought  this  damage  was  not  sufficient 
to  thoroughly  cremate  all  of  the  furniture  of  this  attic  bedroom. 

Another  instance,  in  the  same  city  of  New  York,  was  that  of 
the  damage  done  to  the  American  Fine  Arts  Society  Building, 
in  May,  1901. 

The  roof  was  of  sawtooth  type,  partly  built  of  3"  x  12"  x  16" 
tile  blocks  set  between  inverted  iron  T's,  and  partby  of  concrete 
between  I-beams,  resting  on  light  iron  I-beams,  all  supported 
on  light  iron  trusses  resting  on  the  side  walls  and  two  cast-iron 
columns.  The  ceiling  of  the  top  floor  was  plastered  directly  on 
the  underside  of  the  roof  blocks  and  concrete,  but  the  iron  I-beams 
and  roof  trusses  were  entirely  unprotected,  and  were  warped  and 
twisted  in  all  directions,  the  entire  upper  floor  being  practically 
a  total  wreck.  The  cast-iron  columns,  being  protected  by  a  tile 
covering,  effectually  resisted  the  heat. 


400 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


401 


No  doubt  the  inspector,  if  any  there  was  who  went  so  thor- 
oughly through  the  building  as  to  reach  this  portion  of  it,  find- 
ing little  inflammable  material  and  observing  only  iron  and  a 
tile  roof,  concluded  there  was  no  danger;  but  the  iron  was  so 
light  as  to  be  strong  enough  only  to  support,  while  cold,  the 
dead  load  of  the  roof  covering,  and  at  the  higher  temperature 
gave  way  and  succumbed  to  its  load. 

In  the  case  of  the  Home  Life  Building  (see  page  121)  the 
sturdy  walls  of  the  court  on  the  north  side  were  cracked  and  in- 
jured hy  the  expansion  thrust  of  iron  plate  and  lattice  girders, 
which  are  shown  in  the  photograph,  and  which  actually  injured 
the  brickwork  they  were  intended  to  brace,  although  the  heat 
to  which  they  were  subjected  was  simply  the  ascending  heat 
of  an  exposing  building. 

A  serious  damage  was  done  to  the  Manhattan  Savings  Bank 
Building  (page  123)  by  the  expansion  thrust  of  a  large  iron  box 
girder  whose  temperature  was  raised  by  a  fire  across  the  street 
to  a  point  where  it  forced  out  the  side  wall. 

Could  anything  illustrate  more  clearly  the  utter  unreliability 
of  iron  when  unprotected  than  the  accompanying  illustration  of 
the  effect  of  fire  on  the  sixth  floor  of  the  Home  store  building, 
in  Pittsburg,  showing  the  collapsed  roof? 

Fi-om  a  report  made  by  Inspector  Stewart,  of  the  Continental 
Ins.  Co.,  two  days  after  the  fire,  I  make  this  abstract :  "Every- 
thing on  the  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  floors  was  destroyed,  even 
the  nailing  strips,  buried  in  the  concrete  of  the  floor,  burning. 
A  feature  was  the  breaking  off  of  the  bottoms  of  the  tile  arches 
in  the  ceilings  of  these  stories,  exposing  the  interior  ribs,  while 
the  upper  surface  remained  intact  and  the  steel  work  was  un- 
injured. The  first,  second  and  third  floors  were  uninjured  by 
fire,  but  the  flames  communicated  with  the  basement  through 
a  chute  inclosing  an  endless  chain,  used  for  carrying  baskets 
from  floor  to  floor.  With  fierce  fires  above  and  below,  it  was 
remarkable  that  the  loss  on  the  lower  floors  should  be  so  light. 
The  weakest  point  in  the  building  was  the  roof.  No  attempt 
had  been  made  to  protect  the  steel  work  in  the  attic,  and,  as  the 
sixth  floor  was  unusually  full  of  reserve  stock,  the  fierce  flames 
soon  burned  through  the  plaster  on  expanded  steel  which  formed 
the  ceiling  and  damaged  the  steel  work  on  the  roof  so  that  it 
will  have  to  be  replaced." 


402 


VARIOUS  PROCESSES, 


403 


The  similarity  of  this  photograph  to  that  of  the  roof  of  the 
Bank  of  New  York  Building  is  noticeablo.  Can  it  be  possible 
that  any  Insurance  Inspector,  after  seeing  these  two  illustrations 
of  the  utter  unreliability  of  iron  when  uncovered,  would  fail  to 
call  attention  to  such  unsafe  construction  wherever  met  with  ? 

It  is  the  inspectors  who  show  discernment  in  such  important 
matters,  detecting  points  of  vital  structural  weakness  which  in- 
volve the  very  life  of  a  building,  rather  than  those  who  pay 
attention  to  detail  at  the  expense  of  more  important  matters, 
who  make  money  for  their  companies  and  at  the  same  time  save 
money  to  the  property-owners  whose  risks  they  inspect,  and  who 
are  naturally  ignorant  of  such  facts  as  the  unreliability  of  naked 
iron  and  the  utter  worthlessness  of  stone  as  fire-resisting  material. 

My  guide  in  the  Adirondacks,  in  his  pioneer  work  of  removing 
granite  bowlders  to  make  room  for  his  forest  home,  economical 
of  gunpowder  and  dynamite,  effectually  disposed  of  the  rocks 
by  kindling  fires  upon  them  and  then,  when  thoroughly  heated, 
throwing  water  on  them,  quickly  reducing  them  to  sand  and 
fragments.  Could  there  be  a  better  illustration  of  the  ridiculous 
construction  of  using  stone  for  weight-carrying  members  of 
buildings!  What  a  commentary  upon  the  architecture  and 
engineering  of  the  twentieth  century  that  such  material  is  relied 
upon  for  pier  bonds,  caps,  columns  and  the  very  foundations  of 
costly  structures,  where  the  same  combination  of  fire  and  water 
would  result  in  a  loss  of  millions  of  dollars. 

VARIOUS  PROCESSES. 

An  observing,  intelligent  inspector,  while  considering  any 
risk  for  insurance,  would  naturally  give  such  careful  investi- 
gation where  heat  or  light  is  employed  as  to  need  few  suggestions 
on  this  score.  The  old  adage  "Where  there  is  smoke  there  is 
fire"  may  well  be  supplemented  by  the  statement:  "Wherever 
there  is  heat  there  is  danger." 

The  very  safeguards  employed  by  ignorant  people  are  fre- 
quently unreliable  and  need  to  be  thoroughly  investigated.  The 
practice  of  putting  bricks  on  a  wooden  floor  under  stoves  or 
furnaces,  for  example,  is  peculiarly  dangerous,  because  coals 
and  hot  ashes  sift  between  the  interstices  of  the  bricks  and  ignite 
the  floor  below,  the  bricks  serving  merely  to  conceal  the  charred 


104 


SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


floor.  There  should  always  be  an  iron  plate  under  such  a  brick 
platform.  Metal  nailed  to  woodwork  as  a  fire  screen  to  protect 
it  against  the  heat  of  a  stove  or  furnace  is  usually  fastened 
tightly  to  the  surface  of  the  wood,  instead  of  having  an  air  space, 
which  is  needed  for  protection.  The  bright  tin,  which  reflects 
heat,  also  conducts  it.  and  the  tin  sheath — which  if  separated 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  wood  would  save  it  from  burning — 
would  actually  contribute  to  ignition  if  fastened  to  the  surface 
without  any  air  space  at  all.  In  the  case  of  fireproof  doors  and 
doorframes,  however,  where  the  tin  encloses  the  wooden  door 
or  frame  it  must,  of  course,  he  nailed  close  to  exclude  air. 

Steam  pipes  are  often  separated  from  wooden  supports  by  in- 
serting a  piece  of  iron,  which  is  no  safer  than  a  thicker  steam 
pipe  would  be. 

Where  steam  pipes  ]>;iss  through  floors,  an  iron  guard  of  con- 
ical or  "canopy"  form  in  two  sections,  of  cast  iron,  should  be 
fastened  to  the  floor  around  them  so  as  to  keep  roving  waste  or 
other  ignitible  material  from  collecting  in  the  hole  of  the  floor 
around  the  pipe  where  it  would  be  almost  certain  to  cause  a 
fire.  Such  a  cone-shaped  protection  extending  two  inches  ab<  >ve 
the  floor  would  facilitate  sweeping  for  keeping  the  floors  clean 
and  might  prevent  a  fire. 

The  great  enemy  of  the  underwriter  to  be  carefully  watched 
and  provided  against,  which  no  obtainable  rate  will  pay  for,  is 
untidiness,  carelessness  as  to  rubbish,  waste,  ashes  and  other 
accumulations,  which  are  dangerous,  whether  found  in  the 
cellar  and  attic  of  a  dwelling  house  or  in  the  various  stories  of 
a  mill.  It  is  safe  to  assume  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as 
"clean  waste"  and  that  all  accumulations  of  rubbish,  even 
leather  chips,  are  objectionable,  because  they  almost  invariably 
contain  self -igniting  substances  or  become  the  resting  places  for 
castaway  cigarettes,  cigars  or  half  burned  matches. 

As  already  explained,  the  sweepings  of  floors  which  have 
been  covered  with  sawdust  are  particularly  dangerous,  and  all 
sweepings  and  accumulations  of  rubbish  or  waste  should  be 
kept  outside  of  the  building  insured,  where  their  ignition  would 
not  endanger  insured  property. 

It  is  always  best  to  decline  a  dirty  risk,  and  those  owners 
should  be  avoided  wno  do  not  follow  up  their  employees  to  see 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


405 


that  all  portions  of  a  building,  from  the  sub-cellar  to  the  cock- 
loft, are  kept  cleanly  swept  and  free  from  rubbish. 

The  best  receptacles  for  waste  are  large  iron  kettles  or  cans 
on  legs,  lifting  them  from  the  floor,  and  with  hinged  metal 
covers,  whose  contents  might  burn  out  without  igniting  the 
premises;  and  they  should  be  emptied  each  night,  their  contents 
being  burned  under  the  boilers  before  the  closing  hours,  or 
removed  from  the  premises  to  a  safe  distance.  The  best  re- 
ceptacles for  matches  are  large  stone  jars  with  covers,  as  already 
explained. 

If  the  writer  has  become  monotonous  on  tins  subject  it  is 
because  he  attaches  greater  importance  to  cleanliness  than  to 
almost  any  other  feature  of  a  risk 

In  order  to  save  the  repetition  in  each  risk  of  suggestions  as 
to  the  danger  of  various  processes — drying,  soldering,  brazing, 
japanning,  &c,  &c. — I  shall,  at  this  point,  take  up  these  vari- 
ous processes,  and  merely  refer  to  them  later  on  in  connection 
with  the  various  risks  of  which  they  form  a  feature.  Most  of 
these  processes  require  so  little  room,  involve  such  small  values, 
but  are  so  dangerous  as  regards  fire,  that  the  simple  rule  should 
be  observed  of  keeping  them  outside  the  main  buildings,  since 
they  can  be  easily  separated  from  the  larger  values  of  com- 
paratively harmless  processes. 

It  is,  for  example,  not  at  all  necessary  that  singeing,  napping, 
drying,  japanning  or  enameling,  buffing,  lacquering,  tumbling, 
picking,  &c. ,  &c. ,  should  be  in  or  near  buildings  which  would 
be  endangered  by  their  numerous  fires. 

Annealing.  Advise  Company  as  to  location  of  furnace  and 
fuel  used.  See  that  ovens  are  properly  set  and  that  all  exposed 
woodwork  is  properly  protected. 

Boiler  Rooms.  Should  be  cut  off  absolutely  in  all  wood-worK- 
ing  risks,  and  in  other  kinds  of  risks  if  other  than  coal  fuel  is 
used,  especially  if  shavings  or  slabs  are  used  for  fuel.  In 
examining  boiler  rooms  the  agent  should  be  careful  to  notice 
whether  any  materials  are  deposited  over  the  boilers  to  dry. 
Wood  for  fuel  is  sometimes  piled  over  them  to  dry,  when  wet — 
a  most  dangerous  practice.  In  one  instance  coming  to  my  notice 
a  can  of  petroleum  lubricating  oil  was  kept  over  the  boiler  of  a 
mill,  in  order  that  tne  oil  might  not  freeze,  where  a  leak  would 
have  caused  a  destructive  fire.    Such  practices  should  condemn 


SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


a  risk.  It  is  not  safe  to  rely  on  assurances  of  reform  in  such 
flagrant  cases  of  carelessness. 

Where  the  space  above  boilers  is  used  for  drying  wool  or 
other  materials,  as  it  sometimes  is  in  low  grade  nulls,  great  care 
is  necessary  to  keep  the  tops  of  the  boilers  cleanly  swept.  They 
should  always  be  covered  with  masonry,  and  the  wool  or  other 
material  so  secured  that  it  cannot  fall  upon  them.  No  risk  of 
this  kind  should  be  accepted  unless  inspected  by  the  special 
agent,  and  should  be  referred  to  the  company  Where  boilers 
aro  forced  at  times  above  the  pressure  allowed  by  the  boiler 
inspector  (and  this  is  sometimes  the  case  where  the  boiler  is  not 
large  enough  for  the  horse  power  of  the  engine)  the  risk  is  not 
a  safe  one  and  should  be  avoided. 

Boilers  underground  are  rarely  safe,  especially  if  the  ground 
above  them  is  used  for  piling  lumber  or  other  combustible 
material,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  in  planing-mills,  saw-mills, 
etc.  Owners  rely  on  the  masonry  arches  over  the  boilers,  for- 
getting that,  in  time,  these  must  yield  to  the  constant  heat, 
when  flames  are  sure  to  escape  to  any  ignitible  material  above. 

Where  shavings  are  used  for  fuel,  at  least  three  per  cent  addi- 
tional should  be  charged  if  the  boiler-room  exposes  the  main  risk. 
The  use  of  shavings  for  fuel  is  dangerous,  not  only  because  of 
the  creeping  of  fire  from  beneath  the  grate  bars  by  the  loose 
shavings  around  the  doors,  but  because  of  the  danger  of  what 
is  known  as  a  "back  draft,"  which  is  a  common  cause  of  fires 
in  planing-mills.  When  the  draft  of  the  chimney  fails,  or  is 
poor,  as  it  sometimes  is,  in  damp  weather,  the  entire  contents 
of  the  furnace  may  be  thrown  out  into  the  shavings  vault  or 
adjacent  room.  The  furnace  feed,  therefore,  should  not  be  in 
line  with  any  communication  with  the  main  structure,  but  at 
right  angles  to  it,  so  that  in  case  of  a  back  draft  the  burning  con- 
tents of  the  furnaces  cannot  be  thrown  into  the  other  rooms  of 
the  risk. 

Chimneys  to  boiler  furnaces  should  be  built  especially  for  the 
purpose.  A  chimney  not  so  built,  but  afterwards  adapted  to 
the  purpose,  is  rarely  large  enough  or  safe.  They  should  have 
an  internal  capacity  of  not  less  than  12  inches  in  diameter,  or  144 
square  inches,  and  should  be  constructed  with  double  walls, 
with  an  air  space  between  the  inner  and  outer  walls,  especially 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


if  inside  of  the  building.  No  woodwork  should  be  framed  into 
them,  and  they  should  rise  at  least  twenty  feet  above  the  peak 
of  any  shingle  roof  near  them;  and  where  wood  shavings  or 
slabs  are  burned  for  fuel  they  should  be  provided  with  good 
spark-arresters. 

Iron  chimneys  are  liable  to  rust  and  permit  sparks  to  escape 
into  roofing  or  other  woodwork  through  holes.  If  used,  they 
should  be  well  stayed  with  iron  stay-rods  or  chains,  and  kept 
clear  of  all  woodwork  by  at  least  eighteen  inches  space  and  metal 
sheathing. 

Standard  Boiler  Room.  A  boiler  room  to  be  standard  should 
have  nothing  combustible  in  its  construction.  There  is  nothing 
impracticable  in  this  suggestion.  The  room  is  not  necessarily 
a  large  one.  It  requires  no  ornate  finish.  It  is  only  one  story 
high,  and  as  in  most  risks  it  is  the  most  dangerous  part  of  the 
hazard  and  is  liable  to  explosions  of  boilers  and  to  ignition  of 
stores  of  fuel,  especially  where  wood  or  shavings  are  used,  there 
is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  be  effectually  cut  off  from  the 
main  structure  or  why  its  construction  should  not  be  such  that  it 
will  safely  cremate  its  own  combustible  contents  of  coal  or  wood. 
The  walls,  therefore,  should  be  of  brick.  Being  one  story,  they 
need  not  be  over  twelve  inches  thick,  except  that  next  the  mill, 
which  should  be  24  inches  thick.  The  floor  should  be  brick,  or 
concrete  manufactured  in  the  proportions  named  on  page  81. 
A  concrete  floor  is  best  adapted  for  shoveling  coal  and  for  keep- 
ing the  combustible  dust  swept  into  the  fire  pit.  The  roof  should 
have  nothing  in  its  composition  of  a  combustible  character.  It 
may  be  laid  on  iron  trusses  of  T  and  angle  iron  and  these  might 
be  fireproof  ed,  although  as  the  structure  is  only  one  story  it  may 
not  be  necessary. 

Fuel.  Examine  the  location  of  the  supply  of  fuel,  especially 
if  bituminous  or  soft  coal  is  used,  which  is  very  liable  to  spon- 
taneous combustion.  In  an  exhaustive  report  on  this  subject 
by  Professor  John  M.  Ordway  to  Mr.  Edward  Atkinson's  com- 
panies, he  says :  "The  spontaneous  combustion  of  coal  is  owing, 
I  believe,  mainly  to  the  oxidation  of  the  pyrites  contained  in  it. 
Some  coals  are  more  liable  to  trouble  than  others,  not  simply  on 
account  of  their  containing  more  pyrites,  but  rather  on  account 
of  the  particular  kind  or  condition  of  the  pyrites.  To  favor  the 
oxidation  there  must  be :- 


^08 


SI'KCIAL  HAZARDS. 


1.  Some  moisture.  When  the  coal  is  quite  dry  there  is  less 
danger. 

2.  A  moderate  supply  of  air.  Total  exclusion  of  air  would 
prevent  it,  and  a  thorough  ventilation  would  also  be  likely  to 
prevent  it ;  but  the  thorough  ventilation  of  large  masses  of  coal 
is  impracticable. 

:5.    A  great  body  of  coal. 

4.  A  warm  place  of  storage. 

5.  Freshness.  Coal  just  taken  out  of  the  mine  is  more  in- 
flammable than  that  which  has  been  kept  a  year  or  more" 

His  deductions  are  that  to  guard  against  spontaneous  com- 
bustion one  should  avoid  the  use  of  coals  which  have  a  bad 
reputation  for  spontaneous  ignition.  Coal  should  be  kept  dry 
and  cool  and  in  piles  of  moderate  size.  The  heaps  should  be 
examined  from  time  to  time  by  digging  in  places  to  see  if  there 
is  any  heating  or  any  smell  of  gas.  He  suggests  putting  in  a 
few  vertical  iron  pipes  so  that  in  case  of  smoke  or  suspicious 
odors  a  hose  could  be  attached  and  water  thrown  into  the  middle 
of  the  pile,  but  he  advises  that  these  pipes  should  be  plugged  at 
the  top  so  as  not  to  allow  in  air  sufficient  to  give  oxygen  and  yet 
with  enough  vent  for  gases  or  smoke  formed  below .  The  coal 
should  not  be  in  contact  with  the  masonry  work  of  boiler  settings, 
nor  piled  against  wood  or  around  wooden  posts. 

Oil  for  Fuel.  The  use  of  petroleum  oils  for  fuel  has  been  grow- 
ing of  late  years.  The  regulations  of  the  National  Board  should 
be  complied  with  in  all  cases  and  may  be  secured  of  the  General 
Agent  in  New  York.  Those  systems  which  feed  fuel  to  the 
boilers  by  gravity  should  be  prohibited. 

Buffing.  This  is  an  important  hazard  of  metal-working  estab- 
lishments, especially  those  manufacturing  bright  goods.  The 
lint  or  fluff,  which  is  discharged  from  the  wheels  saturated  with 
grease  and  other  substances,  is  subject  to  spontaneous  com- 
bustion. In  all  cases  the  machines  should  be  connected  with 
blowers  depositing  "fly"  into  suitable  receptacles  partly  filled 
with  water,  located  outside;  metal  receptacles  should  also  be 
provided  in  the  buffer  room  for  the  smaller  particles  which  are 
not  withdrawn  by  the  blower  system,  and  accumulations  of 
waste  on  wheels  and  bearings  should  be  cleaned  off  daily. 
When  building  is  not  fireproof,  floors  should  be  covered  with 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


409 


incombustible  material  and  there  should  be  no  concealed  places 
where  the  lint  or  fluff  can  accumulate. 

Brazing.  If  gas  flame  or  blow-pipe  is  used  it  should  stand 
upon  a  bed  of  incombustible  material,  preferably  on  iron  sup- 
ports. All  exposed  woodwork  should  be  thoroughly  protected. 
Where  the  two  surfaces  or  points  to  be  brazed  are  united  by 
being  immersed  in  a  crucible  containing  spelter  in  a  molten 
form,  it  is  unnecessary  to  suggest  that  the  surroundings  should 
be  of  fireproof  material,  and  the  furnaces  should  be  provided 
with  hoods  venting  through  the  roof. 

Where  petroleum  or  its  products  are  used  for  fuel  and  fed  by 
gravity  the  system  is  usually  too  dangerous  for  insurance  pur- 
poses, especially  where  artificial  heat  is  applied  to  the  kerosene 
or  petroleum  to  generate  gas,  as  where  the  supply  pipe  passes 
through  a  steam  jacket  or  other  heating  surface. 

Cutting.  Most  processes  for  cutting  material,  whether  the  less 
hazardous  of  cutting  cloth  into  clothing,  or  the  more  hazardous 
of  cutting  ignitible  materials  into  small  pieces,  as  in  paper  mills, 
are  dangerous;  and  in  the  case  of  paper  mills,  where  old  rope, 
junk  and  other  material  is  reduced  to  the  condition  for  making 
paper  pulp,  should  be  separated  from  the  main  structure. 

Deviling.  This  should  be  in  a  separate  structure;  is  of  the 
nature  of  picking  and  cutting. 

Dusting.  All  dusting  processes  should  be  in  a  separate  struc- 
ture where  they  would  not  endanger  the  larger  values. 

Drying.  Dry -room  for  Wood,  Lumber,  Textiles,  Wool,  Cotton, 
etc. ,  should  be  thoroughly  cut  off  from  larger  values.  The  steam 
or  hot  water  pipes  should  be  either  above  the  material  to  be  dried 
or  at  the  side  of  it,  and  not  below  the  material,  where  distillations 
of  pitch,  resin,  etc.,  shavings,  sawdust  or  other  ignitible  sub- 
stances can  fall  and  collect  upon  them.  Any  system  of  drying 
which  admits  of  the  falling  of  material,  shavings,  or  dust,  &c, 
upon  heated  surfaces  is  dangerous. 

In  all  dry  rooms  ventilation  should  be  provided,  to  admit  of 
the  escape  of  inflammable  gases  generated  during  the  process, 
and  they  should,  also,  be  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  closed 
airtight  if  necessary,  to  smother  a  fire. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  many  of  the  fires  originating 


410 


SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


in  wood-drying  rooms  are  caused  by  the  ignition  of  inflammable 
gases  generated  by  the  drying  wood.  That  wood  subjected  to 
heat  will  evolve  such  gases  may  be  proved  by  the  familiar  ex- 
periment of  thrusting  a  stick  of  pine  wood  into  a  fire.  At  the 
opposite  end  from  the  flame  there  will  escape  gases  which  may 
be  readily  ignited  by  applying  a  match. 

It  is  now  claimed,  after  careful  observation,  (see  p.  151)  that 
wood  subjected  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  to  high  temper- 
atures, as  in  dry-rooms,  gets  into  a  condition  which  may  be 
termed  self-igniting.  This  explains  the  mortality  in  wood  dry- 
rooms,  laundry  dry-rooms,  wool  dry-rooms,  &c,  &c.  Whether 
wood  ignites  spontaneously  in  this  condition  or  not,  no  one  will 
dispute  the  fact  that  it  is  in  such  an  ignitible  condition  that 
contact  with  the  slightest  flame  would  spread  instantly  to  all 
portions  of  a  room. 

Automatic  sprinklers  should  be  provided  in  all  dry-rooms. 

Steam  jets,  which  could  be  turned  into  such  dry -rooms  from 
the  boiler-room,  would  be  admirable  for  extinguishing  fires  and 
should  never  be  omitted.  They  should  be  arranged  with  a 
signal  to  the  engineer,  so  that  he  could  be  notified  to  turn  on  the 
steam  instantly  in  case  of  fire.  The  door  could  then  be  closed 
and  any  fire  would  be  quickly  smothered. 

Enameling.    See  Japanning. 

Forging.  Floors  should  be  of  fireproof  material;  if  wooden 
floors  beneath  forges,  they  should  be  protected  by  one  course  of 
brickwork  on  iron,  and  said  protection  should  extend  at  least  4 
feet  around  forges  and  surround  anvils.  Metal  hoods  should  be 
provided  and  chimneys  and  vents  must  be  kept  safe  distances 
from  woodwork. 

Galvanizing.  Advise  Company  as  to  construction  and  location 
of  furnaces  and  fuel  used,  coal  or  coke  being  preferable  to  wood. 
Setting  of  furnace  should  be  investigated  thoroughly,  and  the 
floor,  or  certainly  that  portion  within  ten  feet  of  the  furnace, 
should  be  fireproof.  A  good  metal  hood  should  be  provided 
over  the  entire  furnace. 

Gluing.  Glue  pots  should  be  heated  by  electricity,  steam  or 
gas.  They  should  be  on  iron  stands,  free  from  woodwork,  and 
if  they  have  to  be  set  upon  benches  or  tables  the  woodwork 
should  be  protected  with  an  air  space  between  the  wood  and  the 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


411 


metal  of  at  least  half  an  inch.  If  set  in  wooden  tables  (i.  e. 
with  tops  flush  with  surface  of  tables)  they  should  be  protected 
by  metal  collars  at  least  4  inches  larger  in  diameter  than  the  pots, 
with  an  air  space  of  at  least  2  inches  to  the  surrounding  wood- 
work; if  an  open  flame  is  used,  as  in  the  case  of  a  gas  jet,  the 
burner  should  be  at  least  two  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the 
metal  collar.  Kerosene  and  gasolene  for  heating  are  especially 
dangerous,  involving  the  danger  from  carelessness  in  handling 
the  material  as  well  as  from  explosion  of  the  lamps.  One  great 
danger  of  gluing  processes  is  the  tendency  of  workmen  to  leave 
the  gas  or  other  heat  on  after  the  building  is  closed  for  the  night, 
where  woodwork  may  become  ignited  by  being  overheated  or 
where  ignitible  substances  can  be  blown  by  drafts  of  air  into  the 
flame  and  ignited. 

Japanning,  Enameling,  Etc.  With  any  process  of  drying  the 
materials  used  for  these  processes  are  liable  to  form  gases.  They 
are  very  volatile  and  inflammable.  Not  infrequently  benzine 
is  a  dangerous  factor.  The  dipping  process  is  especially  hazard- 
ous, owing  to  the  presence  of  the  volatile  material  in  large 
quantities,  and  all  work  of  this  nature  should  be  cut  off  from  the 
main  factory  in  a  separate  building  where  it  could  burn  out 
without  endangering  other  values.  The  building  in  which  ja- 
panning is  done  should  be  fireproof. 

Lacquering.  This  process  is  dangerous  because  of  the  volatile 
and  inflammable  character  of  the  lacquer.  In  some  cases  cellu- 
loid thinned  with  ether  and  alcohol  is  used,  shellac,  varnish, 
turpentine,  etc.  The  method  of  dipping  is  more  dangerous 
than  the  old-fashioned  method  of  applying  the  lacquer  with  a 
brush.  In  the  latter  process,  if  on  a  small  scale,  it  may  be 
carried  on  in  main  risk  when  good  care  is  exercised;  but  in  all 
cases  where  a  considerable  quantity  of  this  work  is  done  or 
when  there  is  any  dip  work  it  should  be  outside  of  and  not  en- 
dangering main  buildings. 

Melting.  The  smaller  furnaces,  such  as  those  used  for  melting 
the  softer  metals,  confectioners'  stoves,  tailors'  busheling  stoves, 
and  other  stoves  requiring  a  high  degree  of  heat  should  be 
placed  upon  two  courses  of  bricks  well  laid  in  mortar  on  sheet 
iron  extending  at  least  2  feet  outside  of  furnaces  on  all  sides. 
If  furnaces  be  on  iron  legs  one  course  of  bricks  is  sufficient. 


412 


SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


All  exposed  woodwork  should  be  protected  by  incombustible 
material.  In  cases  where  inflammable  materials,  such  as  resin, 
etc.,  are  heated,  the  floor  protection  should  be  surrounded  with 
a  coping  of  sheet  iron  at  least  4  inches  high  to  prevent  the  burning 
liquid,  in  case  it  should  run  over,  from  running  on  the  floor. 
Wherever  fire  heat  is  used  it  should  be  outside  of  the  main 
structure  if  possible. 

Napping.  This  should  be  cut  off  from  the  main  structure, 
whether  by  gas  or  red  hot  iron.  The  process  is  a  dangerous 
one. 

Painting.  The  danger  of  painting  has  been  largely  increased 
of  late  years  by  the  use  of  benzine  and  other  dryers  in  place  of 
turpentine,  which  was  bad  enough.  Inspect  the  painting  room 
carefully.  Oily  waste,  rags,  &c,  should  be  kept  in  metal 
receptacles  and  removed  every  riight.  Linseed  oil,  as  already 
explained  under  the  heading  "Spontaneous  Combustion,"  is  par- 
ticularly dangerous  when  spread  out  on  finely  divided  organic 
substances,  like  rags,  waste,  sawdust,  etc.  Sawdust  should 
never  be  allowed  on  the  floors  of  a  paint  room ;  it  means  the 
ultimate  gathering  into  barrels  of  a  particularly  dangerous 
mixture.  Sand  in  metal  trays  is  the  best  material  to  put  under 
faucets,  etc. 

All  painting,  especially  where  cheap  benzine  dryers  are  used, 
should  be  in  a  separate  structure,  and  the  supply  of  paints,  oils, 
&c,  should  be  securely  segregated. 

Where  painting  is  by  the  bath  or  dipping  process,  as  in  the 
case  of  cheap  furniture,  great  care  must  be  taken,  as  the  large 
quantities  of  inflammable  paint  are  liable  to  cause  intense  com- 
bustion. Tanks  should  have  tin-lined,  hinged  covers,  so  that 
they  can  be  closed  at  night  when  not  in  use,  and  when  in  use 
should  be  held  open  by  a  fusible  link,  which  would  melt  with  a 
rise  of  temperature  and  release  the  cover. 

Pickers.  All  pickers  of  whatever  character,  whether  woolen, 
cotton,  waste,  upholstery  or  otherwise,  should  be  cut  off  in  a 
fireproof  room.  They  are  peculiarly  liable  to  fires  from  foreign 
materials,  such  as  nails,  passing  through  the  picker  and  striking 
fire  on  the  teeth  and  igniting  the  substance  picked,  which  is 
usually  of  an  ignitible  character. 

Soldering.    City  gas  is  the  safest  fuel  for  heating  irons,  unless 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


413 


gasolene  gas  is  used,  where  great  care  must  be  exercised  not 
merely  as  to  the  construction  of  the  fire-pot,  but  as  to  the  storing 
of  the  material.  Large  values  should  not  be  endangered  by 
this  process,  especially  as  it  is  unnecessary  that  they  should  be. 
Charcoal  pots  should  be  stationary  and  the  system  of  flues 
should  be  metal  leading  to  a  brick  chimney.  The  New  England 
Exchange  requires  that  pots  should  be  placed  in  an  iron  pan 
filled  with  sand — an  admirable  precaution — and  charcoal  pots 
must  have  a  separate  metal  flue  pipe,  not  less  than  2%  inches 
in  diameter,  leading  into  a  main  pipe,  which  carries  all  the  draft 
into  a  brick  chimney.  Gas  furnaces  should  have  as  good  protec- 
tion beneath  as  charcoal  pots;  if  sand  is  not  used  they  should 
be  set  upon  iron  legs  with  at  least  three  inches  air  space  beneath, 
and  be  placed  on  metal  with  additional  air  space  to  work  bench. 
Work  benches  where  soldering  is  carried  on  should  be  of  incom- 
bustible material  or  metal  covered.  If  gasolene  gas  machines 
or  oil  systems  are  used,  get  the  National  Board  specifications 
for  safety.  They  can  be  obtained  by  writing  to  the  General 
Agent  of  the  National  Board  at  New  York,  or  to  the  insurance 
company. 

Sulphur  Burning.  This  should,  of  course,  be  in  a  separate 
structure,  fireproof,  where  it  would  not  endanger  the  main 
buildings. 

Tinning.  This  should  be  thoroughly  cut  off  from  the  main 
structure.  The  arrangement  of  furnaces,  grease  pots,  etc., 
should  be  carefully  noted  and  the  Company  advised.  Also 
note  care  of  cotton  when  used.    The  furnaces  should  be  hooded. 

Tumbling.  The  danger  of  this  process  is  practically  confined 
to  the  waste  material,  especially  where  sawdust  is  used,  which 
with  the  iron  clips  when  saturated  with  oils  is  liable  to  sponta- 
neous combustion. 

Varnishing.  Under  no  circumstances  should  this  process  be 
carried  on  in  the  main  structure.  It  should  be  in  a  separate 
fireproof  room.  The  electric  and  friction  hazard  of  machine 
j tainting  and  varnishing  is  serious.  Patent  varnishing  machines 
with  driers  attached  are  especially  dangerous. 

Oil  rooms,  in  which  the  supply  of  oils  is  kept,  should  be  out- 
side and  never  under  or  near  stairways  or  elevators,  so  as  to 
endanger  them  in  case  of  ignition  or  explosion.    The  burning 


414 


SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


of  a  large  building  with  its  contents,  several  hundred  thousand 
dollars  in  value,  some  years  ago,  was  due  to  the  rapid  spread  of 
a  fire  originating  in  a  closet  under  the  elevator.  Moreover,  as 
staircases  and  elevators  are  the  means  of  egress  for  workmen, 
and  as  vertical  pipes  and  hose  attachments  ought  to  be  near 
stairways,  for  the  use  of  firemen,  not  only  may  the  property 
be  endangered  if  the  stairways  be  made  impassable,  but  the 
lives  of  operatives  and  firemen,  also. 

Gas  Meter.  This  should  be  in  a  safe  part  of  a  building,  where 
least  liable  to  accidents,  and  whore  it  may  have  free  ventilation 
to  the  air,  and  the  valve  for  shutting  off  the  gas  from  the  build- 
ing should  be  near  the  entrance,  so  that  the  firemen  may  shut 
off  the  supply  from  the  building  in  case  of  fire.  Indeed,  all 
buildings  should  be  arranged  for  shutting  off  gas  and  electricity 
at  the  street  entrance. 

Water  Power.  While  water  power  is  preferable,  on  some  ac- 
counts, to  steam  power,  an  irregular  supply  of  water,  as  in  the 
case  of  a  mill  obliged  to  lose  several  months  in  every  year  owing 
to  a  failure  of  water  by  drouth,  is  calculated  to  have  a  serious 
effect  upon  the  profitableness  of  the  mill,  and,  consequently, 
upon  the  moral  hazard.  Losses  on  "thunder  gust"  flour- mills 
educated  underwriters  early  to  the  danger  of  this  class  of  risks. 
The  supply  of  water  should  be  sufficient  to  keep  the  mill  in  con- 
stant operation  throughout  the  year,  or  steam  power  should  be 
provided  to  remedy  the  defect.  An  intelligent  underwriter 
will  take  into  account  the  fact  that  cheapness  of  power  might 
be  counterbalanced  by  expense  of  transportation,  so  that  a 
steam  power  manufactory,  favorably  located  for  saving  freight 
on  materials  and  on  finished  goods,  might  compete  successfully 
with  a  water  power  establishment  less  favorably  located. 

Belt-Shafts.  As  already  elsewhere  explained,  the  maximum 
danger  of  the  spread  of  fire  is  to  be  found  in  conditions  which 
admit  of  its  going  from  story  to  story,  especially  if  increased  by 
construction  which  favors  draughts.  For  this  reason,  boxes  or 
shafts  for  carrying  belting  should  be  fireproof  and  so  arranged 
as  to  prevent  fire  in  lower  stories  from  going  into  those  above. 
The  ideal  in  construction  is  where  these  belt  boxes  are  in  a  fire- 
proof hallway  or  tower,  the  driving  pulleys  being  on  the  tower 
side,  with  the  bearing  in  the  wall  arranged  for  oiling  on  the 


ELECTRICITY. 


415 


mill  side,  so  that  the  shaft  works  in  a  tight  box  through  which 
fire  cannot  pass.  In  many  cases  belts  pass  through  floors  with- 
out any  protection  whatever,  or  are  carried  in  wooden  boxes 
which  are  dirty  with  flyings  and  ignitible  fluff,  besides  being 
oil-soaked  and  liable  to  burn  like  tinder. 

Electricity.  That  the  use  of  electricity  for  lights,  heat  or  power 
introduces  an  additional  hazard  is  a  matter  as  to  which  there  is 
to-day  little  doubt  on  the  part  of  men  of  experience.  It  has  been 
aptly  described  as  so  much  liquid  fire  running  through  a  build- 
ing from  cellar  to  garret  by  night  and  by  day.  It  can,  however, 
be  made  the  safest  method  of  lighting  a  building  or  of  furnishing 
power  by  electric  motors,  and  the  net  effect  for  good  or  evil  can 
only  be  ascertained  by  charging  it  with  fires  due  to  its  presence 
and  crediting  it  with  the  elimination  of  many  things  which 
cause  fires.  For  example,  it  does  away  largely  with  the  use  of 
matches;  with  the  danger  of  swinging  gas  brackets  and  the 
ignition  of  curtains  and  draperies  blown  into  flame  by  the  wind ; 
in  premises  where  electricity  is  used  exclusively  it  prevents  ex- 
plosions from  ignited  escaping  gas ;  the  explosion  of  lamps,  and, 
to  some  extent,  eliminates  candle  fires,  especially  in  closets  and 
store-rooms. 

Sum  all  these  up,  however,  and  millions  of  dollars  of  losses 
have  been  due  to  electrical  defects  many  of  which  might  have 
been  corrected.  The  great  trouble  is  that  wires  are  installed  in 
buildings  in  many  cases  by  the  most  incompetent  persons,  and 
even  when  installed  safely  are  frequently  improperly  changed 
afterwards  by  owners  or  other  employees,  who  do  not  realize  the 
danger.  A  lazy  engineer  or  janitor  tired  of  having  '  'trouble'' 
on  a  line,  will  sometimes  substitute  for  a  safety  fuse  a  piece  of 
metal  of  much  greater  carrying  capacity  than  the  wire  it  is  in- 
tended to  protect. 

The  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  as  already  ex- 
plained, publishes  a  code  of  rules,  which  may  be  secured  by 
writing  to  the  General  Agent  of  the  National  Board,  in  New 
York,  and  which  is  kept  up  to  date,  being  revised  from  time  to 
time  by  conventions  of  engineers  who  meet  for  the  purpose  of 
considering  any  new  discoveries. 

The  following  definitions  of  terms  may  be  useful : 
VOLT — Is  the  unit  of  pressure,  or  electro  motive  force  (e.  m.  f.) 


41  li 


SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


AMPERE — The  unit  of  rate  of  flow  of  current.    A  "coulomb" 
(rarely  used)  contains  the  element  of  time  and  represents  quan- 
tity.   For  example,  to  express  quantity  of  electricity  in  a  storage 
battery,  it  may  be  expressed  in  coulombs  or  ampere  hours. 
OHM     The  unit  of  resistance. 
OHM'S  LAW,  so  called,  is 

Volts  Electric  Motor  Force 

Current  -    Current  =     

Ohms  Resistance 

WATT — The  unit  of  rate  of  flow  of  energy,  and  is  the  product 

of  Volts  and  Amperes.    (1  Volt  X  1  Ampere  =  1  Watt.) 

KILOWATT— 1,000  Watts. 

HoRSK-PoWlvR    Mo  Watts.    Therefore,  a  Kilowatt  equals, 

roughly,  1}4  Horse-Power,  or  H.  P.  equals  ;{4  Kilowatt. 

1  incandescent  lamp  (10  candle-power)  uses  approximately  % 

ampere  at  110  volts,  or  55  watts  rate  of  flow,  which  multiplied 

by  number  of  hours  equals  number  of  watt  hours. 

1  arc  lamp  uses  approximately  500  watts. 

It  is  erroneously  supposed  that  a  break  in  the  insulation  of 
wires  at  single  points  necessarily  means  fires  by  '  'arcing"  or  short 
circuits.  This,  however,  is  fortunately  not  the  case.  A  naked 
wire  in  a  perfectly  dry  place  may  be  reasonably  safe,  but  mois- 
ture connecting  it  with  another  wire  or  any  other  conductor 
would  probably  produce  arcing  and  a  short  circuit,  but  the  fuses 
if  properly  graded  and  introduced  would  probably  take  care  of 
the  trouble.  Electrical  experts  attach  more  importance  to  the 
fuses,  and  other  approved  safety  devices,  than  to  the  insulation 
of  the  wire,  which  does  not,  however,  mean  that  they  do  not 
attach  importance  to  the  insulation  of  wires,  as  shown  by  the 
National  Electric  Code  and  its  careful  specifications  as  to  the 
amount  of  insulation,  quality  of  pure  Para  rubber,  &c,  &c. 

The  object  of  safety  fuses  is  to  introduce  into  the  circuit 
wherever  a  connection  is  made  between  a  larger  and  smaller 
conductor  an  approved  automatic  device  of  less  carrying  capacity 
which  will  fuse  when  the  current  passing  through  it  is  in  excess 
of  the  safe  carrying  capacity  of  the  wire. 

Stringent  laws  should  be  enacted  prohibiting  the  installation 
of  wires  or  electrical  apparatus  by  men  who  have  not  passed  a 
thorough  examination,  to  determine  their  fitness  for  the  task, 
and  it  should  be  a  penal  offence  for  a  man  deliberately  to  ignore 


ELECTRICITY. 


417 


the  rules  of  safety,  especially  where  such  flagrant  disregard  of 
danger  to  life  and  property  is  displayed  as,  for  example,  in  the 
substitution  of  copper  for  a  proper  or  approved  fuse  as  is  too  fre- 
quently the  case. 

Suggestions  to  Aid  Property  Owners  in  Determining  Proper 
Electrical  Installations. 

(These  have  been  prepared  in  pamphlet  form  by  expert  underwriters,  in 
older  to  make  clear  in  simple  language  explanations  of  various 
electrical  devices  for  the  use  of  property-owners.  They 
make  the  matter  so  intelligible  that  I  think  them 
worthy  to  be  inserted  at  this  point. 

1.  Transformers*  must  not  be  placed  inside  of  any  building, 
or  be  attached  to  the  outside  walls  of  buildings  unless  separated 
therefrom  by  substantial  insulating  supports.  The  proper  place 
for  such  a  device  is  on  a  pole  outside. 

*A  transformer  consists  of  an  iron  box  containing  coils  of  wire  usually 
so  arranged  as  to  convert  small  currents  at  high  pressure  into  larger 
currents  at  a  lower  pressure. 

2.  Wires  where  entering  buildings,  and  elsewhere  through 
walls,  partitions,  floors,  etc.,  must  be  separately  and  properly 
bushed*  with  non-combustible,  non-absorj)tive  (water-proof)  in- 
sulating tubes,  such  as  glass  or  porcelain. 

*Bushings  are  practically  tubes  made  to  protect  wires  where  passing 
through  foreign  substances.  Only  non-combustible,  non-absorptive 
materials  should  be  used,  and  in  outside  walls  they  should  slant 
downward  toward  the  outside  and  the  wires  entering  tube  should  be 
provided  with  drip  loops. 

3.  Suitable  switches,*  arranged  to  cut  off  the  entire  current, 
must  be  placed  on  all  service  wires  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
point  where  they  enter  the  building ;  particularly  on  arc  currents 
where  they  should  be  located  outside  in  a  non-combustible  case 
easily  accessible  to  police  or  firemen.  Switches  must  be  placed 
in  dry  accessible  places,  and  away  from  easily  ignitible  material. 

'Switches  are  devices  for  turning  the  current  on  or  off.  They  usually 
consist  of  movable  copper  blades,  operated  by  a  handle,  so  mounted 
as  to  secure  connection  when  desired  between  the  service  wires  from 
the  dynamo  and  the  lights  or  motors.  On  some  arc  light  circuits  the 
form  of  switch  used  resembles  a  small  box,  variously  shaped,  with  a 
movable  handle  projecting  therefrom;  the  pushing  of  the  handle  to 
one  side  or  the  other  shutting  off  the  current. 


418 


SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


4.  Fuses*  must  be  placed  on  all  service  wires  as  near  as 
possible  to  tbe  point  where  they  enter  buildings,  and  inside  the 
the  walls,  also  at  every  point  where  a  change  in  size  of  wire  is 
made.  Circuit  breaking  devices,  such  as  switches,  fuse-blocks, 
circuit  l>rc;ikci\s,  etc.,  must  be  mounted  on  non-combustible, 
non-absorptive,  insulating  bn*< -s.  such  as  slate  or  porcelain;  anil 
they  must  he  located  in  a  readily  accessible  place  in  saitahle 
fire-proof  and  dust-proof  boxes  so  arranged  as  to  prevent  sparks 
or»the  melted  fuse  metal  from  coming  in  contact  with  any  com- 
bustible material.  Never  replace  fuses  by  copper  wire,  or  by 
fuse  wire  too  large  to  properly  protect  the  smallest  wire  in  use ; 
otherwise,  when  any  excess  current  enters  the  building,  instead 
of  the  fuse  melting  as  designed,  and  disconnecting  the  circuit, 
the  wires  will  become  overheated,  set  fire  to  the  insulation,  and 
finally  to  the  building. 

*Fuses  arc  protective  devices  intended  to  automatically  break  the 
circuit  in  case  of  an  excessive  flow  of  current.  Tliey  blow  out  or 
melt  from  excessive  heat  and  thus  at  once  stop,  at  a  safe  point,  the 
flow  of  current  over  the  wire.  (A  fuse  has  the  same  effect  as  a  switch 
except  the  circuit  is  completed  in  the  former  by  fusible  strips  acting 
automatically  and  in  the  latter  by  movable  copper  blades  operated  by 
hand.)  No  fuses  of  any  kind  are  required  on  scries  arc  light  systems. 
Ask  your  light  company  in  case  you  do  not  know  system  in  use. 

5.  Wires  not  in  conduits,  must  be  separated  at  least  one-half 
inch  from  surfaces  of  ceilings,  walls,  etc. ,  wired  over,  on  porce- 
lain supports  (never  allow  wood  to  be  used  under  any  circum- 
stances) and  those  of  opposite  polarity*  must  be  kept  rigidly  at 
least  two  and  one-half  inches  apart.  In  series  arc  lighting  the 
supports  for  the  wires  should  be  glass  or  porcelain,  and  must 
separate  the  wires  from  the  surface  wired  over  by  at  least  one 
inch  and  wires  must  be  kept  at  least  eight  inches  from  each 
other.  All  wires  must  be  kept  free — by  at  least  one  inch — from 
contact  with  gas,  water  or  other  metallic  piping,  or  any  other 
conducting  material  which  they  may  cross,  by  some  firmly  fixed 
non-conductor  (such  as  porcelain  tube  slipped  over  the  wire), 
and  it  is  very  important  that  they  should  never  come  in  contact 
with  any  substance  other  than  their  insulating  supports. 

*Polarity  refers  to  the  positive  and  negative  wires,  i.  e.,  the  outgoing 
and  return  wires  respectively.  If  they  come  in  contact  with  each 
other,  or  in  contact  with  any  conductors,  such  as  metallic  piping,  a 
"short  circuit"  or  "ground"  is  produced,  or,  in  other  words,  the  current 


ELECTRICITY. 


419 


finds  a  patli  of  lower  resistance  than  the  normal  circuit,  the  fuse  is 
blown  out  and  a  fire  is  very  liable  to  occur. 

6.  Always  keep  in  mind  that  even  the  best  insulation  is  liable 
to  fail  by  abrasion,  etc. ,  and  therefore  in  stringing  wires  treat 
all  as  if  they  were  entirely  bare  and  see  that  they  are  rigidly 
fastened.  When  used  in  connection  with  gas  fixtures  insulating 
joints  must  be  provided.  Wires  exposed  to  injury  from  any 
cause,  such  as  moving  of  cases  or  barrels  in  a  store,  must  be 
protected  either  by  boxing,  having  an  air  sjace  of  one  inch 
around  the  wire  (in  which  case  the  boxing  should  be  closed  at 
the  top  with  the  wires  passing  through  bushed  holes),  or  else 
the  wires  should  have  an  additional  outer  covering  (of  braid,  etc.) 
over  the  ordinary  insulation  and  be  carried  through  a  metal  pipe. 

Wires  in  attics  or  places  subject  to  dampness  should  be  sup- 
ported on  porcelain  insulators,  or  '  "cleats"  (knobs)  and  hung  free 
and  clear  of  everything  else ;  the}'  should  not  be  carried  in  wood 
mouldings. 

7.  Unsoldered  and  untaped  (not  covered  with  rubber  com- 
pound or  tape)  joints  are  always  dangerous.  Wires  must  be  so 
spliced  or  joined  as  to  be  both  mechanically  and  electrically 
secure ;  then  they  must  be  soldered  and  the  joint  covered  with 
an  insulation  equal  to  that  on  the  conductors. 

8.  Arc  lamps  must  be  enclosed  by  tight  fitting  globes  and 
spark  arresters ;  and  all  dynamos  or  motors  should  be  so  located 
that  the  sparks  or  small  embers  which  are  frequently  given  off 
cannot  come  in  contact  with  combustible  material. 

9.  Never  under  any  circumstances  use  current  from  ground- 
ed* street  car  trolley  circuits. 

*A  grounded  circuit  means  a  circuit  having  a  ground  return.  For 
instance,  in  a  street  railway  system  the  outgoing  current  from  the 
dynamo  follows  the  trolley  wire  to  the  point  where  it  is  in  connection 
with  the  ground  through  a  car  ;  the  current  being  transferred  through 
the  trolley  pole  to  the  motors  beneath  the  car  and  thence  to  the  axle 
where  it  reaches  the  track,  and  with  this  and  the  surrounding  earth 
as  conductors  returns  to  the  dynamo. 

10.  Notify  the  Insurance  Inspection  Department  having 
jurisdiction  of  the  territory  in  which  your  property  is  located 
immediately  upon  the  completion  of  every  piece  of  wiring  or 
electrical  construction  work. 

1 1 .  When  giving  up  the  use  of  electricity,  either  temporarily 


420  I'R  I  \  ATE   I"  1 1 1 I "   i:.\TIN(;iISHIN(;  AIM'LIAXCES. 


or  permanently,  make  sure  that  all  current  is  turned  off  from 
the  building  (by  opening  the  switch  mentioned  in  Section  :i 
above,)  and  that  all  interior  wiring  is  therefore  '"dead." 

Suggestions  for  the  Users  of  Incandescent  Lamps. 

1.  Do  not  use  flexible  cord  except  for  pendants,  wiring  of 
fixtures  and  portable  lamps  or  motors.  Never  use  cord  for 
lamps  in  show  windows,  or  as  a  support  for  clusters. 

2.  Flexible  cord  should  not  be  hung  on  nails,  gas,  water  or 
steam  pipes,  as  insulations  arc  liable  to  become  worn  and  short 
circuits  result  ;  also  avoid  tying  knots  in  them. 

3.  All  wiring  in  show  windows  for  decorative  effects  should 
be  attended  to  hy  a  competent  electrician,  and  lamps  should  be 
on  fixtures  only,  away  from  inflammable  material.  Lamp 
sockets  should  never  be  surrounded  with  decorations,  as  they 
frequently  become  hot  owing  to  bad  contact  in  the  socket  or  a 
short  circuit . 

4.  Incandescent  lamps  give  out  a  dangerous  degree  of  heat, 
particularly  as  they  get  old,  and  in  all  cases  where  there  is  a 
possibility  of  their  coming  in  contact  with  merchandise  the}* 
should  be  protected  with  wire  cages,  to  prevent  their  being 
placed  on  open  stocks,  paper  boxes,  etc.,  which  are  often  found 
in  a  scorched  condition  from  this  cause. 

5.  Never  use  paper  shades  or  ornament  pendants  with  tissue 
paper,  which  may  take  fire,  either  from  a  hot  socket  or  a  short 
circuit,  and  fall,  while  burning,  on  inflammable  material. 

PRIVATE  FIRE  EXTINGUISHING  APPLIANCES. 

Casks  and  Pails.  There  should  be  six  filled  fire  pails,  or  three 
fire  pails  and  one  filled  cask,  for  every  2,500  square  feet  of  floor 
area  of  manufacturing  risks.  The  pails  should  be  of  metal, 
painted  red,  with  round  bottoms  ( with  rims  at  bottom  for  easy 
handling)  so  as  to  insure  their  being  kept  in  a  rack  provided  for 
them  and  unfit  them  for  setting  on  the  floor  and  being  available 
for  other  purposes.  If  one  or  two  pails  are  judiciously  located 
every  1,200  square  feet  filled  with  sand,  which  extinguishes  oil 
fires  better  than  water,  it  would  be  an  added  and  desirable  pre- 
caution.   What  promised  to  be  a  large  conflagration  was  extin- 


PRIVATE  FIRE  EXTINGUISHING  APPLIANCES. 


421 


guished  while  the  writer  was  in  a  building  in  the  city  of  Hartford, 
some  years  ago,  bv  a  boy  with  a  pail  of  water. 

I  believe  fire  pails  preferable  to  all  other  extinguishing  appli- 
ances, as  every  person  knows  how  to  use  them,  whereas  extin- 
guishers may  not  be  in  good  order  and  few  persons  understand 
them,  some  being  afraid  to  use  them.  It  is  claimed  that  the 
best  and  simplest  arrangement  for  pails  is  to  nest  them  under 
water  in  the  barrel,  that  each  can  be  taken  out  full  for  use  and 
that  the  pails  will  not  rust  if  wholly  immersed. 

It  is  claimed  that  chloride  of  calcium  is  a  better  agent  for 
preventing  freezing  than  salt,  which  is  liable  to  corrode  metal 
buckets. 

Chemical  Fire  Extinguishers.  These,  if  of  approved  make,  con- 
taining a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  material  and  inspected  reg- 
ularly to  see  that  they  are  in  working  order,  are  desirable,  but 
they  are  not  equal  to  pails  of  water  for  the  reason  that  many 
persons  do  not  know  how  to  use  them,  whereas  a  child  knows 
how  to  use  a  pail  of  water. 

Standpipe  and  Hose.  Standpipes  for  extinguishing  fire  should 
be  not  less  than  four  inches  in  diameter,  although  a  three-inch 
standpipe  in  buildings  under  five  stories  high  will  do  good  work. 
They  should  run  near  staircases  or  fire  escapes,  so  that  they  can 
be  used  to  the  last  moment,  and  hose  should  be  attached  at  each 
floor.  Standpipes  are  of  little  value,  of  course,  unless  the  water 
pressure  is  sufficient  to  throw  a  good  stream  across  the  room  to 
be  protected,  and  this  pressure  can  best  be  determined  by  the 
simple  process  of  turning  on  the  water.  Roof  hydrants  are 
admirable  and  should  be  provided. 

Water  Tanks.  These  should  be  examined  carefully  as  to  the 
danger  of  rust  in  the  hoops.  It  will  sometimes  be  found  that  a 
tank  is  on  the  eve  of  rupture,  and  its  failure  coincident  with  a 
fire  would  be  a  serious  matter.  Of  late  it  has  been  found  that 
round  hoops  for  tanks,  which  admit  of  covering  the  iron  to  a 
greater  extent  of  surface  with  rust-preventing  paint,  are  better 
than  flat  hoops,  only  one  side  of  which,  the  outer  surface,  can 
be  painted. 

Watch  men  s  Lanterns  should  burn  only  the  best  quality  of  sperm 
oil.  The  rules  should  forbid  the  watchman  opening  the  lantern 
for  picking  the  wick  or  other  purposes  in  the  mill.  Lanterns 


422         NATIONAL  BOARD  RULES  AND  REQUIREMENTS. 


should  be  so  locked  that  they  cannot  be  opened  except  with  a 
key  kept  in  the  room  where  they  are  filled.  The  bottom  should 
be  arranged  with  hook  or  other  device  to  prevent  its  dropping 
out  while  being  carried  in  the  hand.  Lanterns  should  be  prop- 
erly guarded  to  prevent  breakage  and  no  solder  should  be  used 
in  the  framework. 

Force  Pumps.  (See  page  453. )  Undue  reliance  is  placed  by  un- 
derwriters 071  the  protection  to  manufactories  by  city  fire  depart- 
ments. 1  ii  c.isc  of  conflagrations  they  arc  unreliable,  and  for  this 
reason  rates  on  the  class  are  generally  inadequate.  Force  pumps 
should  be  provided,  with  sufficient  private  water  supply.  Had 
it  not  been  for  their  own  fire  pumps  Pnterson,  N.  J.,  factories 
would  have,  been  destroyed  by  the  burning  of  that  city. 

Roof  Sprinklers.    These  are  admirable.    (See  pp.  537,  666.) 

Organization.  Too  much  cannot  be  said  in  favor  of  a  quietly 
managed  but  thorough  organization  of  the  employees  of  a  large 
establishment,  for  the  extinguishment  of  fire.  It  secures  not 
only  the  advantage  of  concerted  and  harmonious  action,  but  an 
exemption  from  panics,  and  prevents  loss  of  time  in  an  emer- 
gency, ivhen  moments  are  precious  and  cannot  be  spared. 

Every  employee  should  understand  his  duty  and  post,  in  case 
of  a  fire,  and  the  entire  force  should  be  as  regularly  drilled  as 
are  the  professional  firemen  of  a  city. 

NATIONAL  BOARD  RULES  AND  REQUIREMENTS. 

Agents  should  write  to  the  General  Agent  of  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  in  New  York,  for  the  small  pam- 
phlets giving  up-to-date  publications  of  rules  and  requirements 
as  to  Electrical  Wiring  and  Apparatus,  List  of  Electrical  Fittings, 
Gasoline  Gas  Lighting  Machines,  Lamps  and  Fixtures,  Acet- 
ylene Gas  Machines,  Grain  Dryers,  Fire  Doors  and  Shutters, 
Automatic  Sprinkler  Equipments,  Chemical  Fire-Extinguishers, 
Wired  Glass,  Fire  Department  Hose,  Automatic  Thermostat 
Alarms,  &c. ,  &c.  These  have  been  carefully  prepared  at  con- 
ventions of  consulting  engineers  of  the  National  Board,  consist- 
ing of  representatives  of  the  various  insurance  organizations 
throughout  the  United  States,  thus  securing  the  best  expert 
knowledge  of  the  country — a  wise  provision  of  the  National 
Board  made  originally  upon  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  Henry  H. 
Hall,  of  New  York.  " 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


Having  dwelt  upon  the  more  dangerous  general  features  of 
risks  and  the  hazards  common  in  greater  or  less  degree  to  all 
manufacturing  property,  I  will  now  proceed  to  take  up  each 
class  in  its  turn,  suggesting  hriefly  those  points  as  to  which  an 
insurance  company  would  need  information  from  its  agent,  who 
will  be  saved  the  trouble  of  writing  explanatory  letters  later  if 
he  reports  upon  the  points  referred  to  on  his  daily  report,  or 
accompanying  letter. 

Abattoirs.    See  Slaughter-Houses. 

Academies  and  Private  Schools.  Colleges.  Seminaries  and  other 
institutions  of  learning.  These  are  generally  considered  good 
risks,  but  they  are  susceptible  to  two  kinds  of  moral  hazard : 
one,  that  of  mischievous  students;  the  other,  that  of  unprofit- 
ableness to  the  owner.  They  are,  moreover,  almost  invariably 
sh<  art-insured,  so  that  partial  destruction  results  in  total  loss  to 
the  insurance  companies,  unless  an  80  fo  co-insurance  clause  is 
inserted  in  the  policy,  as  it  should  be.  The  tendency,  however, 
is  to  omit  the  co-insurance  clause.  In  fact,  not  long  since  a 
movement  was  actually  inaugurated  by  some  college  authorities, 
by  the  use  of  circulars  to  various  institutions  of  learning  through- 
out the  country,  advising  them  to  accumulate  a  general  fund 
for  the  insurance  of  members  for  the  excess  above  a  uniform 
amount  of  insurance  to  be  carried — considerably  less  than  fifty 
per  cent.  Under  such  a  scheme  the  insurance  companies  would 
have  been  paying  all  of  the  partial  losses,  which  while  partial 
as  to  the  value  of  property  at  risk,  would  have  been  total  as  to 
the  amount  of  insurance  carried.  The  scheme,  of  course,  failed, 
because  underwriters  were  not  so  easily  trapped  into  disregard 
of  the  principle  of  a  proper  percentage  of  insurance  to  value. 

Principal  Hazards.    These  are  heating,  which  suggests  care- 


1 2  I 


MANIFACTORIKS  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


ful  examination  ;is  to  furnaces,  steam-pipes  in  contact  with 
wood,  etc.,  etc.,  not  forgetting  slovenliness  as  to  kindling,  hot 
ashes,  etc.,  in  cellars;  lighting,  danger  from  swinging  brackets, 
carelessness  as  to  matches,  etc.  These  risks  very  often  carry 
the  dormitory  and  laundry  hazards  of  hotels. 

As  ;i  rule  dormitories  where  the  partitions  between  bedrooms 
run  to  the  ceiling  are  better  than  those  in  which  the}-  extend  only 
seven  or  eight  feet,  as  romping  pupils  at  night  are  apt  to  throw 
pillows,  shoes,  etc.,  from  one  room  to  another,  upsetting  lamps, 
etc.    ('in-rent  rates  are  too  low. 

Trade  schools  and  colleges  of  technology  involve  all  of  the 
physical  hazards  of  woodworkers,  metalworkers,  chemical  risks, 
etc.,  and  should  he  so  regarded.  The  Company  should  be 
advised  as  to  precautions  taken  as  to  shavings,  f<  >rges,  si  Jdering 
pots,  chemical  laboratories,  &c.  Those  portions  of  the  risk 
occupied  for  manual  training  should  be  inspected  in  the  same 
manner  as  manufactories  making  the  same  goods,  and  automatic 
sprinklers  would  be  an  admirable  feature  no  less  necessary  in 
the  one  ease  than  in  the  oilier.  In  all  cases  casks  of  water  and 
pails  should  be  provided  to  extinguish  incipient  fires. 

Private  Country  Boarding  Schools  and  Academies.  This 
is  an  undesirable  class  of  risks.  It  too  often  involves  a  moral 
hazard  growing  out  of  the  unprofitableness  of  the  undertaking, 
which,  whether  resulting  in  contrived  fires  or  not,  involves  in- 
difference to  safety.  It  often  happens  that  an  individual  will 
purchase  some  palatial  country  residence  (which  will  no  longer 
sell  even  for  the  price  of  a  convenient  sized  dwelling  house),  or  an 
old  summer  or  health  resort  hotel  or  sanitarium  is  taken,  with  the 
result  that  the  school  does  not  prosper.  A  contagious  disease 
for  a  single  season  will  sometimes  destroy  the  reputation  of  the 
school,  and  from  thenceforward  the  building  becomes  a  "white 
elephant."  The  dormitory  and  laundry  hazard  is  frequently 
equal  to  that  of  a  summer  hotel.  The  values  in  the  case  of  ad- 
justments would  be  unsatisfactory,  and  it  is  best  to  decline  them. 

Acetylene  Gas  Plants.  Refer  to  Company  with  full  particulars 
before  binding.  Get  rules  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers as  to  installation. 

Acid  Works.  These  are  often  nuisances  to  a  neighborhood 
and  should  be  carefully  considered  from  this  viewpoint.  They 


TO  [NSPECT  THEM. 


425 


tend  to  depreciate  the  values  of  surrounding  property,  especially 
for  dwelling  purposes,  and  owners  i  »f  ad  jacent  land  would  rather 
see  them  burn,  especially  if  in  the  vicinity  of  a  city  whose 
growth  would  make  building  lots  valuable  but  for  such  nui- 
sances. The  physical  hazards  are  connected  with  furnaces  and 
combustion  in  such  towers  as  the  Glover  and  Guy  Lussac,  use 
of  concentrators,  sulphur,  saltpetre,  &c.  It  is  not  generally 
known,  as  is  elsewhere  stated,  that  empty  saltpetre  bags  are 
liable  to  ignite  spontaneously  if  exposed  to  the  sun.  Advise 
Company  fully  as  to  the  hazards  mentioned. 

Adze  Manufactories.  Same  hazards  as  Hardware  Manufac- 
tories. Report  fully  as  to  the  woodworking  of  handle  making, 
if  any. 

Agricultural  Implement  Manufactories.  Advise  Company  as  to 
location  of  boilers,  which,  as  in  the  case  of  all  woodworkers, 
should  be  outside,  where  fires  caused  by  hack  drafts  would  not 
endanger  the  main  values;  as  to  paint-shop,  if  benzine  or 
naphtha  dryers  are  used,  as  is  generally  the  case;  dry-rooms,  as 
to  arrangement  of  pipes,  painting,  varnishing,  etc.  This  class 
should  be  fully  protected  by  steam  jets,  automatic  sprinklers, 
fire  pails  and  casks  of  water. 

Woodworking  and  painting  hazards  predominate  in  most 
factories  of  this  kind  and  are  generally  not  properly  considered 
in  rating,  a  fact  which  has  made  this  class  unprofitable. 

Agricultural  Implements.  Stocks  of.  A  moral  hazard  is  fre- 
quently involved  in  these  by  reason  of  accumulations  of  ma- 
chinery which  has  been  superseded  by  later  patents.  Such 
stocks  are  frequently  utterly  valueless  because  unsalable.  The 
class  has  not  been  a  profitable  one  at  current  rates  of  premium 
because  so  largely  cousistmg  of  painted  and  oil  finished  wood 
subject  to  a  quick  fire. 

Album  Manufactories.  Advise  Company  as  to  gluing,  binding, 
&c,  &c.  They  are  about  twenty-five  per  cent  worse  risks 
than  bi >< >kbinderies. 

Alcohol  Distilleries.  These  usually  manufacture  alcohol  from 
purchased  "high  wines."  About  two  gallons  of  high  wines 
will  make  one  gallon  of  95$  alcohol,  which  is  the  highest  grade 
of  commercial  purity,  absolute  alcohol   being  used  onby  for 


420 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


chemical  purposes  and  the  percentage  raised  by  quicklime,  etc., 
etc.  Where  high  wines  are  purchased  the  risk  is,  of  course, 
free  from  the  danger  of  grinding,  malting,  etc.,  incident  to 
whiskey  distilleries  and  is  practically  only  t  hat  of  re-distilling  the 
high  wines.  Advise  the  Company  as  to  furnaces,  still  and 
precautions  as  to  storage.  The  manufactured  alcohol  in  harrels 
should  he  entirely  separated  from  the  danger  of  the  distillery 
portion  by  warehouses  so  located  that  they  could  not  he  burned 
by  the  burning  of  the  distillery.  If  high  wines  are  manufac- 
tured in  connection  with  alcohol  works  the  rate  should  be  that 
for  ordinary  distilleries. 

Alcohol,  Wood.  This  process  involves  woodworking  and  the 
reduction  of  wood  to  small  pieces  almost  in  the  form  of  sawdust, 
t  he  roasting  and  distilling  hazard,  the  pn  >d  action  of  cre<  >si  >te  oils 
as  "by-products",  carelessness  in  the  storage  of  unslaked  lime, 
fire  heat  in  the  retorts,  the  handling  of  charcoal,  leakage  and  ex- 
plosion of  stills,  &c.  There  are  few  insurable  risks  of  the  class 
even  at  high  rates,  and  they  must  not  be  bound  without  con- 
sulting the  Company. 

Almshouses.  New,  brick,  model-planned  ones  are  reasonably 
good  risks,  but  the  class  as  a  whole  has  been  unprofitable  at 
current  rates.  They  are  certainly  wrorth  as  much  as  frame 
summer  hotels  and  involve  also  steam  laundry  hazards.  They 
should  be  referred  to  the  Company  before  binding.  There  is  no 
reason  why  they  could  not  be  made  safe  and  profitable,  but  they 
are  usually  carelessly  managed,  in  some  cases  being  in  charge 
of  the  most  incompetent  and  unprincipled  persons,  indifferent 
alike  to  humane  considerations  for  inmates  and  to  safety  from 
fire.  Insane  patients  are  frequently  kept,  and  inmates  of  this 
character  have  been  known  to  set  them  on  fire.  These  risks  are 
usually  connected,  in  the  country,  with  a  farm,  and  the  barns 
and  outbuildings  are  carelessly  managed  as  to  lanterns,  open 
lights,  smoking  in  barns,  &c.  Barns  become  lounging  places 
for  inmates. 

Animal  Black.  Animal  Charcoal  and  Bone  Black  Manufactories. 

Few  companies  write  these.  It  is  difficult  to  compute  a  proper 
rate,  and  we  prefer  to  decline  them. 

Armories  and  Arsenals.  These  are  supposed  to  be  exception- 
ally good  risks.    Fires  originate  in  them  usually  from  careless- 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


427 


ness  of  soldiers  with  cigars,  cigarettes,  &c.  They  are  of  large 
area  for  drills,  and  although  frequently  as  substantially  built 
externally  as  forts  they  contain  enormous  quantities  of  combus- 
tible woodwork  in  the  shape  of  Moors,  partitions,  lockers,  etc., 
internally. 

The  Armory  of  the  Seventy-first  Regiment,  Park  Avenue, 
New  York  City,  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  February,  1902.  It 
was  a  complete  wreck,  although  the  appearance  of  the  build- 
ing externally  indicated  most  massive  construction,  of  granite 
blocks.  From  the  viewpoint  of  affording  proper  protection  in 
the  event  of  riots,  &c.,  they  should  be  of  fireproof  construction. 

Artificial  Flowers.  Feathers  and  Millinery  Manufactories.  The 
chief  danger  of  these  risks  is  in  the  ignitible  character  of  the 
stocks,  their  great  susceptibility  to  damage  by  smoke,  water  and 
fire,  heavy  depreciations  in  value  by  changes  of  fashion  and  style 
and  the  fancy  values  claimed  for  in  case  of  loss.  They  are  not 
desirable  risks  except  in  the  hands  of  honest  and  careful  people 
and  then  only  at  full  rates. 

Asbestos  Manufactories.  These  would  naturally  be  supposed 
to  be  good  risks,  and  are  if  properly  constructed  and  managed 
on  lines  already  suggested  for  risks  generally.  There  are  not 
many  in  the  country,  howrever,  and,  like  all  other  so-called 
"fireproof"  risks,  they  seem  to  burn.  In  the  past  five  years  fires 
have  occurred  in  these  establishments,  causing  enough  losses  to 
destroy  the  profit  on  the  class. 

Asbestos  cloth  manufactories  use  a  small  percentage  of  cotton, 
which,  although  sometimes  burned  out  afterwards,  is  a  hazard 
while  in  process  of  manufacture  equal  to  that  of  a  cotton  mill. 

Asbestos  cement  factories  use  lime,  and  asbestos  paper  mills 
have  many  hazards  which  are  far  from  fireproof,  while  asbestos 
paint-mixing  and  roofing  material  factories  are  practically  paint 
risks  and  should  be  rated  as  such,  especially  when  benzine  is 
used. 

Asphalt  and  Roofing  Material  Works.  These  have  been  except- 
ionally unprofitable,  and  the  physical  hazard  of  melting  asphalt, 
tar,  etc.,  is  a  serious  one,  and  fires  once  started  are  difficult  to 
extinguish.  They  should  not  be  written  or  bound  in  any  case 
without  first  obtaining  the  consent  of  the  Company,  after  full 
advice  as  to  the  use  of  fire  and  precautions  for  extinction,  etc. 


428 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


Asylums.  Those  for  the  deaf,  dumb,  blind,  aged  and  orphans 
are  usually  good  risks  at  a  fair  rate,  with  80$  co-insurance, 
[nsane  asylums  should  rate  .Mi',  higher. 

Auction  Stocks.    I  >c<  lin<- .  values  unsatisfactory. 

Automobiles.  These  must  not  be  insured  without  the  consent 
of  the  Company  first  obtained.  Where  gasoline  is  used  for 
motive  power  the  rules  of  the  .National  Board  should  be  com- 
plied with.  The  best  method  of  storing  gasoline  for  supplying 
the  machines  is  to  have  an  iron  tank  holding  between  two  and 
three  barrels,  or  slightly  more  than  one  barrel  where  the  gaso- 
line is  purchased  one  barrel  at  a  time,  buried  under  ground  with 
a  vent  pipe  near  the  surface  and  a  gauze  vent  on  the  Humphrey 
Davy  principle,  with  a  pump  for  pumping  out  the  gasoline.  The 
tank  should  be  well  covered  with  earth,  which  tends  to  prevent 
an  explosion  by  preventing  the  accumulation  of  vapor,  as  would 
be  the  case  in  a  vault.  Some  of  the  automobiles  in  use  to-day 
are  of  such  large  value  as  to  make  their  insurance  undesirable 
— too  much  risk  is  concentrated  in  too  small  a  space — on  the 
same  principle  explained  as  to  the  undesirability  of  insuring  very 
valuable  race  horses  with  one  pair  of  lungs  to  be  suffocated. 

Axe  Factories.  These  are  good  risks  as  a  class,  but  are  gener- 
ally short  insured,  the  owners  retaining  the  best  end  of  the  risk 
and  insuring  only  the  woodworking,  handle-making  portion, 
&c.  The  Company  would  need  advice  as  to  the  latter  hazard 
on  the  points  indicated  for  woodworkers.  The  rates  are  too 
often  based  on  the  metal  hazard  instead  of  on  the  woodworking 
and  painting  hazard. 

Bag  Factories.  Cotton  Cloth.  These  ought  not  to  be  particularly 
dangerous  in  the  hands  of  careful,  cleanly  people;  but  owners 
are  often  negligent  as  to  accumulations  of  clippings,  sweepings, 
etc. 

Bag  Factories.  Gunny  Bags.  Coffee  Sacks.  &c.  These  are  more 
hazardous  than  cotton  cloth  factories  and  should  rate  at  least 
50$  higher.  It  is  necessary  to  inspect  carefully  as  to  cleanliness. 
Ignitible  flyings  are  frequently  allowed  to  accumulate  on  shelves 
and  ledges  and  on  the  bearings  of  sewing  machines,  shafting, 
&c. ,  where  they  can  find  a  resting  place,  and  sometimes  on  the 
top  of  stovepipes  running  horizontally,  where  they  might  not  be 
noticed  until  ignited.    Advise  Company  fully  as  to  the  use  of 


lloW  TO  INSPECT  THEM 


129 


fire,  lighting  arrangements  (open  lights  should  be  prohibited) 
and  cleanliness. 

Bag  Factories.  Leather.  Traveling.  Etc.  (No  trunk  making.) 
Stock  is  damageable  by  water  and  smoke;  leather  when  dis- 
colored by  smoke  or  water  is  often  claimed  to  be  unsalable. 

Bag  Factories.  Paper.  Tins  class  has  been  unprofitable.  They 
are  generally  dirty  and  carelessly  managed,  and  tbe  stock  and 
material  are  easily  ignited. 

Bakeries.  These  risks  are  particularly  dangerous  where  the 
mouth  of  the  oven  is  in  a  basement  under  wooden  floor  beams 
of  the  story  above.  The  room  opposite  the  oven  should  be  fire- 
proof, with  brick  floor  and  brick  arched  ceiling.  The  oven  of  a 
bakery  should  always  be  outside  of  the  building,  where  it  cannot 
endanger  the  larger  values.  There  should  be  a  clear  air  space 
around  sides  and  top  of  ovens.  Accumulations  of  empty  flour 
barrels,  pasteboard  boxes,  &c,  frequently  lead  to  bad  fires. 
1  )oughnut  and  cruller  stoves  are  liable  to  cause  fire  by  the  boiling 
over  of  fat  and  its  ignition. 

Baking  Powder  Manufactories.  Advise  Company  as  to  boiler 
rooms,  heating,  lighting,  dryrooms,  packing  materials,  arrange- 
ment of  floors,  as  to  cut-offs  one  from  another  and  construction 
of  buildings. 

Bamboo  Furniture  Manufactories.  These  ought  not  to  be  bad 
risks,  but  the  class  has  been  unprofitable.  Advise  Company  as 
to  heating,  lighting,  cleanliness,  etc. 

Bark  Mills.  These  are  usually  connected  with  tanneries. 
They  are  peculiarly  dangerous  because  of  the  ignitibility  of  the 
ground  bark  and  its  stubborn  retention  of  fire  when  once  ignited ; 
in  fact,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  tell  when  a  fire  once  started  in 
a  bark  mill  has  been  thoroughly  extinguished;  the  fine,  dry 
powder,  like  punk,  retains  the  fire  and  allows  it  to  spread  insidi- 
ously out  of  sight  until  long  after  it  is  supposed  to  be  thoroughly 
wet  through.  The  ground  bark  should  drop  into  water  and  be 
floated  to  the  leaches  instead  of  being  stored  dry.  All  level  sur- 
faces, like  the  upper  surfaces  of  beams,  ledges,  &c.  should  be 
avoided,  as  they  tend  to  collect  ignitible  dust  and  lead  to  the 
spread  of  fire  throughout  the  entire  structure.  Steam  jets  are 
admirable  fire  appliances  for  bark  mills,  and  automatic  sprinklers 
would  also  be  desirable. 


430 


MANUFACTORIES  OH  SPECIAL  HAZARDS, 


Bark.  Piled  near  tannery,  should  pay  tannery  rates  Lf  piled 
in  woods,  should  be  regarded  as  uninsurable.  If  near  railroad, 
it  is  liable  to  the  spark  hazard  and  should  pay  nol  less  than  five 
pei' cent,  with  the  location  described  and  limited  in  the  policy. 
Policies  should  never  cover  hark  distributed  along  railroads. 

Barrel  Manufactories.  Advise  ( iompany  as  to  location  of  boiler 
rooms,  arrangement  of  furnaces,  kilns,  use  of  shavings  or  refuse 
for  fuel,  charring  process  for  charring  the  insides  of  barrels, 
blacksmith-shop,  etc.  The  finished  material,  manufactured 
barrels,  shooks,  etc.,  should  be  stored  where  they  will  not  be 
subject  to  the  fire  hazards  of  the  manufactory.  Automatic 
sprinklers  are  of  little  value  in  a  ban-el  factory  because  the  water 
is  not  apt  to  reach  ignited  surfaces  of  barrels  in  the  lower  por- 
tions of  a  pile.    Inspect  and  report  on  all  of  the  above  hazards. 

Baseball  Ground  Buildings.  Decline. 

Basket  Manufactories.  Willow-ware  Manufactories.  Etc.  The  fin- 
ished stock  is  damageable  by  fire,  water  or  smoke,  and  the  whole 
risk  belongs  to  the  class  in  which  fires  rapidly  spread.  The 
stock  is  an  objectionable  one  to  insure,  as  discoloration  by  smoke 
results  in  excessive  claims,  unless  the  owners  are  exceptionally 
honest.  They  should  pay  full  rates  and  the  Company  should 
be  advised  as  to  fires,  lights,  drying,  cleanliness,  etc. 

Bath  Houses.  City.  Turkish,  Russian,  etc.,  should  be  examined 
carefully  for  steam-pipes  in  connection  with  wood  and  as  to  ar- 
rangement of  dry-rooms,  as  to  which  Company  would  want 
advice. 

Bath  Houses  at  lake  and  seashore  resorts.  Are  often  of  cheap 
construction  and  have  little  insurable  value.  At  hot  springs, 
health  resorts,  etc.,  they  should  be  regarded  from  the  moral  haz- 
ard viewpoint  of  permanence  or  experimental  character  of  the 
place.  They,  of  course,  become  utterly  valueless  if  the  resort 
ceases  to  be  popular.  The  laundry  and  drying  hazard  may  be 
serious. 

Bath-Tub  Manufactories.  Report  fully  as  to  enameling  pro- 
cesses, heat,  boilers,  etc. — the  usual  hazards  of  metal  workers. 

Batting  and  Wadding  Manufactories.  These  are  usually  uninsur- 
able. They  are  particularly  liable  to  fires  owing  to  the  character 
of  the  material  used,  which  is  not  only  liable  to  ignite  easily,  but 
is  of  doubtful  cleanliness ;  and  they  have  the  physical  hazard  of 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


431 


picker  work,  &c.  All  lights  should  be  covered  and  so  arranged 
that  they  can  be  lighted  from  the  outside  of  the  building,  the 
light  entering  the  building  through  glass,  without  an  opportunity 
l  or  material  to  be  blown  in  contact  with  the  flame  or  for  ignitible 
fluff  to  accumulate  in  the  lamp,  especially  in  the  card  rooms. 
They  should  not  be  insured  in  any  case  without  first  obtaining 
the  consent  of  the  Company  after  full  survey  and  advice. 

Bedstead  Manufactories.  Wooden.  Same  as  Furniture  Manufac- 
tories, which  see.  If  brass  or  iron,  advise  Company  as  to  fires, 
painting,  enameling,  shellacking,  lacquering,  buffing,  cleanli- 
ness, drying,  etc. 

Bell  Manufactories.    See  Brass  Manufactories. 

Bellows  Manufactories.    Same  as  Woodworkers. 

Bicycle  Manufactories.  These  involve  woodworking,  metal- 
working,  screw  cutting,  brazing,  buffing,  japanning,  enameling, 
electroplating,  rosin  kettles,  oil  and  grease  hazards,  vulcanizing 
and  crate  making,  with  often  a  moral  hazard,  because  the  risks 
as  a  class  have  been  unprofitable  to  their  owners ;  new  patents 
have  superseded  less  desirable  and  salable  types,  and  values 
rapidly  shrink  where  this  is  the  case.  They  are  not  desirable 
risks  and  sometimes  involve  considerable  woodwork,  reslitting 
saws,  etc. 

Billiard  Table  Manufactories.    Same  as  Furniture  Manufactories. 

Blacking  Manufactories.  Shoe.  Advise  Company  as  to  boilers, 
heating,  storage  and  use  of  lamj>black,  oils,  etc.  An  undesir- 
able class  on  account  of  the  use  of  lamp-black  and  oil. 

Blacking  Manufactories.  Stove.  These  are  undesirable  risks,  es- 
pecially where  naphtha  is  used.  The  Company  will  want  full 
advice  as  to  use  of  fire  heat,  use  of  naphtha,  lamp-black,  etc. 

Blacksmith-Shops.  These  are  good  risks  in  the  hands  of  honest 
men — and  most  blacksmiths  are  honest.  If  wheelwright  and 
woodworking  are  connected,  a  higher  rate  should  be  charged, 
according  to  the  hazard.  See  that  forges  are  safely  arranged. 
They  should  not  adjoin  wooden  partitions  or  wooden  sidewalls. 

Blast  Furnaces.  Where  properly  constructed,  the  physical 
hazard  is  not  serious.  The  roof  over  the  casting  floor  should 
be  of  iron.  If  of  wood  it  should  not  be  so  low  as  to  be  ignited 
in  case  of  an  explosion  or  "boil"  of  the  molten  metal.  Great 
care  should  be  observed  in  the  storage  of  charcoal.    An  intelli- 


1:32 


MAXIFACTOKIKS  <>K  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


gent  investigation  should  be  made  as  to  the  supply  of  ore,  of 
limestone  for  flux,  coal,  fuel,  &<•.,  in  order  to  sec  that  the  fur- 
nace is  so  located  as  to  compete  successfully  and  economically 
with  others.  It  may  be  so  handicapped  in  these  respects  as  to 
be  a  worthless  asset  to  the  owners. 
Blanket  Mills.    (Set  Woolen  Mills.) 

Bleacheries.  Dye  and  Print  Works.  Dry-rooms  should  he  care- 
fully inspected  and  risks  should  be  declined  if  steam-pipes  are 
in  contact  with  wood,  or  if  the  steam-pipes  are  so  arranged  as 
to  collect  dyings  or  have  material  above  them.  Where  singeing 
or  napping  is  done  over  an  iron  flue,  it  should  be  outside  of  the 
main  structure  and  in  charge  of  a  careful  man,  not  entrusted  to 
boys.  If  benzine  is  used  as  a  mordant  in  calico  printing  inquire 
as  to  quantity  used  and  how  it  is  used.  The  storage  of  chemicals 
used  and  compounding  should  be  looked  into  and  reported. 

Blind.  Sash  and  Door  Manufactories.  These  have  all  the  hazards 
of  carpenter-shops,  planing-mills,  saw-mills  and  paint- works; 
the  process  tending  to  produce  fine  dust,  shavings,  etc.  The 
paint  used  is  often  a  cheap  quality  of  naphtha  thinned  paint 
and  is  applied  wholesale  by  dipping  and  other  processes,  and 
dangerous  vapors  are  generated.  As  a  class  they  have  been 
very  unprofitable.  Full  rates  should  be  obtained  and  great  care 
observed  in  inspecting  the  boiler-room,  dry-room,  glue-room, 
paint-room,  etc.  The  Company  will  want  full  advice  before 
accepting  the  best  of  the  class. 

Block  and  Pump  Manufactories.  These  are  not  serious  hazards, 
often  involving  hand  work  with  axes,  etc.,  but  the  values  are 
small.     They  need  the  careful  inspection  of  woodworking  risks. 

Boarding  Houses.  These  are  good  risks  in  cities,  provided  they 
are  not  on  the  scale  of  hotels  at  boarding  house  rates.  Where 
they  are  of  a  temporary  character,  erected  of  cheap  lumber,  &c, 
for  the  employees  of  contractors  on  railroad,  dam,  bridge  work, 
etc.,  they  have  usually  cheap,  temporary  flues  and  the  common 
fault  of  stovepipes  passing  through  the  side  walls  and  roofs; 
the  hazards  of  smoking,  often  of  shiftless  and  drunken  men ; 
straw  mattresses  in  dormitories,  &c,  and  should  be  regarded 
as  uninsurable. 

Boat  Builders.  These  are  good  risks  if  carefully  managed. 
Advise  the  Company  as  to  any  planing  or  saw  work;  if  steam 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


433 


is  generated  the  use  of  shavings  under  the  boilers  involves  the 
usual  planing-mill  hazard. 

Boats  and  Boat  Houses.  If  unexposed,  these  are  good  risks  at 
fair  rates,  whether  in  connection  with  hotels  or  club  houses. 
Private  boat-houses  connected  with  dwellings  are.  of  course, 
better  risks,  and  may  be  taken  at  the  barn  rates  of  the  property- 
owner  where  gasoline  or  naphtha  for  launches  is  not  stored. 
See  Automobiles  for  storage  of  gasoline. 

Boating  and  yachting  clubs  are  fairly  good  risks  at  full  rates, 
but  in  the  case  of  hunting  and  fishing  clubs  care  should  be  taken 
to  learn  the  hazards  of  forest  or  grass  fires  and  any  question  of 
moral  hazard  growing  out  of  the  enmity  of  neighbors  who  object 
to  being  excluded  from  "preserved"  streams  or  forests  and  in 
consequence  of  differences  or  quarrels  with  the  club  officers  may 
set  fire  to  buildings  out  of  spite.  It  is  best  to  decline  hunting 
and  fishing  clubs.  The  construction,  especially  of  flues,  is  often 
so  poor  as  to  make  the  physical  hazard  objectionable,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  moral  hazard. 

Bobbin  and  Shuttle  Manufactories.  Principal  danger  in  addition 
to  that  of  regular  woodworking  mills  is  due  to  the  friction  of  the 
long  and  rapidly  moving  bits  employed.  The  wood  shavings 
and  turnings  often  become  ignited  by  friction  and  they  are  liable 
to  spontaneous  combustion  unless  great  care  is  exercised  as  to 
the  use  of  oil.  Like  all  other  woodworking  risks,  the  company 
will  need  full  advice  as  to  the  care  taken,  etc. 

Boiler  Makers.  These  are  good  risks  at  fair  rates,  where  the 
buildings  are  of  a  substantial  character,  and  not  of  cheap  con- 
struction or  low  roofs. 

Bolt  and  Nut  Works.  For  some  reason  these  have  been  unprofit- 
able risks.  The  numerous  fires  have  been  attributed  to  the  oily 
sawdust  used  in  cleaning  processes,  while  many  fires  are  un- 
questionably due  to  the  rusting  of  iron  filings  and  to  the  extensive 
use  of  oil,  &c.  Possibly  these  causes  may  have  had  something 
to  do  with  the  mortality  in  the  class.  The  Company  will  want 
careful  advice  as  to  the  tumbling  barrels,  the  prosperity  of  the 
owner,  general  condition  as  regards  oil  and  grease,  &c,  &c. 

Bone-Black.  Ivory-Black  and  Animal-Black  Manufactories.  These 
are  hazardous  risks  owing  to  the  danger  of  spontaneous  com- 


434 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


bastion  and  the  processes,  and  should  not  be  insured  without 
first  obtaining  the  advice  of  the  company  after  full  particulars 
and  survey.  Inspect  and  report  as  to  furnace  hazard  and  stor- 
age of  manufactured  material. 

Bone-Boiling  Establishments.  These  are  so  objectionable  as 
nuisances  to  all  neighbors  that  few  companies  care  to  write 
them. 

Bone  Mills.   These  are  usually  nuisances  and  should  be  declined. 

Bonnet  and  Hat  Frame  Manufactories.  Advise  fully  as  to  the 
processes,  care  taken,  the  bleaching  department,  &c,  &c. 

Bookbinderies.  These  have  been  unprofitable  risks  at  current 
rates  and  as  usually  managed.  Benzine  is  often  carelessly  used; 
the  heating  of  glue  is  usually  unsafely  arranged ;  paper  clippings 
and  other  rubbish  are  allowed  to  accumulate  around  steam-pipes 
or  near  stoves,  and  the  employees — usually  boys  and  young  girls — 
are  frequently  careless  and  indifferent  to  danger.  Not  a  few 
fires  occur  from  the  putting  away  of  greasy  rags  in  drawers 
where  they  ignite  spontaneously.  Where  these  establishments, 
as  is  frequently  the  case,  are  on  the  upper  floors  of  buildings, 
little  or  no  salvage  is  to  be  expected  in  case  of  fire.  There  are 
few  companies  who  would  not  prefer  to  decline  them  at  ordinary 
rates. 

Boot  and  Shoe  Factories.    See  Shoe  Factories. 

Box  Factories.  These  partake  of  the  hazards  of  planing-mills, 
saw-mills,  dry-rooms,  &c,  &c,  and  should  be  inspected  with 
reference  to  such  dangers.  No  company  would  wish  to  insure 
a  risk  of  this  character  unless  exceptionally  clean  and  well  man- 
aged. Do  not  bind  the  company  without  submitting  the  risk, 
with  full  explanation.  The  majority  of  the  class  are  of  cheap 
construction,  of  uncertain  profit  to  their  owners,  and  employ  a 
cheap  class  of  careless  hands,  whether  wood  or  paper  boxes  are 
made. 

Paper  box  factories  involve  most  of  the  hazards  of  binderies 
and  printers,  improperly  arranged  dry-rooms,  careless  heating 
of  glue,  etc.,  etc. 

Brass  Works.  These  involve  the  hazards  of  casting,  and  re- 
quire care  as  to  patterns,  fallow-boxes  and  moulds,  which  are 
liable  to  be  stored  when  too  hot.  Advise  as  to  fire  heat  used, 
buffing,  lacquering,  enameling,  etc. 


HoW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


435 


Breweries.  These  are  good  risks  if  properly  constructed  and 
carefully  managed.  The  malt  house,  if  any,  should  be  thor- 
oughly cut  off  from  the  brewery  proper,  and  care  should  be 
taken  in  insuring  the  brewery  to  secure  a  co-insurance  clause. 
Report  on  location  and  arrangement  of  malt  mill;  the  mill 
should  be  equipped  with  magnets  to  catch  nails,  etc.,  and  an 
automatic  explosion  vent;  steam  jets,  both  in  mill  and  elevator 
legs,  are  also  a  valuable  protection.  If  spent  grain  drying, 
report  carefully  on  arrangement  of  apparatus  and  storage  of 
material. 

'"Pitching"  should  be  thoroughly  cut  off  and  kettles  should 
have  covers,  and  be  so  protected  as  to  prevent  pitch  from  getting 
to  the  fires  if  they  boil  over.  Pails  of  sand  are  desirable  foi 
extinguishing  pitch  fires.  Electric  lights  are  preferable  for  use 
when  varnishing  the  large  tubs  and  casks. 

The  kilns  should  be  constructed  of  brick  or  iron  throughout 
with  no  woodwork  exposed  to  fire.  Where  any  portion  of  the 
kiln  is  of  wood,  they  are,  of  course,  not  so  safe,  though  many 
are  still  constructed  with  woodwork  resting  on  brickwork.  The 
company  would  do  well  to  decline  them,  however.  The  fine  dust 
sifting  from  the  grain  through  the  drying  floors  of  the  kiln  is 
very  combustible  and  should  be  regularly  removed.  The  kiln 
should  be  so  constructed  that  this  dust,  sprouts,  etc.,  cannot  fall 
upon  the  fire  in  the  furnaces,  which  should  be  covered  with  an 
arch  of  masonry  or  hood  of  sheet  iron  so  that  they  would  fall  to 
one  side  and  not  become  ignited,  thus  setting  fire  to  the  grain 
above. 

If  barrels  are  made  on  the  premises  a  higher  rate  should  be 
charged,  and  the  company  should  be  fully  advised  as  to  process. 
For  rules  of  inspection  see  Barrel  Factories. 

Brick  Manufactories.  These  are  often  constructed  of  cheap 
boards,  warped  by  the  heat  of  the  kiln  and  of  the  sun,  and  so 
thoroughly  dry  as  to  burn  like  tinder.  The  values  are  small 
and  there  is  great  liability  to  overinsurance.  The  better  class  of 
brick  factories  are  of  substantial  construction,  with  the  roof  so 
arranged  that  it  can  be  moved  from  over  the  kiln  when  burning 
brick.  Decline  the  cheap,  dilapidated  class,  and  always  report 
carefully  on  the  construction  and  arrangement  of  kilns,  dry- 
rooms,  etc.    In  modern  factories  the  steam  drying  hazard  is 


136 


MANUFACTORIES  OB  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


often  serious.  Scrutinize  moral  hazard  as  regards  the  exhaus- 
tion of  clay  deposit.     Usually  a  poor  class  of  help  is  employed. 

Bridges.  These  are  of  various  classes,  Covered  railroad 
bridges  of  wood,  covered  free  bridges,  covered  toll  bridges,  open 
or  deck  railroad  free,  open  or  deck  toll  bridges.  Decline  old 
wooden  bridges  liable  to  burn  to  make  way  for  modern  steel 
structures. 

Broom  Corn  Warehouses  and  Barns.  These  have  been  unprofit- 
able to  companies;  whether  because  of  a  moral  hazard  involved 
or  of  liability  to  spontaneous  combustion  from  overheating  of 
fibre  with  the  oil  expressed  from  the  corn,  or  otherwise,  the  class 
has  been  decidedly  unprofitable.     We  prefer  to  decline  them. 

Broom  Manufactories.  These  are  not  good  risks,  unless  except- 
ionally well  constructed  and  with  the  hazards  subdivided.  Re- 
port fully  as  to  the  tires  used,  gluing,  handle-making,  painting, 
varnishing,  bleaching.  &c. 

Brick  Kilns.    See  Brick  Manufactories. 

Brush  Manufactories.  Report  fully  as  to  use  of  fire  heat,  handle- 
making  and  extent  of  woodworking,  gluing,  drying,  pitching, 
varnishing,  &c.  If  pitching  or  glue  work  is  inside,  50  cents 
should  be  added  to  the  rate,  even  if  safely  arranged. 

Bucket  and  Pail  Manufactories.  Metal.  Advise  fully  as  to  solder- 
ing, use  of  fire  heat,  boiler,  painting,  japanning,  etc. 

Bucket  and  Pail  Manufactories.  Paper.  Advise  fully  as  to  process, 
manufacture  of  pulp,  material  used,  fire  heat,  etc. 

Bucket  and  Pail  Manufactories.  Wood.  These  have  been  unprofit- 
able risks  at  current  rates.  They  involve  the  hazards  of  turning 
and  of  woodworking,  cutting  and  sawi.ig  generally,  use  of  heat 
in  the  drying  room,  painting,  varnishing,  etc.  Company  will 
want  full  advices  as  to  these  hazards. 

Builder's  Risks.  These  are  desirable  in  order  to  secure  the 
building  when  finished,  protection  being  necessary  while  in  pro- 
cess of  construction.  As  already  stated,  the  policy  should  cover 
the  builder  and  the  owner,  with  loss  if  any  payable  as  interest 
may  appear,  to  prevent  double  insurance  and  a  moral  hazard, 
and  also  to  prevent  disputes  in  case  of  loss.    (See  page  129.) 

Building  Materials.  Lime,  hair,  cement,  etc.  See  Lumber- 
Yards. 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


437 


Burial  Case  and  Coffin  Manufactories.  Metal.  These  are  less 
hazardous  than  wood  case  manufactories.  .Advise  fully  as  to 
various  processes,  varnishing,  boiler-room,  &c. 

Burial  Case  and  Coffin  Manufactories.  Wood.  These  are  little 
better  than  furniture  manufactories.  Advise  fully  as  to  gluing, 
varnishing,  shellacking,  sawing,  planing,  drying,  boiler-room, 
etc. 

Cabinet  and  Furniture  Factories.  Few  classes  of  risks  are  so  in- 
adequately rated  as  these.  They  combine  the  hazards  of  planing, 
wood  and  shavings  fuel,  varnishing,  gluing,  sawing,  and  almost 
every  dangerous  process  incident  to  woodworking.  Small,  hand- 
power  shops  are  better  risks.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  larger 
shops  should  not  be  constructed  with  reference  to  safety,  having 
division  walls  between  the  various  processes,  especially  separ- 
ating the  more  dangerous  ones  from  the  other  values.  Advise 
the  company  fully  as  to  the  boiler-room,  glue  pots,  sawing, 
planing,  &c,  &c.  Special  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
upholstering  department.  If  pickers  are  used  for  tearing  ma- 
terial they  should  be  entirely  isolated.  ( >therwise  all  the  danger 
of  the  prohibited  part  of  a  cotton-mill  or  a  jute  factory  may  be 
found,  without  the  safeguards  which  are  incident  to  the  class 
named. 

Camp  Meeting  Ground  Buildings.    (See  page  61.) 

Candle  and  Soap  Manufactories.  These,  as  a  rule,  are  undesir- 
able and  should  be  declined.  They  are  frequently  regardful  as 
nuisances  in  a  neighborhood,  and  have  not  been  profitable  as  a 
class.  Some  of  the  modern  soap  factories  where  no  rendering 
is  done,  constructed  with  reference  to  economy  of  output  and 
safety  from  fire,  are  exceptions  to  the  rule;  but  they  are  not 
numerous. 

Candy  and  Confectionery  Manufactories.  These  have  not  been 
profitable,  and  the  stock  is  specially  susceptible  to  damage  by 
smoke  and  water  in  case  of  fire,  and  is  too  frequently  a  total  loss. 
The  line  should  be  small.  Explosions  have  occurred  in  them 
from  the  use  of  flour  and  starch  dust  and  from  some  of  the 
essences  employed.  One  of  our  New  York  establishments  was 
thoroughly  wrecked,  some  years  ago,  by  an  explosion  of  dust 
which  was  never  fully  explained.  Report  carefully  as  to  setting 
of  candy  furnaces,  batch- warmers,  roasters,  dry-rooms,  &c. 


i:;s 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


Cane  Manufactories.  Advise  as  to  gluing,  varnishing,  shellac- 
ing, drying,  bending,  and  any  use  of  fire  heat. 

Canning  Factories.  These  have  not  been  profitable  ;isaclass. 
They  have  the  hazards  of  soldering,  tinning  shops,  gasolene 
soldering  pots,  cY/c,  etc.,  mid  are  generally  located  beyond  the 
reach  of  fire  departments.  Full  rates  should  be  obtained  and 
the  company  should  be  consulted  before  writing.  It  is  vitally 
important  to  know  if  supply  of  vegetables,  fruit,  fish,  etc.  is 
permanent  or  unreliable.  Often  of  cheap  construction  and  not 
permanent . 

Cap  and  Hat  Manufactories.    (See  Hat  Factories.) 

Card  Clothing  Manufactories.  No  general  suggestion  is  necessary 
for  the  inspection  of  these  risks.  They  have  only  ordinary  haz- 
ards and  should  pay  full  rates.  The  stock  is  usually  claimed  to 
be  a  total  loss  because  of  rusting  of  wires,  etc. 

Card  (Playing)  Manufactories.  They  have  all  of  the  hazards  of 
printing  and  lithographing  establishments  and  should  be  in- 
spected and  reported  upon  as  such.  The  rules  for  inspecting 
boiler  rooms  for  cleanliness,  &c,  need  to  be  observed.  If  prop- 
erly managed  the  processes  ought  not  to  be  hazardous.  The 
sti  >ck  is  a  damageable  one  and  full  rates  should  be  obtained  on  it. 

Car  Stables  or  Barns,  Horse  and  Street  Car.  Advise  fully  as 
to  the  number  of  cars  that  can  be  stored  in  the  various  buildings 
covered,  and  as  to  heating,  whether  by  stoves  or  electrical  ap- 
paratus. An  important  fact  in  insuring  cars  in  cities  is  too  fre- 
quently overlooked ;  insurance  is  often  sought  for  a  less  percent- 
age of  value  at  risk  than  is  proper,  the  company  relying  upon 
the  number  of  cars  that  would  be  outside  of  the  various  shelters 
at  the  time  any  one  should  burn.  While  the  rate  is  usually  1  >ased 
upon  the  expectation  of  the  cars  being  outside  of  the  car  barns 
for  a  large  percentage  of  the  twenty-four  hours,  there  are,  in 
fact,  generally  cars  of  value  to  the  full  amount  of  the  insurance 
in  the  car  barns  and  often  on  the  upper  floors,  where  they  could 
not  be  run  out.  This  is  especially  true  of  lines  running  summer 
and  winter  cars.  During  summer,  the  winter  cars  are  all  inside 
and  probably  upstairs;  during  winter,  the  summer  cars  are 
upstairs;  and  the  insurance  companies  would  probably  have  a 
total  loss  unless  with  a  full  co-insurance  clause.  Be  careful  to 
estimate  storage  capacity  of  the  barns.    Advise  Company  fully 


)|(>W  TO  INSPECT   Til  KM. 


439 


as  to  motive  power,  horse  or  electric  trolley  or  storage  battery, 
<>r  gasolene  motors.  Very  often  repair  shops  are  connected  and 
the  various  hazards  found  in  them  should  be  reported  on  in 
detail. 

Car  Manufactories.  Full  advices  as  to  the  woodworking  haz- 
ards, planing,  sawing,  gluing,  upholstering,  &c,  will  be  needed 
by  the  Company.  Like  most  combined  wood  and  metal  workers 
the  rates  have  been  too  low  on  them,  the  wood-working  hazard 
having  been  underestimated. 

Carpet  Cleaning  Establishments.  These  are  invariably  nuisances 
and  disliked  by  neighbors,  and  under  no  circumstances  should 
a  policy  be  issued  without  the  consent  of  the  Company  first 
obtained — and  it  would  be  difficult  to  get  this  consent.  Benzine 
and  naphtha  are  likely  to  be  used  in  large  quantities,  and  this 
should  be  carefully  investigated  and  reported  upon. 

Carpet  Lining  Manufactories.  These  should  be  rated  and  treated 
as  wadding  and  batting  mills. 

Carpet  Manufactories.    (See  Cotton  and  Woolen  Mills.) 

Carpenter  Shops.  The  large  steam  power  establishments,  using 
planers  and  circular  saws,  should  be  classed  as  to  rates  and  haz- 
ards with  sash  and  blind  factories.  Small,  hand-power  shops, 
unless  they  have,  as  is  too  frequently  the  case,  a  stovepipe  passing 
out  of  the  window  or  through  the  roof,  or  the  stove  is  unsafely 
arranged  inside,  are  good  risks  at  a  fair  rate.  Old  stoves  with 
cracks  in  them  are  too  frequently  to  be  seen  in  these  risks,  and 
lumber  is  not  infrequently  left  standing  against  stovepipes  to 
dry.  Advise  the  Company  fully  in  the  case  of  the  large  shops 
before  binding. 

Carriage  Shops.  These  vary  as  much  in  hazard  as  they  do  in 
size.  Where  well  managed  and  arranged  they  are  not  bad  risks, 
but  require  full  rates.  The  use  of  linseed  oil  makes  them  es- 
pecially liable  to  spontaneous  combustion,  and  a  careful  exam- 
ination of  closets  and  out  of  the  way  places  is  necessary  on  the 
part  of  the  inspector.  In  fact,  in  risks  of  this  character  there 
ought  not  be  any  closets  or  concealed  places. 

Cartridge  Manufactories.  These  have,  in  addition  to  the  hazards 
of  metal-workers  the  serious  hazard  of  loading.  Owners,  are, 
as  a  rule,  impressed  with  the  necessity  of  isolating  this  process. 
It  should  be  far  enough  from  the  main  structure  to  prevent 
damage  to  it  by  explosion  or  fire. 


i  to 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


Celluloid  Works.  This  process  is  s<>  dangerous  that  it  is  hest  to 
let  it  go  uninsured.  It  is  manufactured  from  gnncotton  and 
camphor,  and  it  is  claimed  articles  made  from  it,  such  as  combs, 
billiard  balls,  trusses,  etc.,  take  fire  sometimes  spontaneously, 
ignite  almost  like  powder,  and  are  so  inflammable  that  a  large 
volume  of  water  seems  only  to  add  to  the  intensity  of  flame  and 
heat,  and  the  fire  spreads  so  rapidly  that  little  money  can  be 
made  by  underwriters  assuming  the  hazard.  There  are  different 
grades  manufactured,  some  being  susceptible  of  ignition  at  a 
very  low  temperature.  The  stuff  is  explosive  during  the  pro- 
cess of  manufacture,  and  if  confined  and  subjected  to  heat.  The 
presence  of  the  manufactured  material  in  large  quantities  makes 
such  establishments  subject  to  very  quick  total  destruction  in 
case  of  fire. 

Cement  Mills.    Thes<  ght  not  to  be  unprofitable  risks,  but 

they  have  been  at  rates  of  3  The  great  hazard  is.  of  course, 
the  furnace  hazard  in  the  burning  of  the  material,  and  there  is 
also  the  hazard  of  grinding  it,  which  makes  a  large  amount  of 
dust  which  is  likely  to  accumulate  on  the  bearings  and  result  in 
hot  boxes  unless  they  are  very  carefully  arranged  to  protect  them 
from  the  flying  dust.  Recently  the  hazard  of  pulverizing  coal 
for  fuel  has  been  introduced  into  these  risks.  It  is  claimed  that 
this  process  has  burned  several  of  them,  the  hazard  b?ing  that 
of  pulverizing  bituminous  coal  and  blowing  it  into  the  kilns 
under  air  pressure,  which  is  claimed  to  create  a  bad  explosion 
hazard,  and  at  any  rate  the  accumulation  of  fine  particles  of 
pulverized  coal,  I  should  think,  would  create  a  spontaneous 
combustion  hazard.  There  should  positively  be  no  flame  lighting 
in  the  coal  preparing  department,  and  it  should  be  thoroughly 
ventilated.  While  the  process  is  not  necessarily  a  dangerous 
one,  yet  fires  have  been  so  numerous  as  to  lead  to  a  suspicion 
that  there  is  an  undiscovered  hazard  in  the  class.  The  Company 
will  want  full  and  explicit  advice  before  issuing  the  policy. 

Chair  Manufactories.  These  have  the  hazard  of  turning  shops, 
saw-mills,  planing-mills,  shavings  for  fuel,  boilers,  and  the  ad- 
ditional hazard  of  dipping  the  chairs  bodily  into  tanks  of  paint 
and  varnish  in  which  cheap  naphtha  dryers  are  used.  A  fire  in 
such  a  room  would  spread  rapidly  and  get  beyond  control.  It 
will  be  observed  that  the  manufactured  chairs  are  usually 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


441 


wrapped  with  paper  and  excelsior  and  then  stacked  in  store- 
rooms in  the  worst  possible  shape  for  a  fire  to  spread.  If  a  fire 
once  starts  there  is  little  chance  of  its  being  extinguished.  Full 
rates  should  be  obtained  and  the  Company  advised  fully  before 
binding. 

Chandelier  Manufactories.    (See  Gas  Fixture  Manufactories.) 

Charcoal  Grinding.  Process  is  a  dangerous  one  and  the  risks 
slu mid  be  declined. 

Cheese  Factories.  1 1  is  safe  to  refer  these  to  the  Company  with 
full  particulars  as  to  tires  used  and  carefulness  of  management, 
and  as  to  whether  owner  manufactures  from  his  own  dairy  or 
for  farmers  generally.  It  is  claimed  that  factories  owned  or 
operated  by  corporations  or  associations  are  not  so  desirable  as 
those  owned  and  operated  by  single  individuals.  Boiler  and 
chimney  arrangements  should  be  carefully  inspected  and  reported 
upon. 

Chemical  Works.  These  should  be  referred  to  the  Company 
with  full  information  as  to  the  class  of  chemicals  manufactured. 
They  are  frequently  nuisances  and  so  regarded  by  neighbors. 
The  furnace  hazard  exists  in  them  to  an  unusual  degree,  and 
the  construction  of  the  furnaces  and  chimneys  should  be  care- 
fully inspected  and  reported  upon. 

Chocolate  and  Cocoa  Manufactories.  These  are  usually  saturated 
with  cocoa-nut  oil  from  top  to  bottom  and  burn  like  tinder. 
Cleanliness  should  be  required.  The  roasting  hazard  exists  in 
these  factories  to  about  as  great  an  extent  as  it  does  in  coffee 
roasters,  and  they  should  be  arranged  in  the  same  way  as  is  re- 
quired in  such  risks  and  the  same  arrangement  should  be  had 
for  the  handling  of  the  hot  beans  after  roasting.  All  other 
hazards  are  ordinary  in  character  and  need  no  specific  sugges- 
tions to  an  intelligent  agent. 

Churches.  The  chief  hazard,  of  course,  is  the  furnace  and 
heating  apparatus.  It  is  particularly  important  that  furnaces 
and  hot  air  pipes  should  be  carefully  inspected  and  the  risk  de- 
clined unless  they  are  arranged  in  a  perfectly  safe  manner,  there 
being  a  proper  clearance  between  the  top  of  the  furnace  and  the 
nearest  wood,  and  also  between  the  hot  air  pipes  and  any  wood 
that  may  be  near  them;  the  great  danger  in  these  risks  is  that 
they  are  left  alone  so  much,  fires  being  started  in  cold  weather 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


when  they  are  to  be  used,  and  forced  so  as  to  heat  the  building, 
making  the  heating  apparatus  much  more  dangerous  than  where 
it  is  in  use  continuously.  It  should  be  remembered  that  steam 
pipes  must  not  be  in  contact  with  wood.  Examine  the  base- 
ment particularly  to  see  whether  the  janitor  is  careful  as  to 
handling  wood,  shavings  and  other  fuel.  The  valuable  paint- 
ings, tapestries  and  laces  of  the  altars  of  Roman  Catholic 
churches  make  losses  on  these  more  serious  than  in  the  simple 
structures  of  Presbyterian,  Methodist  and  Baptist  Churches. 
In  the  large  cities,  however,  some  of  these,  especially  Episcopal 
churches,  are  ornate  in  their  fresco  work  and  finish. 

The  organ  in  the  church  should  not  be  separately  insured, 
unless  by  some  other  company  than  the  one  who  furnishes  this 
Instruction  Book.  The  most  equitable  way  of  insuring  the 
organ,  which  is  particularly  liable  to  damage,  is  to  distribute 
the  insurance  on  it  among  all  of  the  companies  taking  the 
building. 

Cigarette  Manufactories.  These  should  be  declined  at  ordinary 
rates.  They  need  full  rates,  the  most  careful  inspection,  and 
any  company  insuring  them  will  want  full  advice  on  all  points 
of  danger. 

Cigar  Manufactories.  These  are  seldom  found  outside  of  towns. 
They  ought  not  to  be  hazardous,  with  reasonable  care,  but  the 
stock  is  particularly  liable  to  damage.  If  cigar  boxes  made,  in- 
spect and  report  as  for  woodworking.  Dust  explosions  are  in- 
cidents of  these  risks  and  should  be  guarded  against. 

Sweat  room  hazard;  inspect  carefully,  especially  as  to  setting 
of  stoves,  &c. 

An  explosion  occurred  in  the  shavings  vault  of  the  William 
Wicke  factory  in  New  York,  destroying  large  values.  Another 
in  the  cigar  box  factory  of  Sheip  &  Co.,  Philadelphia.  In  the 
latter  case  the  door  at  the  bottom  of  the  shavings  shaft  was  di- 
rectly facing  the  furnace  doors  or  the  boilers.  In  this  risk  the 
hazard  was  improved  after  the  explosion  by  carrying  the  explo- 
sive Cyclone  Separator  dust  through  metallic  conductors  to  a 
tank  of  water  on  the  roof  of  the  factory. 

Cleaning  and  Dye  Works.  These  use  naphtha  and  benzine  in 
such  quantities  as  to  make  them  undesirable.  There  are  ex- 
ceptions to  the  class,  however,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  they 


now  to  inspect  them. 


should  not  be  so  constructed  and  the  dangerous  processes  so 
isolated  as  to  admit  of  the  latter  burning  out  without  damage 
to  the  larger  values.  The  di  ving  hazard  is  the  most  serious; 
inspect  carefully  and  report  fully. 

Cloak  and  Mantilla  Manufactories.  Those  have  not  been  profit- 
able as  a  class,  and  great  care  should  be  taken  as  to  moral  hazard. 
A  company  is  liable  to  extravagant  claims  on  the  part  of  dis- 
honest parties;  a  small  hole  burned  in  a  garment  is  often  urged 
as  a  reason  for  treating  it  as  a  total  loss.  The  pressing  hazard, 
heating  of  irons,  etc.,  are  serious. 

Clock  Manufactories.  These  may  involve  both  metal  and  wood 
working  hazards,  and  need  to  be  examined  as  to  both,  and  the 
company  fully  advised.  Buffing  hazard  serious.  Japanning 
with  metal  cases  is  serious  feature. 

Clothing  Manufactories.  These  ought  to  be  good  risks,  but  they 
seldom  are,  and  loss  claims  are  large,  especially  where  one 
garment  in  a  suit — a  vest,  for  example — if  injured  is  made  the 
basis  of  a  claim  for  total  loss  on  the  entire  suit.  Full  rates  should 
be  obtained.  Careful  inspection  is  necessary  to  detect  careless- 
ness in  the  iron  heating  department,  and  the  Company  should  be 
fully  advised.  Where  cloth  is  cut  by  electric  power  the  rules  of 
the  National  Board  must  be  followed. 

Club  Houses.  City.  These  are  not  good  risks  as  a  rule.  Adjust- 
ments usually  bring  hard  feeling  unless  exceptionally  high  prices 
are  paid  for  dishes,  furniture,  &c,  as  members  of  the  club,  with- 
out personal  knowledge  as  to  facts,  often  form  erroneous  im- 
pressions from  reports  of  employes  as  to  the  fairness  of  the 
company.  They  approach  very  closely  to  the  hotel  hazard  and 
should  be  rated  at  about  the  same  figure. 

Boating,  Yachting,  Hunting  and  Fishing  clubs  should  be  ex- 
amined as  to  forest  fires,  or  of  possible  enmity  of  neighbors  of  a 
poaching  disposition  where  hunting  and  fishing  on  preserves. 

Coal  Breakers.  Be  sure  there  is  a  coal  mine  at  the  foot  of  the 
breaker.  If  the  supply  is  exhausted  the  breaker  is  worthless. 
The  company  will  want  full  advice  before  issuing  policy. 

Coal  Mine  Property.  Pockets.  Miners'  Dwellings,  &c.  Have  not 
been  profitable  as  a  class.  To  pick  out  good  risks  needs  great 
care,  common-sense  and  good  judgment.  Decline  if  exposed  by 
slack  washing.    Be  sure  there  is  supply  of  coal. 


444 


M  INUFACTOR-IES  OB  SPEC!  \l. 


HAZARDS. 


Coal  Oil  Refineries.  Decline. 

Coffee  Roasting  Establisments.  The  stork  is  usually  a  total  loss, 
and  the  buildings  are  usually  carelessly  built.  The  cooling  and 
drying  troughs  should  be  of  metal.  The  coffee  roasters  should 
be  on  a  fireproof  Moor.  Frequently  they  rest  upon  bricks  laid 
on  top  of  an  ordinary  wooden  floor.  Fire  is  certain  to  occur  in 
this  class  sooner  or  later.  Unless  standard,  they  should  be  de- 
clined, and  even  then  full  rates  should  be  obtained. 

While  the  coffee  roasting  portion  of  the  risk  is  very  hazardous 
and  should  practically  be  in  a  fireproof  room,  it  is  a  fact  that 
fires  have  started  more  frequently  in  the  mill  room  than  in  the 
roasting  room,  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  physical  hazard 
is  apprehended  and  guarded  against  in  one  place  and  lost  sight 
of  in  the  other.  The  mills  should  be  of  iron  and  not  of  wood. 
Man}'  fires  have  been  caused  in  this  room  by  the  tobacco  smoking 
of  operatives.  Roasters  that  remove  from  the  fire  are  safer  than 
those  that  draw  out.  Coolers  should  lie  of  iron  witli  facilities 
f(  >r  daily  cleaning.  \V<  »  >den  troughs  and  other  than  metal  c<  ><  >lers 
are  unsafe. 

Coffin  Manufactories.    (See  Burial  Case  Manufactories.) 

Cold  Storage  Warehouses.  The  physical  hazard  of  these  risks 
is  not  great,  but  there  is  danger  of  a  large  loss  where  systems 
of  warehouses  are  dependent  upon  one  source  of  supply  for  the 
refrigerating  material.  The  New  York  Fire  Insurance  Ex- 
change has  endeavored  to  provide  for  this  consequential  loss  by 
requiring  that  where  the  clause  is  used  making  a  fixed  liability 
on  merchandise  for  consequential  losses  resulting  from  the  de- 
struction or  disablement  of  machinery,  the  policy  must  specify 
the  location  of  the  building  containing  the  machinery  referred 
to,  and  the  rate  on  the  insured  property  must  be  equal  to  the 
combined  rates  on  contents  of  both  buildings.  It  may  happen 
that  the  pipes  after  leaving  the  refrigerating  plant  pass  through 
a  number  of  other  buildings  whose  destruction  would  intercept 
the  process  and  allow  the  merchandise  to  spoil.  It  is  clear  that 
in  such  cases  a  company  insuring  the  merchandise  would  be 
carrying  the  risks  of  all  the  buildings  whose  destruction  would 
interfere  with  the  process  and  should,  therefore,  have  a  high 
rate.  Unless  specifically  assumed  in  writing  on  the  policy,  a 
company  would  not  be  liable  for  a  loss  due  to  a  change  of  tern- 


HOW    To   INSPECT  THEM. 


44:» 


perature  owiug  to  any  interruption  of  the  process,  but  it  is  best 
not  to  rely  entirely  on  this  exemption  from  claim,  as  hard  feeling 
would  result  in  case  of  loss  and  claim  denied.  (See  index  for 
forms. ) 

Interference  by  Boards  of  Health,  condemning  food  products, 
has  sometimes  caused  total  loss  where  there  was  actually  small 
intrinsic  damage.  Rates  are  rarely  adequate  for  contents  of  cold 
storage  warehouses.  In  some  cases  the  stock  would  be  no  more 
desirable  than  the  plants  in  a  greenhouse. 

Colleges  and  Academies.    (See  Academies.) 

Confectionery  Manufactories.    (See  Candy.) 

Cooper  Shops.  The  large,  steam  plants  are  dangerous  special 
hazards,  unless  constructed  with  reference  to  division  of  the 
danger  by  separating  the  various  departments.  The  company 
should  be  fully  advised  before  issuing  the  policy,  concerning 
these  points,  location  and  arrangement  of  kilns,  heaters, 
extent  of  woodworking  and  general  condition. 

Copper  Stamp  Mills.    (See  Stamp  Mills.) 

Cord  Wood.  This  should  not  be  insured.  It  is  usually  piled 
in  the  woods  where  cut  or  along  railroads,  subjecting  it  to  the 
spark  hazard,  and  is  almost  invariably  exposed  to  running  grass 
and  brush  fires.  No  obtainable  rate  is  likely  to  pay  the  cost  of 
insuring  it. 

Cork  Manufactories.  The  grinding  process  should  be  separated. 
Fires  are  very  liable  to  occur  from  the  dry  cork  dust  by  spon- 
taneous combustion  and  otherwise.  As  a  class,  the  risk  has 
proved  to  be  an  undesirable  one.  They  really  involve  hazards 
of  woodworkers  and  should  be  rated  accordingly.  The  stock 
is  very  damageable. 

Cotton  Gins.  These  should  be  declined.  There  are  few  com- 
panies who  write  them.  Fires  are  frequent,  caused  by  foreign 
substances,  flinty  stones,  matches,  &c,  passing  through  the  gin, 
and  by  spontaneous  combustion  of  cotton  fibre  saturated  with 
oil  from  the  seed,  expressed  during  the  process  of  ginning,  or  by 
electric  sparks  from  the  belts ;  or  by  incendiarism  on  the  part  of 
dissatisfied  hands.  There  is  also  a  moral  hazard  likely  to  creep 
in  the  older  gins  due  to  improved  processes  of  ginning.  Ad- 
justments are  generally  unsatisfactory,  and  companies  as  a  rule 
decline  them. 


\l  AM  FACT<  iRIES  OR  SPEC]  VL  HAZARDS. 


Cotton  in  Transit.  Railroads  or  Steamboats.  Should  not  be  in- 
sured without  consent  of  the  company  first  obtained. 

Cotton  and  Woolen  Mills.  Since  the  inventions  of  Hargreaves, 
Crompton,  Cartwright  and  Peel,  great  improvements  have  been 
made  in  cotton  and  woolen  mills,  but  still  more  important  lias 
been  the  progress  in  the  direction  of  the  prevention  and  extinc- 
tion of  fire.  The  first-class  cotton  or  woolen  mill  of  to-day  is  a 
very  different  fire  risk  from  that  of  even  twenty  years  ago. 
There  is  still,  however,  a  large  number -of  mill  owners  who  are 
either  ignorant  or  indifferent  as  to  the  truth  of  certain  well 
established  and  generally  conceded  facts — such,  for  instance,  as 
that  steam-pipes  will  ignite  wood;  that  cotton  or  woolen  waste 
will  burn  spontaneously  and  should  not  he  left  in  the  mill  over 
night,  that,  consequently,  extreme  cleanliness  should  be  ob- 
served ;  and  that  the  picker-room  being,  as  statistics  show,  the 
most  dangerous  part  of  the  risk — especially  in  cotton  mills — 
should  always  be  outside  of  the  mill,  and  so  protected  that,  in 
case  of  its  burning,  it  will  not  endanger  the  mill  itself. 

I  shall  endeavor,  by  placing  before  agents  such  statistics  of  fires 
as  may  not  exact  too  much  space,  to  help  them  t<  >  c<  mvince  those 
manufacturers  who  still  entertain  doubts  on  these  important 
points.  Failing  in  this  well-meant  attempt,  however,  I  think 
no  obtainable  rate  should  be  a  sufficient  inducement  for  a  com- 
pany to  insure  the  mills  of  such  owners  as  may  prefer  to  wait 
until  the  more  expensive  teaching  of  personal  experience  has 
demonstrated  the  truth  of  our  statements. 

It  may  be  well  at  this  point  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
fires  in  cotton  and  woolen  mills  result  more  frequently  from 
steam-pipes,  spontaneous  combustion  and  pickers  than  from  any 
other  three  causes. 

As  to  the  dangers  of  steam-pipes,  see  page  164  and  as  to  the 
danger  of  spontaneous  combustion  see  page  140. 

Construction.  Mills  should  be  constructed  on  slow  burning 
principles  already  explained,  pages  124,  125,  etc.,  especially  with 
reference  to  their  being  easily  kept  clean.  Hollow  wooden  cor- 
nices should  be  avoided,  an  ordinary  bracket  cornice  being 
equally  ornamental  and  much  safer.  Boxings  of  eaves  in  attics, 
etc.,  are  objectionable,  as  is  the  ceiling  of  roofs,  walls,  or  under 
surface  of  beams;  in  fact  no  concealed  place  should  be  left  large 
enough  for  rats  to  secrete  waste  or  oily  cotton,  or  build  nests  in. 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


447 


All  wool  spouts  or  chutes  should  he  closed  when  not  in  use, 
that  they  may  not  conduct  fire  from  story  to  story  or  increase 
the  draft.  Band  holes  should  be  boxed  and  sills  of  doors  laid 
high  to  admit  of  flooding,  at  least  one  inch  deep,  in  case  of  fire. 
The  floors  should  be  of  heavy  plank,  with  matched  (tongued  and 
grooved)  flooring  above  this,  and  may  be  rendered  almost  fire- 
proof, if  laid  in  mortar.  A  mortared  floor  of  this  kind  saved  the 
Pennacook  Cotton  Mill,  at  Fisherville,  N.  H.,  in  December,  1866 
— a  fire  burning  the  entire  roof  off  without  extending  below. 

Unless  mortar  of  a  good  quality  is  used  and  well  laid,  it  is 
liable  to  disintegrate  and  afford  burrowing  places  for  rats  and 
mice  between  the  planking. 

The  stairways  should  he  outside  in  a  fire-proof  porch,  or  en- 
closed in  brick  shafts  (walls  of  shaft  to  extend  through  roof), 
with  standard  fire  doors  on  all  communications  to  the  different 
floors;  they  should  not  be  endangered  or  mode  impassable, 
by  having  the  supply  of  oils  kept  under  or  near  them. 
Elevators  should  also  be  in  the  porch,  or  in  brick  shaft  similar 
to  stairs.  Belt  towers  should  be  arranged  in  the  same  manner: 
power  being  transmitted  by  shafts  through  the  wall  into  the 
several  floors  (see.  page  4f4.)  Tops  of  vertical  shafts  should 
be  covered  overhead  by  skylights  glazed  with  thick  glass,  pro- 
tected above  and  below  by  wire  netting. 

The  loose  flyings  of  cotton  or  wool  should  be  carefully  swept 
from  the  upper  surfaces  of  stove-pipes  or  steam-pipes,  and 
from  rafters  and  other  wood-work,  especially  near  belts,  which, 
at  a  high  rate  of  speed  sometimes  generate  electricity  and  sparks 
sufficiently  strong  to  ignite  wood  at  a  distance  of  eight  inches 
from  the  pulley  or  belt.  A  fire  occurred  in  this  manner  in  the 
day  time,  in  the  Appleton  Cotton  Mills,  of  Lowell,  Mass. 
When  first  discovered  a  constant  stream  of  sparks  was  passing 
between  the  belt  and  the  corner  of  the  timber  which  had  been 
on  fire. 

I  quote  from  the  Journal  of  the  American  Institute  and  the 
report  of  the  late  Mr.  James  B.  Francis,  C.  E.,  of  Lowell,  Mass. : 

"It  is  not  infrequent  to  find  in  the  belt-boxes  of  a  mill  an  accumulation  of 
dust  and  flyings  of  cotton  or  wool,  covering  everything  not  in  rapid  motion  to 
a  sensible  depth.  In  this  case  the  belt  box  was  very  clean,  to  which  fact,  per- 
haps, may  be  attributed  the  slow  progress  of  the  fire  and  the  detection  of  its 
cause." 


Us 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


•'Electrical  excitement,  manifested  by  sparks,  shocks,  and  the  symmetrical 
arrangement  of  the  fibres  of  cotton  and  wool,  is  so  common  in  our  col  ton  and 
woolen  mills  as  to  excite  no  remark,  it  is,  however,  very  different  at  differenl 
times.  It.  is  frequently  used  to  light  gas;  a  person  standing  on  the  wooden 
floor,  and  presenting  one  finger  to  a  belt  from  which  he  can  draw  sparks,  and 
another  finger  to  the  gas  as  it  issues  from  a  metal  burner,  the  gas  is  instantly 
lighted.     When  the  electrical  excitement  is  strong,  t  he  same  t  hin  g  can  be  done 

at  a  considerable  distance  by  several  persons  holding  each  others  hands.  It 
has  never  been  observed  here  before,  that  any  other  substance  than  gas  could 
be  I  bus  ignited.    Since  the  fire,  however,  the  xVgent  of  the  Appleton  Company 

has  sitceeded  in  igniting,  tinder  by  the  sparks  passing  between  the  belt  and  the  top  of 
the  bolt,  and  I  have  since  done  the  same  thing." 

"Many  fires  have  occurred  in  our  cotton  mills  which  could  not  be  accounted 
for  at  the  time;  ample  means  are  provided  for  extinguishing  fire,  if  promptly 
applied,  which  they  are  likely  to  be  when  the  machinery  is  in  operation,  when, 
of  course,  the  workpeople  are  at  hand.  So  far  as  I  have  observed,  electrical 
phenomena  are  exhibited  in  the  mills  only  when  the  machinery  or  shafting  is 
in  motion.  By  the  light  of  the  late  fire  at  the  Appleton  Mills,  it  appears  prob- 
able thai  many  other  tires  which  were  totally  inexplicable  at  the  time  of  their 
occurence,  may  be  attributed  to  this  cause." 

LIGHTING.  If  by  kerosene  lamps,  they  should  not  be  sus- 
pended by  strings  or  cords;  wires  or  chains  alone  being  safe. 
They  should  not  be  nearer  to  the  ceilings  or  wood-work  above 
them  than  thirty-six  (36)  inches,  and  should  be  protected  by 
suspended  shades,  and  not  by  metal  nailed  against  wood-work 
above,  which  may  conceal  charring  without  preventing  it.  An 
instance  is  mentioned  by  Mr.  Braid  wood,  Superintendent  of  the 
London  Fire  Brigade,  where  a  gas-light  set  fire  to  a  ceiling 
twenty-eight  and  one-half  inches  from  it. 

If  lights  are  protected  by  coverings,  whether  of  wire  or  glass, 
care  should  be  observed  in  keeping  them  clear  of  the  dust,  fly- 
ings of  cotton,  etc.  Unless  this  is  seen  to,  shades  are  object- 
ionable, as  they  serve  only  to  collect  inflammable  materia] 
in  dangerous  proximity  to  the  flame. 

Many  fires  are  caused  by  swinging  brackets,  unprovided  with 
stops  to  prevent  their  being  swung  under  or  near  wood-work. 
If  kerosene  is  used,  only  a  safe  article,  not  Jess  than  110°  flash 
test  should  be  permitted.  If  gas  is  manufactured  from  benzine, 
benzole,  naphtha,  gasolene,  or  any  product  of  petroleum,  the 
reservoir  should  be  under  ground,  at  least  thirty  (30)  feet  from 
the  mill,  and  the  air-pump  or  blower,  if  in  the  building,  should 
be  provided  with  an  automatic  valve  to  prevent  the  passage  of 


1!()\V  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


440 


gas  to  the  air-pump  from  the  reservoir.  The  air  should  be 
taken  into  the  air-pump  or  blower  through  a  pipe  connecting 
with  tbe  outside  of  the  building,  so  that  any  back  pressure 
will  send  the  vapor  into  the  open  air  instead  of  into  the 
building.  The  installation  should  be  in  accordance  with  the 
rules  and  requirements  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers.   (See  page  160.) 

No  fire-heat  should  be  applied  to  the  gasolene  in  order  to  make 
it  vaporize,  for  the  reason  that  gas-pipes  are  quite  certain  to  be, 
at  some  point,  so  placed  as  to  be  subject  to  severe  cold,  and  the 
result  will  almost  inevitably  be  condensation,  which  is  extremely 
dangerous. 

No  material  for  making  gas  must  be  stored  where,  in  case  of 
fire,  it  would  endanger  the  building  or  insured  property. 

The  gas-metre  should  not  be  exposed  to  fire  in  those  parts  of 
the  mill  most  liable  to  it,  such  as  the  picker-room,  dry-room,  or 
in  the  boiler-room,  where  a  leakage  might  ignite  at  the  furnace. 
(See  page  414. ) 

The  Social  Mill,  of  Woonsocket,  R.  I.,  a  mill  of  50,000  spin- 
dles, was  entirely  destroyed  by  a  fire  which  might  have  been 
easily  extinguished  but  for  the  fact  that  at  its  very  commence- 
ment, it  attacked  a  large  metre,  melted  a  lead  pipe  and,  filling 
every  room  with  gas,  defied  all  attempts  to  save  the  building. 

Watchman.  Only  a  reliable  and  sober  man  should  be  em- 
ployed, thoroughly  conversant  with  all  the  pre  appliances  of 
the  mill.  The  keys  or  pulls  of  his  watch  or  clock  should  be 
located  at  the  extremity  of  each  room  farthest  from  the  entrance, 
necessitating  his  traversing  the  entire  length  of  the  room  to 
make  his  record.  Only  sperm  or  lard  oil  should  be  used  in  his 
lantern,  which  should  be  a  covered,  one.  It  should  be  locked 
and  the  key  to  open  it  kept  in  boiler-room  to  prevent  opening 
the  lantern  in  the  mill.  (See  page  421.)  A  register  should  be 
kept  of  his  performance  of  duty,  and  the  superintendent  or  owner 
himself  should  take  charge  of  his  watch  or  clock. 

Drying.  This  cannot  be  too  carefully  managed.  (See  page 
409.)  Ventilation  should  be  provided  to  prevent  the  accumula- 
tion of  the  highly  inflammable  gases  generated  in  drying  wool 
at  high  temperatures.  The  watchman  .should  not  enter  the 
room  with  a  light,  and  .should  be  instructed  as  to  the  dan- 
ger of  doing  so. 


450 


MANUFACTORIES  OB  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


In  December,  1866,  a  fire  occurred  at  (lie  Burlington  Woolen  Milk,  by  the 
ignition  of  gas  in  the  drying  room  from  the  watchman's  lantern,  and  another 
at  the  Washington,  Mills,  in  Lawrence,  Mass.,  October  27th,  1868,  from  the 
same  cause.  In  both  cases  the  drying-rooms  were  "illuminated  as  by  flashes 
of  lightning,"  which  would  seem  to  indicate  the  presence  of  some  highly  in 
flammable  gas. 

Some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  quantity  and  eomliustible 
character  of  the  gases  generated  in  the  different  processes  of 
woolen  manufacture,  from  the  fact  that  it  is  stated  the  gas  con- 
tained in  the  suint  <>r  fatty  materials  of  the  soap-suds  used  in 
washing  raw  wool  and  spun  yarns  in  a  mill  of  20,000  spindles 
will  be  more  than  sufficient  to  light  the  mill  throughout  the  year, 
allowing  five  hundred  (500)  burners  for  daily  use.  (Wagner's 
Chemical  Technology. ) 

Patent  steam  dryers  are  uninsurable,  especially  where  the  heat 
is  applied  by  pipes  belt  >  ir  the  rcool  and  blown  by  fans.  Cold  air 
dryers  are  safest. 

Oils.  Much  depends  for  safety  on  the  quality  and  character 
of  the  oil  used,  not  only  for  lubricating  purposes,  but  on  the  wool, 
and  only  those  that  have  established  reputations  for  purity  and 
safety  should  be  employed. 

Pickers  and  picker-rooms.  Statistics  show  that  no  more 
fruitful  sources  of  fires  in  cotton  or  woolen  mills  exist  than  the 
pickers.  They  should  never  be  in  the  mill,  or  expose  it,  but  in 
all  cases  in  a  separate  building,  to  leeward  of  the  main  structure, 
(according  to  the  prevailing  wind)  and  built  of  brick  or  stone, 
and  with  a  metal  roof — which  will  confine  a  fire  longer  than  any 
other.  If  the  picker-building  has  openings — doors  or  windows 
on  sides  next  the  mill — they  should  be  protected  by  standard 
doors  and  shutters,  and  the  windows,  if  any,  of  the  mill  building, 
on  those  sides  exposed  by  the  picker-room,  similarly  protected — 
blank  walls  to  both  buildings  are  decidedly  preferable.  In  this 
connection  it  may  be  well  to  state  that  it  is  now  generally  con- 
ceded that  a  wooden  door  or  shutter,  well  lined  with  metal  on 
bttth  sides,  or  an  iron  door,  lined  with  wood  on  both  sides,  is 
preferable  to  one  entirely  of  iron.  Neither  of  the  former  will 
warp,  and  the  wood,  slowly  reduced  to  charcoal,  keeps  the  metal 
in  shape,  while  the  iron  door  or  shutter,  never  having  the  heat 
applied  uniformly  over  its  surface,  will  be  apt  to  twist  or  warp, 
and  let  the  flame  through.*    A  wooden  door,  lined  with  metal 

*A  slirling  door,  so  arranged  that  it  will  roll  up  an  incline  when  opened,  closing 
itself  by  the  force  of  gravity,  is  better  than  all  others    (See  pp.  361-392.) 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


451 


on  both  sides,  at  a  fire  which  destroyed  the  Hartford  Company's 
Works,  at  Tarriffville,  Ct.,  saved  a  building-  abutting  against 
one  destroyed,  while  all  the  iron  doors  and  shutters  to  other 
buildings  proved  unreliable.  Where  the  door  protects  a  com- 
munication between  two  buildings,  the  frame-work  and  sill 
should  also  he  of  iron  or  covered  with  metal.  Picker-rooms 
should  not  communicate  with  mill,  but  if  they  do,  the  door 
should  not  swing  into  the  picker-room,  necessitating  entrance 
into  this  room  to  close  it,  and  where  it  is  more  likely  to  be  blocked 
open  with  stock,  but  should  be  so  hung  as  to  be  pushed  against 
a  fire  and  protect  the  person  closing  it.  In  addition  to  a  fusible 
link,  which  on  melting  would  enable  the  door  to  close  automat- 
ically, it  would  be  advisable  to  have  some  simple  mechanical 
contrivance  of  a  chain  and  pulleys,  by  means  of  which  the  door 
could  be  closed  and  secured  from  a  distance,  in  case  the  sudden- 
ness or  severity  of  a  fire  should  prevent  a  near  approach.  Lights 
(if  used  at  all)  should  be  covered,  and  so  arranged  as  to  be  lighted 
only  from  the  outside.  Boys  and  other  low-priced  hands  should 
not  be  employed  at  the  pickers,  but  only  the  most  experienced 
and  careful  men ;  and  strict  rules  should  be  enforced  as  to  smok- 
ing and  the  carrying  of  matches  in  pockets — some  of  the  most 
careful  manufacturers  making  it  a  practice  to  search  the  em- 
ployees of  the  picker-room  periodically,  without  previous  notice, 
in  order  to  secure  a  compliance  with  this  necessary  regulation. 
Oil  should  never  be  applied  to  wool  at  the  pickers,  as  it  increases 
the  danger  of  fire. 

Those  picker-rooms,  where  the  stock  is  wound  up  in  a  lap  at 
each  process,  avoiding  the  accumulation  of  large  quantities  of 
loose  cotton,  as  in  gauze-rooms  or  bins,  are  safest.  Pickers 
should  not  be  allowed  to  run  on  loose  pulleys,  which  are  liable 
to  cause  fires  by  friction;  and  should  be  daily  overhauled  to  see 
that  all  wool  or  cotton  is  taken  off  the  arms  and  shaft  of  the 
picker,  where  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  sides  or  any  stationary 
part  of  the  frame.  The  room  should  have  no  woodwork  exposed. 
Steam  jets  are  very  efficient  for  extinguishing  fires  in  picker  and 
gauze  rooms,  and  a  small  jet  connected  with  the  dust  boxes  of 
pickers  is  a  judicious  precaution.  To  be  effective,  they  should 
have  valves  outside  the  building,  and  there  should  be  no  inter- 
mediate valve  in  the  boiler-room  (as  is  too  often  the  case,  to  save 
loss  of  steam  by  condensation),  especially  if  the  boiler-room  is 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


locked  at  night.  Few  more  effective  fire  appliances  exist  than 
Automatic  Sprinklers  with  a  sufficient  supply  and  head  of  water. 

Casks  of  water  and  pails  should  be  liberally  provided — they 
require  little  presence  of  mind  or  skill,  and  can  be  instantly  ap- 
plied at  the  commencement  of  a  fire  and  while  it  is  still  within 
control.  They  cost  little,  and  their  cheapness  should  insure  a 
plentiful  supply.     (See  page  420. ) 

That  we  are  not  unnecessarily  strict  in  requirements  and 
recommendations  as  to  pickers,  the  statistics  of  fires  in  mills  will 
show.  The  figures  are  startling  when  compared  with  the  statis- 
tics of  fires  in  other  classes  of  risks,  in  view  of  the  large  number 
originating  in  the  picker-rooms  out  of  the  whole  number  from 
all  causes.  It  must  be  remembered,  too,  that  many  small  fires  in 
picker-rooms  are  never  reported  to  the  Companies  by  mill-owners, 
through  a  fear  of  causing  apprehensions  in  the  minds  of  under- 
writers, which  might  lead  to  an  increase  in  the  rate  of  premium 
— a  very  small  advance  in  which,  where  a  large  line  of  insurance 
is  carried,  would  amount  to  a  sum  possibly  greater  than  any  small 
loss.  I  know  of  one  fire  occurring  in  a  picker-room,  resulting  in 
a  loss  of  over  one  thousand  dollars,  which  was  never  reported 
for  this  reason,  the  owner  not  wishing  to  draw  attention  to  any 
want  of  safety  in  his  large  mills,  of  which  he  owned  several. 

In  view  of  the  large  number  of  fires  originating  in  picker- 
rooms  during  the  past  ten  years.  I  feel  justified  in  pronouncing 
any  mill  with  the  picker  in  the  main  structure — and  not  in  a 
fire-proof  room — as  uninsurable,  and  those  mills  where  the 
pickers  are  in  separate  buildings,  not  endangering  the  mill,  as 
the  most  desirable  risks. 

Fire  appliances  and  apparatus.  (See  pp.  420  -  422.) 
I  have  already  mentioned  steam  jets,  sprinklers,  casks  of  water 
and  pails,  in  connection  with  picker-room  fires.  This  water 
should  be  salted,  or  chloride  of  calcium  may  be  added,  to  prevent 
it  from  freezing.  Pails  full  of  water  should  be  plentifully  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  card,  drying  and  spinning  rooms. 

Too  much  cannot  be  said  in  favor  of  these  simple  provisions. 
What  threatened  to  be  a  dangerous  fire,  in  a  New  England  mill, 
was  extinguished  by  the  use  of  pails  of  water  and  wet  brooms. 
Sprinkler  pipes  should  be  of  wrought  iron,  gradually  decreasing 
in  size  as  they  extend  from  the  rising  main,  which,  to  supply  them 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


4:.:', 


fully,  should  be  at  least  double  the  area  of  the  total  areas  or 
orifices  of  distribution,  even  when  supplied  by  a  reservoir  LOO 
feet  higher  than  the  mill.  With  a  less  head  of  water,  as,  for  in- 
stance, where  the  reservoir  is  not  higher  than  the  mill  itself,  the 
proportion  should  be  greater,  say  four  or  six  to  one.  Vertical 
stand-pipes  from  basement  to  attic,  connected  with  a  tank  of 
water  in  the  attic  and  with  the  force  pump,  should  be  provided. 
Tliey  should  be  located  near  the  stairways  to  enable  their 
being  used  for  a  longer  time,  and  the  hose  should  always  be 
attached  to  hydrants  at  each  floor.  It  is  needless  to  suggest 
the  difficulty  and  delay  of  adjusting  the  threads  of  couplings  in 
the  excitement  attending  a  fire. 

The  force-pump  should  not  be  located  where  it  is  liable  to  ha  ve 
its  belt  (if  run  by  belt,  which  is  objectionable)  cut  by  a  fire,  and 
if  run  by  gears,  should  be  thrown  into  gear  at  night.  The 
belt  should  not  be  left  off  the  pulleys  or  hung  up  near  by,  as  is 
sometimes  the  case,  rendering  it  liable  to  shrink  beyond  the  pos- 
sibility of  springing  it  on  in  case  of  fire.  It  should  be  tried  at 
least  once  a  week,  to  see  that  it  is  in  order,  and  especially  in 
winter,  to  empty  the  cocks  and  see  that  pipes  are  free. 

Force-pumps,  no  matter  how  large  or  powerful,  are  effective 
only  in  proportion  as  they  are  supplied  with  power.  If  by  steam, 
the  steam  areas  should  be  to  the  water  areas  as  four  to  one;*  a 
less  proportion  is  not  sufficient.  It  need  not  be  suggested  that 
sufficient  steam  should  be  kept  up  during  the  night  and  on  holi- 
days to  operate  the  pump  in  case  of  fire. 

If  outside  hydrants  are  provided,  connected  with  a  reservoir, 
they  should  be  protected  from  the  frost,  and  have  not  less  than 
100  feet  of  good  hose  attached,  and  be  protected  from  the  weather 
by  suitable  housings.  The  couplings  of  all  hose  of  the  mill  should 
fit  that  of  the  nearest  city  or  village  fire  department,  or  reducing 
couplings  be  provided  to  remedy  the  fault. 

Roof  hydrants  are  admirable  and  should  be  provided. 

Fire  extinguishers,  especially  those  whose  mechanism  requires 
merely  that  they  should  be  reversed  to  be  ready  for  use,  are  very 
efficient,  and  if  kept  in  every  room  will  materially  increase  the 
chances  of  extinguishing  a  fire. 

Organization.  Each  man  should  have  his  appointed  task 
in  case  of  a  fire,  and  understand  it  beforehand.    The  greatest 


*With  steam  at  high  pressure. 


454 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


safety  lies  in  a  just  apprehension  of  danger,  and  the  extinction 
of  a  fire  depends  largely,  if  not  entirely,  upon  the  intelligence 
and  concert  of  its  management.  In  the  best  managed  mills  the 
male  employees  are  regularly  drilled  to  prepare  them  for  an}- 
fire  that  may  occur,  that  there  may  be  no  confusion  or  panic, 
and  the  proper  action  taken  at  the  very  beginning  of  a  fire,  when 
alone  it  can  be  got  under  control,  if  at  all. 

Cotton  Platforms.  Railroad.  To  the  inexperienced,  bales  of  cotton 
on  an  open  platform  near  a  railroad  would  suggest  the  minimum 
of  hazard  from  an  underwriting  viewpoint.  But  railroad  plat- 
form cotton  has  been  a  losing  risk  to  companies.  The  writer's 
early  education  as  to  lines  and  rates  was  emphasized  by  a  fire  at 
Charlotte,  N.  C,  in  1875.  when  a  policy  of  $10,000  covering 
cotton  on  a  platform,  which  took  fire  at  midday,  when  it  might 
reasonably  be  supposed  that  the  laborers  could  have  rolled  the 
cotton  out  of  danger,  proved  a  total  loss.  The  cotton  is  es- 
pecially liable  to  be  ignited,  not  only  by  the  sparks  from  loco- 
motives, but  by  sparks  from  pipes,  or  by  loose  matches,  or  by 
spontaneous  combustion ;  and  small  lines  at  full  rates,  and  the 
approval  of  the  company,  should  be  the  rule. 

Cotton  Pickeries.  Decline. 

Cotton  Presses.  These  should  be  carefully  inspected  with  ref- 
erence to  arrangement  of  boilers;  to  the  care  and  disposition  of 
the  loose  or  waste  cotton ;  to  the  rules  as  to  employees ;  to  the 
storage  of  cotton  in  adjacent  streets,  and  to  the  general  care- 
lessness which  too  frequently  prevails.    Boiler  should  be  outside. 

Cotton  Seed  Oil  Mills.  These  involve  all  the  hazards  of  cotton 
in  the  lint  room,  and  of  cotton  ginning  to  some  extent.  The 
modern  mills  have  been  very  much  improved  over  those  first 
constructed.  Fire  appliances,  especially  pails  of  water  in  the 
lint  room,  are  important.  A  steam  jet  opening  into  the  lint 
room  would  be  a  desirable  appliance. 

Country  Stores.  These  are  undesirable,  unless  occupied  in  part 
as  a  dwelling  by  the  family  of  the  owner,  and  unless  located  in 
some  good  town  or  village.  Where  they  are  at  cross-roads  their 
trade  is  precarious  and  their  future  uncertain.  Isolated  stores 
not  occupied  in  part  as  dwellings  should  be  declined.  They  have 
been  losing  risks  to  insurance  companies,  due  probably  to  the 
fact  that  they  can  be  so  easily  robbed  at  night,  by  the  wagon- 
load,  and  afterwards  burned  to  conceal  evidence  of  the  crime. 


HOW  TO  1NSPKCT  THEM. 


455 


Court  Houses.  These  are  supposed  to  be  good  risks  by  many 
underwriters,  but  they  have  not  proved  profitable.  Where  any 
rivalry  exists  between  two  towns  in  the  same  county  as  to  the 
location  of  the  county  buildings,  it  is  not  safe  to  insure  them. 
The  inhabitants  of  a  rival  town  naturally  desire  to  secure  the 
trade  which  the  holding  of  court  brings  to  the  county  seat,  and 
vicious  persons  sometimes  remove  what  they  consider  the  prin- 
cipal impediment  in  the  way  of  a  ''change  of  venue"  by  destroy- 
ing the  count}'  buildings.  Numerous  court-houses  have  been 
burned  in  the  South  and  West  to  cover  evidence  of  extensive 
frauds  in  land  titles,  which  were  some  years  ago  practiced  in 
some  sections  of  the  country  and  resulted  in  a  serious  moral 
hazard  to  some  of  the  risks  of  this  class.  There  have  also  been 
fires  caused  by  criminal  classes  desiring  to  burn  the  evidence  of 
crime,  indictments,  affidavits,  &c,  &c,  in  the  court-house  or 
in  the  hands  of  officials,  district  attorneys  and  others.  The 
buildings  are  often  left  uncared  for  after  hours,  and  cigar  stumps 
and  cigarettes  thrown  away  in  sawdust  spittoons  or  waste  paper 
baskets  are  responsible  for  many  fires  not  otherwise  to  be  ex- 
plained. Full  rates  should  be  obtained  and  buildings  carefully 
inspected  with  regard  to  heating  apparatus  and  the  care  taken 
of  them.  Jails  connected  with  court-houses  do  not  improve 
them  as  risks;  they  should  add  about  25  cents  to  the  rate.  If 
halls  are  rented  for  exhibitions,  the  rate  for  halls  should  also  be 
added.    The  county  records  should  not  be  insured. 

Cracker  Bakeries.  Where  these  are  constructed  properly  they 
may  be  taken  at  full  rates.  Special  attention  should  be  paid  to 
the  ovens.  Unless  these  are  so  constructed  that  fire  cannot 
possibly  ignite  any  woodwork  above  them  (neither  the  oven  nor 
its  mouth  should  ever  be  under  wooden  beams  or  wooden  struc- 
tures) the  risks  should  be  declined.  The  accumulation  of  empty 
boxes  and  barrels  in  proximity  to  the  ovens,  with  the  intention 
of  using  them  for  fuel,  is  also  objectionable,  and  if  shavings  are 
used  for  fuel  (and  they  frequently  are,  where  a  planing-mill  is 
in  the  neighborhood  and  they  can  be  purchased  cheaply)  one 
per  cent  should  be  added  to  the  the  rate.  Specific  amounts  of 
insurance  should  be  written  on  the  stock,  on  the  machinery, 
tools  and  fixtures,  and  on  the  building. 

Creameries.  These  have  not  proved  profitable  risks.  They 
have  about  the  same  hazard  as  cheese  factories  and  need  the 


450 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


same  inspection  and  care.  Examine  as  to  boiler  hazard,  co- 
operative feature,  &c.    Worth  3^  to  PAfc  for  best. 

Crematories  for  Garbage.  These  are  usually  nuisances  and,  at 
obtainable  rates,  arc  unprofitable.  Kverv  person  owning  real 
estate  in  the  vicinity  is  apt  to  have  an  exaggerated  idea  both  of 
the  future  value  of  bis  property  and  the  injury  to  it  wrought  by 
the  crematory.  Even  though  the  wagons  for  hauling  garbage 
simply  pass  in  front  of  his  premises  on  the  road  to  the  crematory, 
the  average  owner  realizes  that  the  locality  will  be  unpopular. 
The  grinding,  drying,  grease  hazard,  &c,  are  serious  physical 
hazards. 

Crematories  for  cremating  human  bodies  ought  to  be  incom- 
bustible throughout.  They  are  sometimes  regarded  as  nuisances. 
One  was  burned  recently  near  Atlanta,  Ga.,  after  numerous 
newspaper  protests  and  efforts  on  the  part  of  citizens  to  secure 
injunctions. 

Creosote  Works.  Wood  Preserving.  &c.  These  are  special  hazards 
which  should  not  be  insured  without  the  consent  of  the  company 
first  obtained,  upon  full  survey  and  information  as  to  the  par- 
ticular process,  the  arrangement  for  heating  creosote,  storage  of 
wood,  and  dry -room,  if  any. 

Crucible  Manufactories.  Refer  to  company  with  full  report  be- 
fore binding.    The  kiln  hazard  is  serious. 

Currier  Shops.  These  have  been  unprofitable  at  obtainable 
rates.  They  are  frequently  dirty,  liable  to  spontaneous  com- 
bustion, of  cheap  construction,  and  need  to  be  most  carefully 
inspected.    Oil  and  grease  hazard  is  serious. 

Cutlery  Manufactories.  These  risks  ought  not  to  be  objection- 
able if  the  buildings  are  well  constructed  and  the  management 
is  a  careful  one.  The  stock  is  particularly  susceptible  to  damage 
by  water  and  heat,  and  a  much  higher  rate  should  be  secured 
upon  it  than  on  the  building  and  other  contents. 

Cycloramas.  Panoramas.  &c.  These  are  frequently  of  fancy  value. 
A  hole  burned  in  a  large  painting  might  result  in  a  claim  for  a 
large  loss.  As  they  are  moved  about  from  place  to  place,  the}" 
are  seldom  installed  in  any  one  locality  with  proper  care  as  to 
danger  from  fire,  and  the  electric-light  wiring  is  usually  unsafely 
arranged.    They  should  not  be  insured  except  for  small  amounts, 


lloW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


and  only  then  with  the  approval  of  the  company  first  obtained. 
The  buildings  are  undesirable  because  of  a  temporary  character 
and  unsuitable  for  anything  else. 
Depots.    Refer  to  company. 

Distilleries.  Whiskey.  High  Wines.  Etc.  These  should  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  company  in  all  cases  before  binding.  The  grinding 
hazards  should  be  inspected  with  all  the  intelligence  and  care- 
fulness which  is  necessary  in  the  case  of  flour-mills.  The  cooper- 
shop  should,  also,  have  the  attention  due  to  its  class.  The  haz- 
ard of  distillation  ought  not  to  be  serious  if  the  distillery  is  care- 
fully constructed  and  managed. 

Drain  and  Sewer  Pipe  Manufactories.  The  hazard  of  these  risks 
lies  chiefly,  of  course,  in  the  furnaces  and  kilns,  and  special 
attention  should  be  given  to  them,  the  company  being  advised 
fully  as  to  construction,  care,  &c,  &c.  Many  of  the  buildings 
are  of  cheap  construction — and  cheapness  in  construction  is  usu- 
ally an  incident  of  those  classes  of  risks  which  show  the  highest 
loss  ratio.  Steam  drying  and  boiler  hazards  need  careful  in- 
spection. 

Driving  Park  Buildings.  Decline. 

Dredges.    Refer  to  company  before  binding. 

Drug  Mills  and  Wholesale  Drug  Stores  and  Stocks.  These  are 
unprofitable  at  ordinary  rates.  The  stocks  are  peculiarly  liable 
to  severe  damage.  Poisons  are  liable,  through  the  medium  of 
saturated  water,  to  render  the  balance  of  the  stock  unsalable. 
It  is  almost  certain  to  be  condemned  by  boards  of  health.  More- 
over, fires  once  started  are  very  rapid ;  aided  by  elevators,  lift- 
ways,  dumb  waiters  and  the  extremely  combustible  nature  of 
the  stock,  they  are  seldom  extinguished  until  the  property  is 
destroyed.  Wholesale  drug  stores  and  drug  mills  are  bad  ex- 
posures to  neighboring  buildings,  and  intervening  walls  should 
be  of  unusual  thickness  and  carried  high  above  the  roof  to  afford 
proper  protection.  Sawdust  sprinkled  on  floors  is  an  incident  of 
these  risks,  and  the  presence  of  oils,  especially  of  siccative  or 
drying  oils,  like  linseed,  cotton-seed,  rape-seed,  &c. ,  makes  the 
sweepings  particularly  dangerous.  It  is  safe  to  decline  to  insure 
a  drug  risk  where  sawdust  is  used  for  sprinkling  the  floors,  and 
where  sweepings  are  not  removed  from  the  floor  so  soon  as  col- 
lected ;  and  receptacles  for  sweepings  should  be  of  metal  and 


T.S  MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


kept  on  the  sidewalk,  where  their  ignition  cannot  cause  a  fire. 
The  proprietor  of  one  wholesale  drug  store  told  the  writer,  who 
remarked  favorably  upon  the  storage  of  the  sweepings  on  the 
sidewalk,  that  such  sweepings  had  taken  fire  more  than  five 
times,  and  that  he  (the  owner)  believed  if  they  had  been  left  in 
the  building  the  store  would  have  been  burned  to  the  ground. 
The  drying  and  drug-grinding  hazards  are  serious  and  should 
be  carefully  reported  on. 

Special  attention  should  be  given  to  the  oil  room.  Only  sand 
should  be  used  on  floor.  This  is  frequently  in  the  cellar,  where 
the  darkness  requires  the  use  of  artificial  light — an  objection. 

Special  attention  should  also  be  given  to  the  packing  room,  to 
see  that  the  material  for  packing  is  kept  in  bins  or  boxes,  and 
that  the  floor  is  not  so  littered  with  material  as  to  cause  the  rapid 
spread  of  a  fire.  Refer  to  company  before  binding  with  full  re- 
port as  to  oils,  explosives,  ethers,  acids,  &c,  stored. 

Drug  Stores.  Retail  and  Perscription.  These  are  good  risks  at 
fair  rates.  Most  of  the  stock  is  kept  in  bottles.  They  are  neat 
and  clean  as  a  rule,  and  the  druggist  is  on  hand  at  all  hours  of 
the  day  and  night.  The  packing  ant1  unpacking  room  is  often 
carelessly  managed,  and  this  should  be  looked  into.  Sometimes 
there  is  a  hazard  due  to  incompetent  help. 

Dry  Houses.    (See  page  409.) 

Dry  Plates.  Photographer's,  decline. 

Dry-Rooms.    (See  page  409.) 

Dwellings.    A  well  built  dwelling,  with  safe  flues  and  careful, 

honest  tenant,  is  the  best  risk,  at  an  adequate  rate,  which  the 
agent  can  secure.  At  the  extremely  low  rates  current  in  some 
localities,  however,  dwellings  may  be  more  undesirable  than 
some  special  hazards.  The  construction  of  a  dwelling,  divided 
up  into  various  compartments  or  rooms,  not  offering,  in  case  of 
fire,  facilities  for  drafts  and  currents  of  air  from  cellar  to  roof, 
so  common  to  warehouse  and  other  risks,  not  only  prevents  the 
rapid  spread  of  a  fire,  but  favors  its  extinction.  The  fact,  also, 
that  the  building  is  occupied  day  and  night  insures  the  detection 
of  fire  and  its  extinction,  and  insures  also  an  elimination  of  a 
large  proportion  of  the  external  incendiary  hazard.  It  may 
safely  be  assumed  that  the  majority  of  those  who  would  be 
vicious  enough  to  set  fire  to  a  building  would  be  deterred  from 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


459 


doing  so  by  the  mere  fact  that  its  burning  would  endanger  life; 
and,  of  that  minority  who  would  be  indifferent  to  such  consider- 
ation, it  may  safely  be  assumed  that  a  majority  would  be  deterred 
from  firing  a  dwelling  because  of  the  severe  penalty  attached  to 
the  crime  of  incendiarism,  where  life  is  endangered,  by  the  laws 
of  most  of  the  States. 

It  is  not  unusual  for  inexperienced  persons  to  recommend  a 
mercantile  or  other  risk  to  the  company  as  being  "just  as  safe 
as  a  dwelling,"  urging  the  absence  of  fires,  lights  and  other 
features  of  the  risk  as  reasons  why  it  should  be  insured  even  at 
a  lower  rate.  Such  arguments  result  from  inexperience.  No 
risk  not  constantly  occupied  can  be  as  safe  as  one  that  is  so 
occupied.  An  old  friend  of  the  writer  once  remarked  that  a 
mother's  nose  was  the  most  reliable  automatic  fire  alarm  that  he 
knew  of.  It  is  safe  to  assume  that  ninety  per  cent  of  the  fires 
starting  in  dwelling  houses  are  detected  and  extinguished  with- 
out ever  being  reported  to  insurance  companies. 

In  inspecting  dwellings  the  points  to  be  examined  for  are,  first, 
the  flues.  These  are  often  very  insecurely  built  from  an  upper 
floor,  resting  on  posts  or  joists,  and  of  a  single  brick  in  thick- 
ness. As  buildings  settle,  cracks  open  and  sparks  escape  into 
an  unused  attic,  where  all  the  woodwork  and,  possibly,  a  shingle 
roof  are  as  dry  as  tinder.  Buildings  do  not  settle  equally  and 
chimneys  crack,  at  places  out  of  sight,  frequently  where  they 
pass  through  the  roof.  Defective  flues  figure  largely  in  our 
causes  of  fires — so  largely,  in  fact,  as  to  call  for  the  greatest 
care  on  the  part  of  agents  and  inspectors,  who  should  examine 
the  chimneys  of  buildings  from  the  foundation  to  the  roof. 
Any  one  of  the  larger  insurance  companies  probably  loses  a  thou- 
sand dollars  a  day  (certainly  twenty  per  cent,  of  its  losses)  from 
defective  flues,  and  would  make  a  fair  profit  if  this  one  item 
could  be  corrected.  Taking  into  account  the  annual  loss  of  life 
from  this  cause,  does  the  fact  not  warrant  stringent  building 
laws  from  the  community  viewpoint?  Open  pipe-holes  cause 
many  fires  by  escaping  sparks.  They  should  be  provided  with 
close-fitting  metal  stoppers,  when  not  in  use.  Hearths  should 
not  rest  upon  wooden  beams  (see  page  89.)  Furnaces  should 
be  constructed  as  recommended  on  page  96.  Ashes  should  not 
be  kept  in  wooden  vessels  in  the  building,  or  in  barrels  or  wooden 
boxes  in  contact  with  the  frame  wall  outside.    Wooden  fire- 


t60 


MANUFACTOKIKS  OK  SI'K<  IA  I.  IIAZAKOS. 


hoards  are  dangen uis  in  case  of  falling,  burning  soot.  Kindling 
wood  should  not  be  left  in  or  near  stoves  to  dry  for  the  morning 
fire.  Housekeepers  should  be  cautioned  against  this  very  com- 
mon and  dangerous  practice,  and  also  as  to  the  use  of  kerosene 
for  kindling  fires.  The  supply  of  kerosene — especially  if  any 
quantity  is  kept  in  a  can  or  barrel — should  not  be  in  the  same 
room  with  a  fire,  as,  in  case  of  a  leak,  the  most  serious  conse- 
quences might  result.  <  )il  kept  in  a  warm  room,  as  explained 
on  page  L57,  will  evaporate  a  dangerous  vapor,  which,  will  ignite 
at  the  fire  or  upon  the  approach  of  a  light .  Housekeepers  should 
be  cautioned,  not  only  as  to  the  filling  and  trimming  of  kerosene 
lamps  near  a  light,  hut  near  afire,  also,  which  is  equally  dan- 
gerous. Inquire  as  to  the  care  of  matches,  and  instruct  house- 
keeper as  to  their  danger  if  left  within  the  reach  of  children  or 
of  rats  and  mice.  If  the  building  is  lighted  by  gas,  the  burners, 
especially  in  the  case  of  movable  brackets  near  curtains  or  wood- 
work, should  be  provided  with  glass  shades. 

Stove-pipes  should  never  pass  out  through  side  walls,  win- 
dows, or  through  roofs;  and  where  so  arranged,  as  in  summer 
kitchens,  the  agent  should  examine  carefully  to  see  if  they  are 
safely  protected  by  metal  or  in  some  other  effectual  way — they 
can  seldom  be  made  safe.  Advise  the  company  fully  on  this 
point. 

In  case  painting  is  being  done,  or  where  the  furniture  or 
woodwork  is  oiled,  especially  in  the  case  of  dwellings  finished 
with  hardwood  trimmings,  the  agent  should  caution  the  house- 
keeper as  to  the  danger  of  rags  saturated  with  linseed  oil — they 
must  not  be  left  in  the  building  after  use. 

We  have  been  thus  explicit  on  many  points,  already  elsewhere 
treated  of,  on  account  of  the  custom,  on  the  part  of  agents,  of 
neglecting  the  inspection  of  dwellings.  All  risks  need  inspec- 
tion,  and  the  visit  of  an  intelligent  underwriter,  even  though 
he  may  discover  no  fault  in  a  risk,  is  valuable,  as  it  may  call 
the  attention  of  owners  to  the  danger  of  fire,  and  lead  to  pre- 
cautions which  will  secure  immunity  from  it.  (See  "Causes  of 
Fires,"  page  131.) 

Dwellings  Unoccupied  are  poor  risks  and  should  be  avoided,  un- 
less surrounded  by  good,  occupied  dwellings,  and  in  charge  of 
some  careful  person.    Chronic  cases  of  vacancy,  especially  in 


II(»\V  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


461 


isolated  or  unhealthy  locations,  are  bad  risks  and  should  lie  re- 
garded as  uninsurable. 

Large  dwellings,  including  so  called  "palatial  residences," 
are  unprofitable  at  current  rates.  (See  page  GO.)  The  dining- 
room  of  a  large  New  York  dwelling  cost  $80,000.  It  is  needless 
to  say  that  a  fire  in  this  one  room  would  be  expensive.  The 
rate  should  approximate  an  increase  over  ordinary  dwelling  rates 
by  1  4,  for  each  1  %  excess  of  value  over  the  average.  Thus  a 
dwelling  50$  more  valuable  than  the  average  of  its  neighbor- 
hood ought  to  pay  50  %  more  rate ;  one  of  double  the  average 
value  should  pay  double  rate. 

Season. — Summer  or  Winter  dwellings.  The  rate  for  this 
class  should  be  50$  more  than  for  ordinary  country  dwellings, 
and  should  be  still  higher  where  they  are  exceptionally  large 
and  expensive. 

Dye  and  Print  Works.    (See  Bleacheries.) 

Dynamos.    Refer  to  company  before  binding. 

Electric  Car  Stables  or  Barns.  These  require  examination  by 
experts,  and  the  local  board  inspector  should  be  consulted.  The 
various  hazards  of  electric  wiring  would  require  more  space  for 
discussion  than  can  be  spared  for  the  purpose.  Even  if  it  were 
possible  for  an  agent  to  educate  himself  for  the  task  by  studying 
a  printed  treatise  on  the  subject  of  electricity,  it  would  be  better 
for  him  to  rely  upon  the  inspection  of  an  electric-light  plant  by 
a  specialist,  such  as  is  to  be  found  in  the  local  board  of  most  of 
the  important  towns  of  the  country.  (See  National  Board  Rules. ) 
(See  Page  438  as  to  insurance  of  cars.) 

Electric  Light  and  Power  Stations.  Refer  to  company  before 
binding. 

Electrotypers.  These  are  generally  on  upper  floors  of  buildings, 
and  this  fact  should  be  taken  into  account  in  making  the  rate; 
it  is  generally  overlooked.  Examine  and  report  fully  as  to  cast- 
ing floors  (these  are  too  often  protected  only  by  loose  bricks  on 
wooden  floors  below),  metal  melting  furnaces,  method  of  heat- 
ing wax  pots,  wax  irons  and  soldering  irons,  and  the  use  of 
benzine.    Electrotype  plates  are  undesirable  insurance  as  a  rule. 

Elevators.  Grain.  Decline  insurance  on  buildings.  Accept 
lines  on  grain  contained  in  them,  at  short  rates. 

Where  grain  risks  are  desired  by  the  year,  the  same  rate 
should  be  charged  as  on  the  building.    Decline  to  insure,  by  the 


462 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


year,  in  the  name  of  the  warehouseman  on  grain  stored  in  his 
elevator.  Under  no  circumstances  should  he  be  permitted  to 
obtain  annual  policies,  at  the  current  rates,  in  order  to  peddle 
them  out  to  his  customers  for  short  terms  and  at  short  rates. 
Insurance  is  our  business,  not  his.  He  would  thus  be  enabled 
to  profit  at  the  expense  of  those  underwriters  foolish  enough  to 
consent  to  such  arrangement.  The  rules  arc  not  graded 
for  annual  policies  and  are  entirely  too  low,  unless  we  obtain 
short  rates.  We  prefer  risks  on  the  grain  in  elevators  to  risks 
upon  the  buildings  themselves,  even  at  the  advance  in  the  rate, 
of  fifty  cents,  usually  called  for  by  the  tariff.  Grain  follows  the 
trade  and  market  and  is  always  to  be  found  in  paying  localities, 
but  the  elevator  building  remains  through  all  the  hazard  of  a 
change  of  trade,  and  partakes,  eventually,  of  the  moral  hazard 
of  an  unpopular  market  or  undesirable  locality.  Grain  elevators 
located  on  the  line  of  railways  may  thus  become  liable  to  a  ser- 
ious moral  hazard,  in  consequence  of  the  building  of  a  new 
railroad  and  a  change  of  trade.  Examine  carefully  all  bearings, 
especially  those  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  building,  and  report 
arrangement  of  separators,  oat  clippers,  screens^  etc. ,  and  gen- 
eral condition  as  regards  cleanliness,  always  keeping  in  mind 
that  the  dust  hazard  is  a  serious  feature  of  the  class.  Boiler 
rooms  should  be  cut  off.  The  use  of  carbon  bisulphide  for  erad- 
icating weevils  and  other  insects  of  late  has  added  another  and 
serious  hazard  to  the  class.  It  is  an  extremely  volatile  liquid 
and  the  fumes  are  ignitible  and  explosive,  making  it  dangerous 
to  use  lights  until  the  odor  has  entirely  evaporated.  Either 
steam-jets  or  sprinklers  are  desirable  fire  appliances,  especially 
for  higher  bearings  in  head  hi  >use.   If  broom  corn  stored,  decline. 

Elevator  Car  Manufactories.  These  have  the  hazards  of  wood 
and  metal  workers  and  should  be  inspected  the  same  as  railroad 
car  manufactories. 

Enameled  Cloth  Manufactories.  Same  as  Oil  cloth  manufactories. 

Engine  (Steam)  Manufactories.    (See  Machine  Shops.) 

Engine  (Fire)  Houses.  Would  seem  to  be  good  risks  but  they 
burn  often  when  men  are  away  at  fires. 

Envelope  Manufactories.  There  are  so  few  of  this  class  that 
probably  ninety-nine  agents  out  of  a  hundred  would  have  no 
occasion  to  consider  them.    They  could  be  made  good  risks  if 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


463 


managed  with  care  and  cleanliness.  Paper  clippings  should  be 
properly  stored  and  handled.  Some  of  the  larger  risks  of  the 
class  carry  the  hazard  of  printing  and  paper  box  factories  in 
addition. 

Excelsior  Manufactories.  Declined  by  most  companies,  and 
those  wbo  write  them  charge  a  very  high  rate.  The  principal 
hazard  is  in  the  manufactured  material,  which  is  subject  to 
quick  flash  fires,  like  shavings.  Confer  with  company  before 
binding. 

Fair  Ground  Buildings.  Declined  by  most  companies,  and  high 
rates  are  charged  by  those  who  accept  the  class.  Confer  with 
company  before  binding.  This  class  of  property  is  neglected 
throughout  the  greater  portion  of  the  year  and  is  sometimes 
burned  by  incendiaries,  who  desire  to  have  the  fair  buildings 
transferred  to  another  town.  At  the  time  of  holding  fairs  the 
most  dangerous  processes  connected  witli  gasolene,  calcium  car- 
bide, dangerous  chemicals,  etc.,  are  on  exhibition,  and  the 
physical  hazard  at  such  periods  is  considerable,  not  overlooking 
the  great  danger  from  cast-away  cigarettes  and  cigars  while 
still  ignited  among  refuse  paper  and  in  out  of  the  way  places  to 
cause  a  fire.  The  grand  stands  are  particularly  undesirable. 
(See  Grand  Stands.) 

Farm  Risks.  We  lose  money  on  this  class  at  current  rates,  and 
must  insist  not  only  on  a  personal  inspection,  but  full  information 
regarding  every  risk.  Must  have  in  every  case  a  liberal  amount 
of  personal  property  insurance,  including  live-stock;  decline 
barns,  small  dwellings  and  other  buildings  at  a  distance  from 
the  main  group  of  buildings,  also  traveling  threshing  machines 
and  all  property  where  they  are  stored.  Write  company  for  full 
instructions  and  policy  forms. 

Felt  Mills.    (See  Cotton  and  Woolen  Mills.) 

Fertilizer  Manufactories.  These  are  usually  "nuisances"  and 
should  be  referred  to  the  company.  Where  rendering  is  done, 
using  waste  animal  matter  and  dead  animals,  the  grease  and 
bone  grinding  hazard  predominates,  and  they  are  practically  un- 
insurable at  obtainable  rates.  Phosphate  mills  are  better  risks  of 
the  class,  but  require  great  care  and  intelligent  examination  to 
prevent  loss.  Especially  where  sulphuric  acid  is  manufactured, 
saltpeter  used,  &c. ,  care  should  be  taken  in  the  storage  of  sul- 


it;  I 


UAM  I  A<  TOKIKS  OK  SI'K(  IAI,  HAZAKHS. 


phur,  coal,  &c.  Empty  saltpeter  or  nitre  bags  are  especially 
dangerous,  being  liable  to  take  fire  spontaneously.  The  salt- 
peter, therefore,  should  be  stored  where  its  burning  would  not 
endanger  the  risk,  and  under  no  circumstances  should  empty 
bags  be  allowed  about  the  premises.  Great  care  is  necessary  in 
the  construction  of  the  Guy-Lussac  tower.    (See  Acid  Works.) 

Under  no  circumstances  should  risks  be  taken  on  the  manu- 
factured product,  unless  with  an  80  '/o  co-insurance  clause. 
<  Hherwise,  it  will  be  short  insured,  and  only  for  the  amount 
necessary  to  cover  the  burned  surface,  which  would  result  in  a 
total  loss  under  the  policy.  The  entire  surface  of  a  quantity  of 
fertilizer  might  be  burned  off  without  injuring  the  unconsumed 
portion.  Without  the  80$  clause,  not  less  than  double  rates 
should  be  charged. 

File  Manufactories.    (See  Hardware  Manufactories.) 

Fire-Arms  Manufactories.  These  have  the  usual  hazards,  those 
of  machine-shops,  foundries;  &c. ,  and  should  be  inspected  with 
regard  to  such  features,  also  woodworking  of  gun-stocks,  if 
any.  Where  fixed  ammunition  is  loaded,  the  rules  with  regard 
to  cartridge  manufactories  should  be  observed  and  a  separation 
from  other  values  insisted  upon. 

Fire  Engine  Houses.    (See  Engine  Houses.) 

Fireworks  Manufactories.  Decline. 

Fireworks  Stocks,  fire-crackers  and  torpedoes  only.  Increase 
rate  on  the  building  and  stocks  with  which  they  are  kept 
15  cents  per  $100  per  month  being  short  rates  of  75  cents  per 
annum. 

Fixtures  and  Furniture  of  Stores.  This  is  desirable  insurance. 
(See  form  for  insuring.) 

Flags  and  Banners.    Stocks  of,  decline. 

Flax  Mills.  These  have  not  been  profitable  risks  at  obtainable 
rates.  Carelessness  as  to  open  lights,  and  collections  of  com- 
bustible fibre  or  flyings  in  closed  lights  or  on  tops  of  stovepipes 
and  on  steam  pipes,  spontaneous  combustion,  &c,  have  caused 
many  fires.  They  should  not  be  insured  without  the  consent  of 
the  company  obtained  after  full  survey  and  report. 

Flour  Mills.  These  should  be  referred  to  the  company,  after 
thorough  inspection  and  full  report.    The  class  has  not  been  a 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


465 


profitable  one.  Decline  mills  equipped  with  old  style  mach- 
inery or  located  where  a  full  supply  of  grain  cannot  be  obtained 
at  prices  which  will  enable  them  to  compete  with  larger  mills  at 
great  grain  centres. 

The  fine  dust  of  flour  mills  is  very  inflammable,  especially 
that  from  the  ''middlings,"  which  has  been  known  to  take  fire 
readily — like  gas — from  the  flame  of  a  candle.  For  this  reason, 
no  open  lights  should  be  used.  Notice  whether  the  floors  are 
kept  cleanly  swept,  and  free  from  accumulations  of  rubbish  in 
corners.  Many  millers,  in  case  of  a  "choke"  in  the  chutes  or 
elevators,  shovel  the  bran  or  other  material  out  upon  the  floor 
and  neglect  to  remove  it.  The  overflow  of  oil  on  flooring, 
underneath  bearings,  should  be  cleaned  up  daily.  Metal 
drip  cups  should  be  provided  to  catch  the  falling  oil.  The 
smut  machine  should  not  be  above  the  lower  floor,  where  it  can 
be  easily  watched,  and  flooded  with  water,  in  case  of  fire,  and 
where  the  smell  of  fire  or  of  a  heated  journal  will  be  soonest  de- 
tected. Unless  the  smut  is  blown  out  of  the  building  by  the 
machine,  it  should  be  removed  daily,  and  not  left  in  the  mill 
over  night,  as  fires  often  occur  from  spontaneous  combustion 
where  it  is  allowed  to  accumulate.  Wooden  journals  are  dan- 
gerous, if  the  number  of  revolutions  is  over  100  per  minute. 
There  is  no  excuse  for  them  anyway.  Decline  water  power  mills 
where  the  supply  of  water  is  not  sufficient  to  keep  the  mill  in 
constant  operation  (unless  steam  power  as  an  auxiliary  is 
provided. )  In  water  power  mills,  the  fore-bay  should  be  planked 
above  the  highest  rise  of  water,  and  the  water-wheel  securely 
blocked,  when  the  mill  is  stopped  at  night  or  on  holidays,  to 
prevent  freshets  from  running  the  mill  while  unattended 
and  causing  fire  from  friction.  Some  advocate  letting  the 
runner  burrs  down  to  hold  the  lighter  running  machinery.  The 
more  secure  way  is  to  block  the  wheel.  We  prefer  grist  mills 
doing  custom  work  only,  to  those  flouring  grain  for  the  general 
market — the  latter  are  speculative  and  liable  to  losses  from 
fluctuation  in  prices.  Scrutinize  values  closely.  Owing  to  the 
large  number  of  chutes,  spouts  and  elevators  in  flour  mills,  they 
usually  prove  a  total  loss,  in  case  a  fire  starts,  and  this  fact 
should  not  be  lost  sight  of  in  making  a  rate. 

The  numerous  fires  caused  by  the  ignition  and  explosion  of  the 
middlings  and  other  fine  dust  of  flour  mills,  in  consequence  of 


466  MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


carelessness  in  the  use  of  open  lights,  call  for  more  than  usual 
care  in  the  inspection  of  risks,  and  for  warranties  in  the  policy 
that  open  lights  shall  not  be  permitted.  It  is  not,  however,  by 
open  lights  alone,  that  such  fires  may  be  caused.  The  same 
result  may  be  produced  by  electricity  from  belts  or  by  the  friction 
of  the  stones,  as  where  the  feed  goes  off  while  at  work.  Being 
of  a  flinty,  hard  rock,  they  strike  fire  easily.  The  "feed"  may 
go  off  for  the  want  of  grain  in  the  hopper  or  in  consequence  of 
an  obstruction  in  the  feed-pipe.  A  spider's  web  was  sufficient 
to  stop  it,  in  one  case,  and  led  to  a  violent  explosion  in  an  Eng- 
lish mill. 

When  flour  is  showered  from  a  sieve,  over  a  gas  flame,  rapid 
combustion  takes  place.  The  same  result  follows  the  contact 
of  flame  with  many  other  kinds  of  combustible  dust.  In  the 
Pullman  palace  car  works  in  Detroit,  an  explosion  occurred  in 
one  of  the  chutes  for  conveying  rubbish,  shavings,  etc.,  caused 
by  the  ignition  of  the  wood-dust,  which  had — probably  for  the 
first  time  in  years — assumed  the  precise  proportions  of  admix- 
ture with  the  air  necessary  to  cause  explosion. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  many  instances  of  fires  in  mills, 
caused  in  the  manner  described. 

Mill  of  Champion,  Adams  &  Co.,  Detroit.  This  mill  was 
running  at  night,  with  the  proper  number  of  men.  The  man  in 
charge  of  that  portion  of  the  mill  where  the  fire  occurred  went 
into  the  bin  where  the  middlings  were  stored,  with  a  lighted  globe 
lamp,  for  the  purpose  of  shoveling  middlings.  He  placed  his 
lamp  on  the  floor  and  proceeded  with  his  work,  raising  clouds 
of  dust  which  filled  the  whole  of  that  portion  of  the  mill.  The 
glass  globe  of  the  lamp  had  been  broken  some  time  before, 
and  permitted  access  of  the  flour  dust  to  the  flame.  The  result 
was  a  fire  so  rapid  that  the  man  was  severely  burned  in  his  un- 
successful attempts  to  extinguish  it. 

A  fire  destroyed  the  mill  of  Mr.  Bertchy,  at  Milwaukee,  and 
was  caused  by  a  candle  left  burning  near  a  feed  spout. 

The  burning  of  the  Tradeston  Mills,  at  Glasgow,  Scotland, 
was  caused  by  the  ignition  of  flour-dust  by  the  friction  of  the 
stones — the  feed  having  accidently  stopped.  The  stoppage  of 
the  feed  is  less  likely  to  be  noticed  in  a  mill  of  many  runs  of 
stone,  than  in  a  small  mill  of  only  two  or  three.    The  Tradeston 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


4G7 


mills  were  among  the  largest  in  Scotland,  and  the  explosion,  in 
the  instance  mentioned,  burst  the  dust-box.  "There  were  other 
parts  of  the  mill,  where  processes  were  going  on,  which  produced 
large  quantities  of  combustible  dust,  and  this  was  the  cause  of 
the  second  and  larger  explosion,  which  blew  out  the  gable  ends, 
reduced  the  mill  to  ruins,  and  set  the  woodwork  on  fire." — Glas- 
gow Herald. 

I  quote  from  the  report  of  Professors  MacAdam  and  Rankine 
as  to  the  above  fire  as  follows.    The  report  states: 

"That  the  tire  inflamed  the  finely  divided  dust  which  was  diffused  through 
the  air  in  the  exhaust  conduits,  and  then  passed  on  to  the  exhaust- box." 

"That  the  sudden  combustion  of  the  dust  diffused  through  the  air  would 
produce  a  very  high  temperature  in  the  gaseous  products  of  the  combustion; 
and  this  would  necessarily  be  accompanied  by  a  great  and  sudden  increase  of 
pressure  and  bulk — constituting,  in  fact,  an  explosion." 

"We  have  ascertained,  both  from  the  evidence  of  eye-witnesses,  and  from 
printed  and  published  documents,  that  fire  explosions  similar  in  their  cause 
and  nature  to  that  at  the  Tradeston  mills,  are  accidents  of  ordinary  occurrence 
in  flour  mills,  especially  since  the  introduction  of  the  apparatus  called  the 
exhaust.'  This  fact,  however,  is  little  known  to  the  general  public,  or  indeed, 
to  any  one  except  those  practically  employed  in  working  such  mills,  though 
it  appears  to  be  better  known  on  the  continent  than  in  Great  Britain,  being 
mentioned  in  French  and  German  treatises  upon  flour  mills,  but  not,  to  our 
knowledge,  in  the  standard  English  books  on  that  subject." 

"Indeed,  the  readiness  with  which  flame  can  be  transmitted  through  an  at- 
mosphere of  flour  dust  and  air,  may  be  experimentally  shown  by  showering 
some  of  the  fine  dust  through  a  sieve  placed  a  few  feet  above  a  gas  jet  or  other 
flame.  The  combustion  of  the  dusty  atmosphere  takes  place  with  explosive 
rapidity;  and.  in  some  respects,  resembles  the  flame  traveling  along  a  train  of 
gun-powder  or  flashing  through  a  mixture  of  coal-gas  and  air." 

"The  flour  dust  mainly  consists  of  starch  and  gluten,  accompanied  by 
smaller  proportions  of  gum,  sugar  and  oil.  All  these  substances  are  composed 
in  greater  part  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  and  when  burned  they  yield 
carbonic  acid  and  carbonic  oxide  gases  and  water  vapor.  These  gases  neces- 
sarily' tend  to  occupy  a  greater  space  than  the  dust  and  air  which  give  rise  to 
them,  and  this  extra  space  demanded  by  the  products  of  the  combustion  is 
much  enlarged  by  the  high  temperature  produced  during  the  burning,  and 
which  tends  greatly  to  expand  the  volume  of  the  gases.' 

"  We  haz>e  determined,  by  direct  experiment,  that  four-dust  diffused  through  the  air 
contained  in  a  box,  and  set  fire  to,  explodes  with  violence,  spills  up  the  wood,  bursts 
the  sides,  and  lifts  up  the  box  even  when  ladened  with  heavy  weights.  Indeed  the 
mixture  of  flour-dust  and  air  is  destructively  explosive,  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  fire-explosion  of  the  dusty  atmosphere  in  the  exhaust  box  in 
the  Tradeston  mills,  which  was  eighteen  feet  long,  nine  feet  high,  and  seven 
feet  wide,  would  shatter  the  sides  and  force  the  accumulated  fine  dust  lying 
on  the  shelves  and  floor  out  of  the  box  into  the  atmosphere  of  the  mill." 


M;s  manufactories  ok  special  hazards. 


The  Mascoutah  mills  in  Illinois,  were  burned.  The  miller 
approached  the  middlings  chest  for  the  purpose  of  jarring  the 
middlings  down,  and  the  cloud  of  dust  following  the  attempt 
ignited  at  a  small  open  lamp. 

Schmidt  &  Co's  mill  at  St.  Louis  was  destroyed  in  the  same 
manner. 

At  Evansville,  Ind.,  a  fire  occurred  in  the  flour  mill  of  Igle- 
hart  Bros.,  caused  by  the  ignition  of  Hour-dust  at  the  middlings 
chest. 

At  Dover,  Kentucky,  a  breakage  in  one  of  the  floors  of  the 
mill  resulted  in  a  shower  of  dust  which  ignited  at  the  boiler 
furnaces. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  well  to  state  that  the  boiler  and 
furnaces  of  a  flour  mill  should  always  be  outside  of  the  mill  and 
at  the  end  farthest  removed  from  the  flour  elevator,  as  the 
draft  of  the  furnaces  would,  naturally,  have  a  tendency  to  draw 
in  the  flour-dust  floating  through  the  air. 

A  fire  and  explosion  occurred  in  the  Atlantic  Mills  of  Brooklyn, 
caused  by  the  ignition  of  flour-dust  by  an  open  light.  The  rope 
to  the  return  side  in  the  bolting  chest  broke,  and  the  miller,  going 
with  an  open  light  to  repair  the  damage,  caused  an  explosion 
and  fire,  and  was  severely  burned  while  trying  to  escape.  For- 
tunately a  vertical  stand-pipe,  with  hose  attached,  enabled  the 
employees  to  extinguish  the  fire. 

I  might  add  to  the  above  list,  but  I  think  that  it  is  sufficiently 
long  to  convince  agents  and  millers  of  the  great  danger  of  open 
lights  in  a  mill,  near  middlings-chests,  feed-spouts,  bolts,  ex- 
haust-boxes, or  the  stones  themselves — in  fact,  anywhere  outside 
of  the  office. 

A  Da  vies  safety  lamp  should  be  used  with  the  glass  globe,  as 
the  latter  is  liable  to  be  broken  by  an  accident,  at  a  most  inop- 
portune moment. 

It  has,  at  last,  become  apparent  that  companies  must  insist 
upon  warranties  in  their  policies  as  to  the  use  of  open  lights. 

The  learned  scientist,  Dr.  Mac  Adam,  in  an  interesting  paper 
read  by  him  before  the  Royal  Scottish  Society  of  Arts,  argued 
that  flour  mills,  under  some  circumstances  of  carelessness,  are 
almost  as  dangerous  as  gunpowder  mills.    He  claimed  that  in 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


order  to  produce  explosion,  as  well  as  fire,  it  is  only  necessary 
that  the  flour  mixture  be  more  or  less  confined  within  a  given 
space,  and  that  the  fine,  impalpable  dust  he  diffused  through  the 
air  in  certain  proportions.  He  advocates  1  he  separation  of  the 
different  processes  of  flour  mills,  so  that  the  entire  property  need 
not  be  destroyed  by  a  single  accident. 

In  entertaining  applications  for  the  insurance  of  flour  "mills, 
therefore,  we  desire  our  agents  to  notice  whether  both  the  owner 
and  men  employed  recognize  this  danger  from  open  lights.  The 
stubborn  skepticism  of  those  claiming  to  be  "practical"  men,  as 
to  what  they  are  pleased  to  term  "theory,"  frequently  causes 
losses.  I  have  been  thus  explicit  on  this  important  point  and 
have  devoted  this  much  space  to  the  statistics  of  fires,  in  the 
hope  that  it  will  enable  agents  to  convince  the  most  skeptical  as 
to  the  danger  from  open  lights,  and,  also,  as  to  the  danger  of 
permitting  smoking  in  a  mill,  outside  of  the  office.  No  reason- 
able man  would  decline  to  learn  from  the  misfortunes  of  his 
fellows,  and  if  any  mill-owner  persists  in  entertaining  doubts  on 
this  important  subject,  it  is  best  to  let  him  insure  himself. 

I  think  President  Washburn  of  the  Home  was  one  of  the  first, 
if  not  the  first,  to  call  attention  to  the  explosiveness  of  flour  dust 
in  mills. 

Avoid  over-taxed  mills,  i.  e.,  mills  which  are  run  beyond 
their  average  capacity.  They  are  apt  to  break  down  or  to  burn 
from  friction. 

Grain  is  sometimes  stored  so  that  it  covers  slow-running 
journals.  This  is  dangerous.  Examine  carefully  all  journals 
on  upper  floors  and  in  dark,  out  of  the  way  places.  They 
should  be  regularly  oiled,  and  any  greasy  rags  or  cotton  waste 
used  about  them  should  not  be  thrown  carelessly  aside,  as  is  too 
often  the  case,  thus  endangering  the  mill.  Metal  receptacles 
for  oily  waste  should  be  provided,  and  regularly  emptied  every 
night. 

The  over-loading  of  floors,  either  with  Hour  or  grain,  is 
liable  to  cause  sagging  and  throw  shafting  "out  of  line,"  result- 
ing in  friction  and  heated  journals. 

The  moral  hazard  of  large  flour  mills  doing  a  "merchant" 
business — i.  e.,  grinding  to  sell  on  owner's  account — is  often 
very  serious,  owing  to  the  fl  ictuations  of  the  market.    A  loss 


470 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


of  a  small  amount  in  the  market  price  of  a  barrel  of  flour  may 
entail  a  loss  of  hundreds  of  dollars  per  day  in  the  case  of  mills 
of  large  capacity.  During  seasons  when  mills  are  losing  money, 
some  owners  are  not  apt  to  examine,  carefully,  for  heated  jour- 
nals or  other  dangers,  especially  if  f  ully  insured;  and  it  is 
needless  to  remind  an  agent  that  a  neglected  journal  will  as 
surely  burn  a  mill  as  will  the  match  of  an  incendiary. 

A  neglected  wooden  journal  will  soon  take  fire.  It  may  be 
seriously  questioned  if  wooden  journals  are  safe  under  any  cir- 
cumstances, or  when  running  at  any  rate  of  speed,  as,  when  not 
properly  oiled,  the  slowest  journals  are  certain  to  heat.  Wooden 
journals,  also,  are  generally  in  the  upper  stories  of  mills,  where 
they  are  more  liable  to  be  neglected  and  more  dangerous  in  case 
they  ignite. 

"Middlings  Purifiers." — By  this  process,  which  is  a  simple 
system  of  sieves,  with  exhausts  to  remove  dust,  chaff,  etc.,  the 
"spring"  wheats  make  a  better  grade  of  flour  than  was  formerly 
produced  from  the  best  grades  of  "winter,"  as  well  as  a  larger 
quantity  (16  lbs.)  to  the  barrel. 

The  fact  that  flour  is  ground  coarser,  or,  technically,  "higher" 
than  formerly — the  stones  not  running  so  close  as  under  the  old 
process — where  the  aim  was  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  any 
flour  from  passing  into  the  middlings — might  be  a  favorable 
feature  of  the  physical  hazard  if  the  process  did  not  require  a 
greater  number  of  stones  to  do  the  work,  which  may  counter- 
balance it. 

Fire  Appliances  in  Flour  Mills. — There  can  be  little  question 
—in  view  of  the  rapidity  of  flour  mill  fires,  and  the  danger  of 
explosions,  rendering  ordinary  appliances,  such  as  force-pumps 
and  pails  of  water,  almost  useless — that  steam  jets  and  sprink- 
lers would  be  the  most  efficient  of  all  fire  appliances  for  flour 
mills,  not  only  on  account  of  the  thoroughness  with  which  they 
extinguish  fire,  but  also  on  account  of  the  readiness  with  which 
they  may  be  applied.  In  view  of  the  strong  suction  draft  of 
the  exhaust  box,  a  steam  jet  opening  into  it  would  be  an 
admirable  precaution,  and  one  which  might  be  provided  at 
little  expense.  The  combustible  character  of  flour-dust  would 
be  instantly  neutralized  by  the  volume  of  steam,  which  would 
find  its  way  through  elevators,  chutes,  spouts,  exhaust  boxes 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


471 


and  other  places,  where  water  could  not  be  applied,  and  would 
extinguish  a  fire  in  a  few  moments. 

The  precaution  of  having  the  valves  to  steam  jets  and  sprink- 
lers outside  of  the  rooms  in  which  they  are  to  be  used  is  partic- 
ularly important  in  flour  mills. 

Grist  Mills,  or  mills  doing  a  custom  work  only  for  sur- 
rounding farmers,  with  not  over  four  run  of  stones,  and  with 
smut  machines  not  above  the  first  floor,  are  much  better  risks 
than  merchant  flour  mills,  as  the  neighbors  and  farmers  are 
generally  interested  in  their  preservation,  and  the  risks  are  free 
from  the  moral  hazard  usually  connected  with  the  speculative 
grinding  of  flour  for  the  market.    Submit  surveys  to  company. 

FloorCloth.    (See  Oil  Cloth.) 

Flowers.  Artificial.  Stocks  of.  These  are  very  damageable 
stocks,  worse  than  millinery,  and  unprofitable  to  underwriters 
at  obtainable  rates.  Where  they  are  in  honest  hands,  they  are 
insurable  at  full  rates,  but  few  companies  write  them. 

Florists*  Stocks.  Decline. 
Foods.    (See  Cereal  Foods.) 

Foundries.  Submit  application  to  company.  The  amount  in- 
sured on.  patterns  should  be  very  small — in  no  case  exceeding 
fifteen  per  cent,  of  policy.  They  are  often  entirely  valueless 
before  a  fire,  but  are  sometimes  claimed  to  be  valuable  after 
they  have  been  destroyed.  Not  over  one-half  the  value  claimed 
for  them  should  be  permitted  to  be  insured.  Whenever  a  ma- 
chine becomes  unsalable,  the  patterns  of  its  various  parts  become 
worthless,  and  a  moral  hazard  attaches  to  the  insurance  of  them. 
Very  small  amounts  should  be  taken  on  flasks.  After  a  casting, 
flasks  should  not  be  piled  up  where  they  may  endanger  the 
building  in  case  they  should  take  fire,  as  they  sometimes  do, 
from  being  overheated  or  from  concealed  sparks. 

The  roofs  or  ceilings  over  casting  floors  should  be  high  enough 
to  prevent  their  being  endangered,  in  case  of  a  "boil"  or  explo- 
sion of  molten  metal.  Examine  carefully  the  core  ovens,  and 
see  that  old  wooden  patterns,  or  other  combustible  materials,  are 
not  piled  over  them.  The  cupola  chimney  should  rise,  at  least, 
10  feet  above  the  highest  point  of  any  roof  within  a  radius  of  50 
feet,  and  roof  should  have  a  clearance  around  stack  by  at  least 


472  M  A  N  U F ACTORI E S  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


3  feet.  The  pouring  floor  and  charging  floor  should  be  built 
entirely  of  fireproof  material.  Where  more  than  the  ordinary 
amount  of  woodwork  is  done,  carpenter  shop  rates  should  be 
charged,  unless  in  a  separate  building,  where  it  will  not  endan- 
ger the  foundry. 

For  pattern  shop,  if  more  than  two  men  employed  and  power 
used,  when  in  main  building,  or  exposing  same,  an  additional 
rate  should  be  charged. 

Frame  R  ows  and  Ranges.    (See  page  6'5.) 

Fruit  Evaporators.  Are  accepted  by  few  companies,  and  only 
at  high  rates.  The  principal  hazard  is,  of  course,  in  the  heat- 
ing apparatus.  The  constant  use  of  heat,  as  in  the  case  of  other 
risks  where  drying  is  done,  subjects  the  woodwork  to  quick  fires, 
if  not  spontaneous  ignition.  Confer  with  the  company  before 
binding,  and  advise  fully  as  to  the  heating  apparatus  storage 
and  care  of  fuel,  etc.,  etc. 

Fulling  Mills.    (See  Cotton  and  Woolen  Mills.) 

Fur  Stocks.  A  bad  class,  heavy  claims  always  follow  small 
fires — better  decline  stocks  and  get  building  or  furniture  and 
fixtures. 

Furnaces.    (See  Blast  Furnaces. ) 

Furniture  Factories.    (See  Cabinet  Factories.) 

Garbage  Crematories.    Decline.    (See  Crematories.) 

Gas  Works.  These  are  not  necessarily  dangerous  risks  when 
properly  constructed.  Applications  should  be  referred  to  the 
company.  The  hazard  of  explosion,  except  for  loss  by  fire, 
can  not  be  assumed. 

Gins.    (See  Cotton  Gins.) 

Glass  Factories.  The  principal  hazard  is  in  the  furnaces  and 
ovens,  and,  like  all  classes  of  risks  using  fire  heat,  the  wood- 
work is  very  ignitible.  There  should  be  no  woodwork  whatever 
near  the  furnaces.  Where  factories  use  natural  gas  for  fuel, 
care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  supply  of  fuel  is  ample  and 
that  its  exhaustion  would  not  involve  a  moral  hazard.  Advise 
with  company  before  binding. 

Glove  Factories.  These  seem  to  have  been  unprofitable  risks  to 
the  companies,  and  stocks  are  very  susceptible  to  damage  by 
water  and  smoke.    The  physical  hazard,  however,  does  not  seem 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


473 


to  warrant  the  mortality  in  the  class.  In  safe  hands,  the  risks, 
when  properly  managed,  ought  to  he  insurable  at  proper  rates. 

Glucose  Manufactories.  Refer  to  the  company  before  binding, 
with  full  explanation,  after,  a  careful  survey.  They  combine 
many  of  the  hazards  of  starch  mills,  sugar  refineries,  kiln  drying, 
&c,  and  full  rates  are  needed. 

Glue  Works.  These  are  generally  nuisances,  and  should  be  de- 
clined. 

Grand  Stands  at  Race-Tracks,  Fair-Grounds,  &c,  are  un- 
desirable risks  and  have  been  unprofitable  as  a  class.  Most 
companies  decline  them  altogether.  Underneath  the  tier  of 
seats  may  be  found  quantities  of  waste  paper,  thrown  away  by 
patrons  after  candy,  luncheons,  &c. ,  have  been  eaten,  only  to 
catch  the  falling  cigarettes  or  cigar  stumps  after  the  crowd  have 
left  for  the  day.    Obtainable  rates  are  as  a  rule  inadequate. 

Grain  Elevators.    (See  Elevators.) 

Green  Houses.  These  risks  are  not  desirable,  nor  are  risks  on 
the  plants  contained  in  them,  which  are  easily  injured,  if  not 
killed,  by  smoke  and  water,  or  by  the  cold  air  consequent  upon 
the  breakage  of  glass  in  case  a  fire  occurs  in  winter.  Fires  have 
been  caused  in  green  houses,  also,  by  rats  carrying  combustible 
material  to  the  vicinity  of  heating  pipes.  Plants  often  have 
fancy  and  extravagant  values,  especially  after  afire.  Modern 
structures,  heated  by  steam  or  hot  water,  with  boilers  and  heaters 
outside  of  main  building,  are  written  by  some  companies  at  full 
rates,  but  the  company  should  be  conferred  with  before  binding. 

Grist  Mills.    (See  Flour  Mills.) 

Groceries.  Wholesale.  These  risks  have  changed  in  character 
seriously  of  late  years.  They  suggest  to  the  average  under- 
writer the  nominal  hazard  of  the  old-time  risk  of  sugar  in  hogs- 
heads and  barrels,  flour  and  molasses  in  barrels,  coffee  in  bags, 
tea  in  chests,  &c,  &c.  whereas  the  modern  wholesale  grocery 
store  is  practically  a  compound  special  hazard,  involving  the 
risks  of  coffee  grinding,  and  sometimes  of  coffee  roasting;  of 
spice  grinding,  frequently  with  old-fashioned  wooden  mills ;  of 
preserving,  putting  up  of  extracts,  compounding,  canning,  cold 
rectifying,  and  other  hazards  which  make  ordinary  rates  ridic- 
ulously inadequate. 


474  MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


The  following  are  the  charges  to  be  added  to  the  building  rate 
under  the  Universal  .Mercantile  Schedule,  and  indicate  the  care 
requisite  for  insuring  this  class : 


WHOLESALE  GROCERIES  OCCUPANCY  CHARGES* 

Add  for 
Build'g 
Rate. 

Add  for 
Contents 
Rate. 



Cents 

Cents 

1009 

CLASS  A.     GROCERIES.— WHOLESALE. 

Without  manufacturing  or  any  of  the  additional 

40 

CLASS  V, 

If  bottling  wines,  liquors,  olive  oil,  blueing,  or 

CLASS  C. 

If  mixing  and  packing  Hour,  starch,  baking  powder, 

cereals  or  similar  substances; 

15 

45 

CLASS  D. 

If  manufacturing  flavoring  extracts,  essences  or 

drugs; 

Or  if  rectifying  by  cold  process  only; 

Or  if  molasses  reboiliug  or  maple  syrup  mixing; 

Or  if  coffee  milling,  polishing,  separating,  mixing, 

and  grinding,  with  power; 

Or  if  fruit  cleaning  with  power  or  dry  room,  or 

30 

50 

CLASS  E. 

Or  if  coffee  roasting,  using  only  gas  fuel  standard 

equipment,  fire  proof  floors,  metal  cooling  pans, 

metal  troughs,  metal  conveyors,  and  metal  hoods 

over  roasters; 

Or  if  spice  grinding  with  modern  iron  frame  mills 

40 

60 

CLASS  F. 

Tf  pnfTpp  rnnQtintr   ctnnrlnrcl  omnnmpnt   ncinnr  r^tli^r 

11  V^VJIA         1  UaoLlUg,    oLilLUlcll  v_l  <-U  111  Ls 111  'III,    Lloi          *J  III  t_  1 

50 

70 

CLASS  G. 

If  spice  grinding  with  wooden  frame  mills  

T5 

75 

CLASS  H. 

If  coffee  roasting,  old  style  equipment,  wooden 

floors,  wooden  cooling  troughs,  or  wooden  con- 

1.25 

1.10 

*Charges  are  not  cumulative.    The  higher  rate  in 
each  case  includes  the  less. 

HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


475 


It  will  be  observed  that  the  maximum  charge  for  each  class 
is  not  that  fixed  for  the  class  in  the  schedule,  which  equitably 
takes  into  account  that  each  process  in  the  case  of  the  wholesale 
grocery  store  is  only  an  incident  of  the  risk  and  not  the  entire 
occupancy  of  the  building. 

Gun  Manufactories.    (See  Fire  Arms  Manufactories.) 

Halls.  With  Scenery.  Where  the  ceiling  over  the  stage  is  higher 
than  that  over  the  auditorium,  for  the  purpose  of  hoisting  and 
lowering  scenery,  the  rate  should  be  the  same  as  that  of  a  the- 
atre.   (See  Theatres.) 

Small,  country  halls,  where  a  simple  raised  platform,  without 
traps,  and  perhaps  two  side  dressing-rooms,  comprise  the  only 
theatre  feature,  may  be  insured  at  lower  rates ;  but  all  others 
should  have  a  full  theatre  schedule  applied.  The  woodwork  of 
stage  and  wings,  etc.,  should  be  painted  with  asbestos  paint  as 
a  fire  retardant.  It  is  usually  exceedingly  dry  and  liable  to  ignite 
and  flash  into  an  uncontrollable  fire. 

Hardware  Manufactories.  Examine  carefully  the  japanning 
process.  It  should  be  carried  on  in  a  thoroughly  fireproof 
room  or,  better  still,  outside  of  the  building.  The  buffing  haz- 
ard is  an  important  one,  the  fine  polishing  dust  resulting  from 
the  process  being  peculiarly  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion. 
The  room  should  be  cut  off  from  the  main  structure,  and  the 
dust  should  be  blown  out  of  the  building  through  metal  spouts 
or  chutes.  The  working  of  celluloid  for  handles  is  a  feature  of 
modern  cutlery  factories,  which  is,  of  course,  a  serious  one,  and 
the  company  would  want  full  advice.  Where  much  woodwork 
is  done,  as  for  handles  of  tools,  &c. ,  the  rate  should  be  graded 
accordingly  and  the  risk  inspected  with  reference  to  the  hazard 
of  woodworking. 

Hardware.  Stocks  of.  Few  classes  of  hazards  are  more  inade- 
quately rated  than  these.  They  damage  easily  by  fire  and  water. 
The  burning  of  paper  wrappers  only  on  shelves,  even  where  the 
fire  is  extinguished,  is  apt  to  injure  the  contents  by  taking  the 
temper  out  of  steel  and  by  discoloring  handles,  &c.  The  sale  of 
kerosene,  alcohol,  turpentine,  benzine  and  paints  is  frequently 
carried  on  in  connection  with  these  stores  and  adds  very  much 
to  the  hazard,  especially  where  the  handling  of  such  dangerous 
fluids  is  entrusted  to  clerks  not  acquainted  with  their  danger. 


4?6 


MANl"  KA  (  T<  >i;  I  ES  OK  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


The  average  retail  druggisl  km  >ws  bow  to  handle  these  materials, 
and  this  is  one  reason  why  the  percentage  of  loss  to  premium  in 
the  case  of  retail  drug  stores  is  less  than  that  of  hardware  stores. 

Hat  Factories.  Thesi  mbine  many  hazards — drying,  bleach- 
ing, felting,  &c,  &c.  They  should  be  referred  to  the  company, 
and  sometimes  need  the  careful  inspection  given  to  cotton  and 
woolen  mills.  The  wool  felt  factories  carry  with  them  the  haz- 
ards of  woolen  mills  and  should  be  inspected  for  the  same  risks 
as  that  class;  the  hazard  of  the  picker  and  card  room  being 
greater  than  that  of  most  woolen  mills,  because  of  the  low  grade 
of  stock  used  and  the  necessary  flyings  in  the  card  room,  this 
portion  of  the  risk  being  usually  very  dirty.  Fur  felt  hat  fac- 
tories do  not  involve  all  of  these  hazards,  the  chief  being  the 
di  ving  and  heating  of  slug  irons.  In  straw  hat  factories  the 
hazards  are,  of  course,  bleaching,  drying  and  pressing. 

Hay  in  Stacks.  Decline,  unless  close  to  the  barnyard.  Isolated 
hay  cocks  in  meadows  and  on  prairies  are  uninsurable.  A  creep- 
ing grass  fire  set  by  careless  gunners,  or  by  sparks  from  loco- 
motives, will  burn  up  enough  of  these  in  a  year  to  prevent  their 
being  profitable  at  any  obtainable  rates. 

Hay  Presses  or  Barns.  These  should  not  be  insured  without  the 
consent  of  the  company  first  obtained.  They  are  usually  by  the 
side  of  railroad  tracks,  great  carelessness  is  observable  as  to  loose 
hay  and  straw  about  the  doorways,  and  they  are  not  always 
commercial  successes.  They  are  especially  dangerous  when  run 
by  steam  power,  with  the  usual  arrangement  of  boiler-room,  &c. 

Hemp  and  Jute  Mills.  These  should  be  declined  as  a  rule. 
Under  no  circumstances  should  they  be  taken  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  company  first  obtained.  They  have  been  a  losing 
class,  and  always  will  be  until  the  owners  take  precautions 
which  they  are  deterred  from  taking,  as  a  rule,  because  of  the 
expense  of  safe  construction. 

The  principal  hazard  is  in  the  necessarily  large  amount  of 
waste  in  the  working  of  the  material,  some  of  the  processes 
being  very  dirty;  jute  particularly  is  subject  to  spontaneous  ig- 
nition when  damp. 

Henneries.   With  incubators,  refer  to  company  before  binding. 

Hominy  Mills.  These  are  undesirable  at  obtainable  rates.  They 
are  usually  cheaply  constructed  and  careless  in  management. 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


Hop  Houses.  Do  not  bind  without  consent  of  company. 
Standard:  brick;  metal  roofs;  floors  of  stone,  brick  or  earth — 
never  wood.  First  floor  at  least  12  feet  high.  Hop  kiln  joists 
12  feet  above  heating  pipes.  Pipes  riveted  at  each  joint,  or 
wired  with  continuous  wire,  fastened  around  pipe  at  each  joint ; 
and  must  enter  good  brick  flues — never  pass  out  of  side  wall, 
window  or  roof.  Vessel  in  which  brimstone  is  burned  should 
be  covered  with  perforated  iron.  Pipes  and  stoves  should  be 
dusted  off  thoroughly  after  each  drying.  No  open  lights.  No 
kerosene.  Baling  done  by  daylight  only.  Barrels  of  water 
and  pails.  Constant  watch  during  drying  season.  Stationarj- 
ladder  attached  to  side  and  roof  of  kiln.  If  wooden  kiln,  line 
the  sides  with  metal;  and  heating  pipes  must  be  at  least  24 
inches  from  wall.  Front  wall  around  heater  must  be  brick,  or 
protected  by  space  not  less  than  ten  inches,  and  lined  with  metal. 

Basis  Rates.  B  Class     C  Class     D  Class 

Brick,  Brick,  Frame. 

Metal  Roof.  Shingle  Roof. 

Hop  kilns,  without  drying  privilege      1.50  1.80  2.00 

Hops,  in  storage  house  or  cooling  room    1.50  1.80  2.00 

But  not  less,  in  any  case,  than  the  building  rate,  if  building 
rates  are  higher  than  above. 

Hops  while  contained  in  kilns,  or  in  buildings  exposed  by 
drying,  must  be  written  at  above  basis  rate  for  hops  with  the 
following  additional  charge  for  drying  privilege: 

Class  B,  $1.70  Class  C,  $2.00  Class  D,  $2.50 

This  charge  for  drying  covers  one  season  only,  and  no  de- 
duction is  to  be  made  for  shortness  of  term. 

Any  building  provided  with  apparatus  for  drying  hops  must 
be  written  for  a  term  not  exceeding  one  year  and  be  rated  as  a 
hop  kiln. 

Hop  kiln  should  be  at  least  100  feet  from  storage  or  cooling 
warehouses. 

Hops  in  Bales.  These  were  regarded  for  years  as  good  stocks 
to  insure,  and  there  is  no  inherent  tire  hazard  to  justify  the 
heavy  loss  ratio,  which  is  due  rather  to  the  fact  that  when  a  fire 
once  starts  the  hops  are  easily  injured  by  smoke  and  water,  as 
well  as  by  fire,  and  claims,  where  owners  are  not  conscientious, 
are  so  excessive  as  to  make  it  safe  to  decline  the  risks.  Hops 
in  bales  in  disinterested  custody,  stored  in  warehouses,  not 
those  of  the  owner  himself,  are  insurable  at  proper  rates — not 
less  than  1  °/>  in  any  case. 

Horse  Cars  in  Horse  Car  Stables.  These  are  usually  insured 
under  a  blanket  form  which  insures  total  loss  to  the  insurance 
companies  and  a  low  rate  to  the  car  companies.    Where  insured, 


478 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


the  policy  should  have  the  80$  co-insurance  clause  attached. 
(See  page  438.) 

Hosiery  Mills.    (See  Woolen  Mills.) 

Hospitals.  Decline  those  exclusively  for  contagious  diseases, 
pest  houses,  etc.,  especially  where  their  presence  will  be  object- 
ionable to  neighbors.  As  I  write  the  destruction  of  one  by  a 
mob  at  South  Omaha  illustrates  the  danger.  It  was  a  small- 
pox hospital.  Neighbors  naturally  objected  and  it  was  totally 
dest  n  yed. 

Hotels.  A  hotel  with  the  laundry  and  kitchen  outside,  or  in  a 
fire-resisting  room,  heated  by  steam,  ought  to  be  a  profitable 
risk  at  ordinary  rates,  and  would  be  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that 
the  guests  are  not  always  of  a  careful  character,  and  intoxicated 
parties  are  liable  to  be  careless  with  lights,  cigars  and  fires.  The 
laundry  should  be  completely  cut  off  from  the  hotel  building, 
and  the  kitchen  should  lie  safely  arranged.  Most  hotels,  how- 
ever, are  fire-traps,  and  the  annual  mortality  of  the  class  is  so 
great  that  if  the  facts  were  known  to  travelers  they  would  be 
appalled  as  to  the  risks  they  run.  Probably  few  underwriters 
take  the  trouble  to  inspect  hotels  while  traveling  for  their  com- 
panies. They  might  well  do  so,  in  their  own  interest  as  well  as 
in  the  interest  of  their  companies  and  of  the  community.  Every 
cause  of  fire  removed  tends  to  cut  down  the  fire  loss.  Two  of  the 
most  frequent  causes  of  fires  are  almost  universally  overlooked, 
viz. ,  the  proximity  of  window  curtains  to  open  fire-places  and  to 
gas  jets,  where  a  current  of  air  coming  through  the  open  win- 
dow would  blow  the  curtain  inevitably  either  into  the  gas  jet  or 
the  fire.  Sawdust  spittoons  are  commonly  used,  and  a  lighted 
cigar  thrown  into  one  of  these  late  at  night  is  almost  certain  to 
escape  the  attention  of  sleepy  employees. 

There  is  no  reason  why  a  hotel,  with  its  cellular  construction, 
so  to  speak,  of  divided  rooms,  like  bulkheads,  and  its  compara- 
tively harmless  processes,  should  not  be  among  the  safest  of  risks, 
with  reasonably  slow-burning  construction,  which  would  not  be 
expensive.    They  are  safe  risks  in  every  country  except  our  own. 

Season  Hotels,  Seaside  Resorts,  Summer  Hotels,  Sanit- 
ariums. These  as  a  class  have  not  been  profitable,  except 
where  the  greatest  intelligence  has  been  observed  in  noting 
the  question  of  whether  or  not  they  are  commercial  successes. 


HOW  TO  BUILD   A  HOTEL. 


47!) 


Where  they  have  become  unprofitable  for  any  reason,  losing 
their  trade,  especially  in  the  case  of  health  resorts,  they  should 
be  declined.  They  are  usually  constructed  in  the  cheapest  man- 
ner, ordinarily  of  frame,  with  a  si  mile  staircase,  which  would 
cut  off  the  escape  of  the  inmates  and  prevent  any  intelligent 
effort  at  extinction  in  the  early  stages  of  a  fire. 

Hotel  Furniture.  Few  classes  of  property  are  more  liable  to 
depreciation  from  wear  and  tear  than  hotel  furniture.  Second- 
hand, partly  worn  out  hotel  furniture  will  not  sell  for  twenty- 
five  per  cent,  of  its  original  cost,  and  if  stored  and  not  in  use 
should  be  regarded  as  uninsurable  above  this  percentage  of 
original  value.    A  serious  moral  hazard  is  often  involved. 

HOW  TO  BUILD  A  HOTEL. 

In  view  of  the  number  of  fires  occurring,  almost  daily,  throughout  the 
United  States,  in  buildings  occupied  as  hotels,  resulting,  in  only  too  many 
instances,  in  loss  of  life,  it  would  seem  clearly  to  be  the  duty  of  everyone 
possessed  of  knowledge,  no  matter  how  acquired,  as  to  ways  and  means  of 
preventing  fires,  to  give  the  benefit  of  that  knowledge  to  the  public,  and 
particularly  to  those  about  to  erect  hotels.  With  this  conception  of  duty. 
I  have  prepared  the  following  pages.  They  are  the  result  of  careful  study 
of  the  fires  occurring  in  hotels  throughout  the  past  twenty  years — not  only 
those  insured  by  my  own  company  (themselves  not  few  in  number),  but 
those  which  have  occurred,  whether  insured  or  not,  from  Maine  to  California. 

Not  content  with  my  own  theories  and  investigations,  I  have  taken  the 
precaution  to  send  the  proof  of  these  pages  to  various  experts  of  my  acquain- 
tance— underwriters,  adjusters,  architects,  builders,  and  to  hotel  prop  rietors 
themselves,  with  request  for  a  careful  revision  and  suggestions,  holding 
that  everybody  knows  more  than  anybody.  Having  taken  such  pains  to 
secure  a  consensus  of  judgment,  I  present  the  result  to  those  who  may  be 
interested,  without  diffidence,  because  I  can  claim  they  are  not  my  own  ideas 
merely  ;  and  that  those  who  contemplate  erecting  structures  which  are  to 
shelter,  during  the  night  hours  of  greatest  danger,  their  fellow-beings  who 
will  be  helpless  because  unconscious,  will  do  well  to  study  and  follow  the 
advice  presented.  Certain  considerations  are  of  such  vital  importance  that 
it  would  be  almost  sufficient  to  name  them  merely,  without  argument  or 
explanation,  were  it  not  that  much  of  the  detail  necessary  to  carry  them 
out  would  not  be  understood  by  those  owners  who  have  not  practical 
knowledge  of  construction. 

Unfortunately,  those  who  build  hotels  seem  to  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that 
there  is  a  happy  medium  between  a  fireproof  hotel  and  a  tinderbox  of  frame, 
and  that  this  medium  :an  be  reached  by  a  slight  advance  in  the  cost  of 
building,  as  compared  with  what  might  be  termed  rapid-burning  construction 
as  opposed  to  slow-burning  construction.    One  great  secret  of  securing  the 


ISO 


MANUFACTORIES  Oil  SPICCIAL  HAZARDS. 


latter  is  the  simple  one  of  cutting  off  air  drafts  in  the  hollow  spaces  of 
partitions  and  enclosing  walls  which  run  from  story  to  story  and  not  only 
f  tcilitate  the  spread  of  the  fire,  but  contribute  to  its  intensity  ;  and  the  further 
important  point  of  providing  suitable  exits  for  the  inmates,  especially  by 
enclosing  the  staircases  either  with  fireproof  walls  of  brick,  or  of  burnt  clay 
blocks  in  T  and  angle-iron  frames,  orb}-  filling  in  solidly  between  the  wooden 
studs  of  combustible  enclosing  walls  with  ordinary  brick  and  mortar.  Even 
this  last  economical  form  of  construction  would  probably  hold  a  staircase  for 
safe  exit  of  all  the  inmates. 

It  is  with  this  view  of  the  importance  of  the  subject  that  I  have  prepared 
the  following  piges  (which  have  also  been  printed  in  pamphlet  form,  for  the 
use  of  those  who  contemplate  erecting  hotels),  in  order  that  when  applied  to 
for  information  the  Insurance  Agent  can  offer  his  patrons  valuable  informa- 
tion, which  will  save  not  only  money  but  life. 

I  have  combined  with  the  points  as  to  construction  some  practical  sug- 
gestions with  regard  to  arrangement  of  rooms  and  other  matters  which  I 
have  secured  after  conference  with  hotel  men  and  other  experts,  and  after 
careful  personal  observation,  for  many  years  past,  while  traveling  from  one 
city  to  another.  Some  directions  (as  to  flues,  for  example)  are  repetitions 
of  previous  ones  in  this  book,  but  are  inserted  here  in  order  that  one  studying 
the  subject  will  find  all  under  one  head. 

HOW  TO  BUILD  A  HOTEL. 

Construction.  Fire  resisting  construction*  for  hotels  in- 
volves considerations  so  simple  that  they  should  occur 
naturally  to  any  thoughtful  person.  The  most  important 
of  these  is  the  prevention  of  air  drafts  which  would  draw 
flame  from  one  story  to  another.  Almost  the  earliest 
practical  lesson  learned  in  life  in  connection  with  fire  is 
that  combustion  is  accelerated  by  a  good  draft,  jind  that 
fire,  for  want  of  a  draft,  will  burn  slowly,  if,  indeed,  it  does 
not  expire,  as  it  certainly  will  if  deprived  of  oxygen,  even 
to  the  extent  that  a  closed  room  of  small  dimensions  has 
been  known  to  suffocate  an  ordinary  flame.  But  the  child, 
who  learns  to  open  the  drafts  of  a  stove,  both  in  the  stove- 
pipe and  at  the  bottom  of  the  stove,  seems  to  forget,  in 
maturer  years,  the  danger  of  having  such  drafts  in  the 
building  in  which  he  lives  and  sleeps  as  are  afforded  by 
staircase  shafts,  elevator  shafts  and  the  hollow  spaces  in 
the  partitions  and  outer  or  enclosing  walls.  The  dimen- 
sions of  each  upright  flue  between  the  studs  of  a  partition 

*  To  those  wishing  to  build  fireproof  hotels,  a  pamphlet  on  "  How  to 
Build  Fireproof  "  will  be  sent  upon  application. 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  HOTEL. 


481 


are  often  greater  in  square  inches  than  the  throat  capacity 
of  the  chimney  of  the  house,  and  fhime  getting  access  to 
such  air  passages  in  improperly  constructed  buildings 
will  go  more  rapidly  from  cellar  to  roof  than  through  a 
chimney  to  find  an  exit. 

I,  therefore,  dwell  first  upon  the  importance  of  cutting 
off  all  communications  from  story  to  story,  of  whatever 
character,  as  the  most  important  step  to  be  taken  to  insure 
slow  combustion,  rapid  extinction  and  the  confinement  of 
a  fire  to  its  floor  of  origin.  The  maximum  of  safety  and 
the  minimum  of  danger  would  be  secured  if  the  only 
passageways,  staircases,  elevators,  etc.,  for  getting  from 
one  story  to  another  were  entirely  outside  of  the  building. 
This,  of  course,  is  not  always  practicable,  but  it  is  entirel}' 
practicable,  and  ought  to  be  a  provision  of  every  building 
law,  that  all  communications  from  story  to  story  should  be 
in  a  separate  enclosure  tower  of  brick  walls,  with  fireproof 
doors  at  the  openings  ;  and  in  buildings  of  larger  ground 
floor  area  than  five  thousand  square  feet  there  should  be  at 
least  two  such  systems  of  staircases,  one  at  each  end  of  the 
structure.  In  these  separate  enclosures,  or  brick  towers, 
the  staircases,  elevators,  dumb-waiters,  risers  for  water 
pipes,  gas  pipes,  &c,  &c,  should  be  carried,  and  especially 
the  stand-pipes  for  supplying  water  for  the  extinction  of 
fires,  so  that  the  latter,  with  outlets  for  hose  near  the 
stairways,  could  be  used  to  the  last  moment  by  firemen  or 
by  the  employes  of  the  hotel.  They  can  be  built  flush 
with  the  outer  walls,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  archi- 
tectural effects.  Revolving  doors,  glazed  with  wire  glass, 
would  prevent  passage  of  smoke. 

The  inmates  could  escape  by  means  of  stairways  so 
enclosed,  without  danger  of  being  burned.  Stone  stairs  or 
iron  stairs  with  stone  treads  without  an  iron  web  beneath 
the  stone  are  dangerous,  as  they  crumble  if  exposed  to  fire. 

These  enclosed  hallways  should  be  lighted  throughout 
by  whale  or  lard  oil  lamps  firmly  attached  to  brackets,  at 
a  sufficient  height  (seven  feet)  from  the  floor  to  prevent 
their  being  knocked  off  by  hurrying  persons,  (or  in  a  pocket 


IS2 


MANUFACTORIES  OK  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


in  the  brick  wall,  in  which  the  lamp  could  be  placed,  with 
light  metal  frame  door  and  red  glass  in  same,  with  small 
vent  holes  in  frame  for  ventilation.  This  should  be  kept 
locked  to  prevent  removal  of  the  lamp),  so  that  in  case  the 
gas  or  electric  light  should  be  cut  off  by  a  fire,  as  electric- 
light  and  gas  systems  nearly  always  are,  these  avenues  of 
escape  would  not  be  darkened. 

Oil  lamps,  with  red  glass,  should  be  displa}'ed  where 
they  can  be  seen  throughout  their  entire  length,  to  indicate 
the  doors  to  the  staircases.  In  fact,  all  hallways  of  a  hotel 
should  be  lighted  with  whale  or  lard  oil  lamps  or  candles 
by  night,  the  lamps  being  so  arranged  as  to  illuminate 
plainly  printed  directions  to  the  staircases.  Gasolene 
must  not  be  used,  and  kerosene  is  objectionable. 

Lamps  should  be  so  secured  that  they  cannot  easily  be 
taken  to  rooms  for  heating  curling  irons. 

Hotel  halls  should  be  straight  and  without  turns,  so  that 
the  line  of  vision  is  clear  from  one  end  to  the  other,  thus 
facilitating  the  escape  of  guests  in  the  event  of  fire. 

I  regard  these  suggestions  as  among  the  most  important 
for  the  safety  of  life,  and  I  am  confident  they  would  be 
so  pronounced  by  every  practical  fire  department  chief 
throughout  the  country. 

FRAME  OR  WOODEN  HOTELS. 

It  is  not  alwaj's  practicable,  especially  in  some  locations, 
to  build  expensive  brick  or  stone  hotels,  and  frame  build- 
ings are  a  necessity.  The  average  man,  however,  who  is 
not  an  expert  in  construction,  assumes  that  a  frame  build- 
ing cannot  be  made  slow  burning.  This  is  a  great  mistake 
and  an  unfortunate  one,  for  such  a  conclusion  usually 
results  in  a  fire-trap,  when  a  few  dollars  of  expense  in 
directions  which  would  add  to  the  life  of  the  structure 
might  secure  the  escape  of  the  inmates  and  possibly  result 
in  the  extinction  of  the  fire  and  the  saving  of  the  building. 

An  ordinary  frame  building  may  be  made  to  burn  slowly 
by  attention  to  suggestions  already  made  as  to  cutting  off 
drafts.    At  every  story  the  space  between  the  floor  beams 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  HOTEL. 


483 


and  the  upright  studs,  both  in  partitions  and  in  the 
enclosing  walls,  should  be  filled  with  brides  and  mortar 
or  gravel  and  lime  mortar,  care  being  taken  not  to  enclose 
wooden  beams  in  cement  or  plaster  of  Paris,  as  it  will 
cause  dry  rot.  Lime  mortar  protects  wood.  The  filling 
in  of  partitions  and  side  walls  should  be  to  the  top  of  the 
"mop  boards'1  or  baseboards.  A  fire  getting  into  these 
upright  wooden  flues,  filled  in  this  way,  would  not  go 
rapidly  from  story  to  story.  In  most  frame  hotels  there 
are  thousands  of  well-developed  flues  of  this  character. 
One  of  the  finest  wooden  hotels  in  the  South,  built  by  an 
owner  who  had  no  need  to  economize  and  probably  did  not 
desire  to,  was  constructed  without  fire  stops,  the  elevator 
shafts  being  actually  sheathed  or  lined  throughout  with 
pitch  pine.  As  the  hotel  is  seven  stories  high  in  places 
and  thousands  of  feet  long,  the  danger  of  spread  of  fire 
may  be  imagined. 

At  each  story,  therefore,  where  stud  walls  or  partitions 
rest  on  walls  or  other  partitions,  the  spaces  between  the 
floor- joists  immediately  under  such  walls  and  partitions, 
and  between  the  sides  of  such  joists,  and  to  a  line  six  inches 
above  the  top  of  such  joists,  should  be  filled  solid  or  flush, 
with  face  of  plastering  on  both  sides,  with  bricks  laid  in 
mortar;  and  if  such  studs  or  partitions  rest  on  solid  timber 
or  joists  for  the  whole  length  thereof,  such  fillings  should 
be  placed  from  the  top  of  such  joists  to  the  same  height  as 
above  specified,  or  a  strip  of  tin  or  galvanized  iron  at  least 
one  inch  wider  than  the  width  of  said  studding,  and  con- 
tinuing under  the  footing  of  such  walls  or  partitions,  may 
be  substituted  for  the  filling  above  described  where  there 
is  no  partition  or  wall  under.  25  cents  per  $100  or  $2.50 
per  $1000  of  insurance  should  be  added  to  the  insurance 
rate  for  omission  of  this  precaution.  The  cost  per  100 
running  feet  of  three  story  wall  would  be  less  than  $100, 
and  this  would  be  saved  in  time  in  the  insurance  rate,  to 
say  nothing  of  life. 

The  building  law  of  New  York  requires  that  in  all  furred 
walls  the  course  of  brick  above  the  under  side  and  below 


484 


MANUFACTORIES  OK  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


the  top  of  each  tier  of  floor-beams  shall  project  the  thick- 
ness of  the  furring,  more  effectually  to  prevent  the  spread 
of  fire. 


FIRE  STOPS  IN  FLOORS  AND  PARTITIONS. 


A  cheap  fire  stop  could  be  constructed  of  ordinary  slush 
mortar,  filled  in  between  the  studs  solidly  to  the  top  of  the 
mop-boards.  (Lime  mortar  will  not  rot  wood,  in  this 
respect  being  unlike  cement  or  plaster  of  Paris,  which 
should  not  be  in  contact  with  wood.)  Broken  glass  mixed 
with  this  mortar  will  prevent  the  passage  of  rats  and  mice, 
or  cheap,  fine  meshed,  galvanized,  wire  netting  may  be 
inserted  to  answer  the  same  purpose.  If  "back  plastering" 
is  used,  so  as  to  provide  two  air  spaces  between  the  inner 
plastering  and  the  outer  sheathing,  the  hotel  will  be  cooler 
in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter. 

Even  where  the  hollow  spaces  are  not  filled  in  with  brick 
between  the  upright  studs,  a  heavy  "plate"  at  each  story 
over  the  studs  below  for  carrying  the  studs  above  will 
delay  the  spread  of  a  fire  for  a  while,  and  where  the  studs 
are  securely  fastened  to  the  plate,  being  tenoned  or  toe- 
nailed to  them,  very  sturdy  construction  is  secured. 

A  wooden  building  constructed  in  this  manner,  with  all 
air-passages  cut  off,  with  metallic  lathing  for  the  ceilings, 
and  salamander,  asbestos,  or  other  fireproof  material 
between  the  floors,  will  resist  a  fire  much  longer  than 
ordinary  brick  or  stone  buildings  in  which  such  simple  and 
inexpensive,  but  most  important,  precautions  are  omitted. 
It  will  not  cost  much  to  construct  a  building  in  such  a  way 
that  ample  time  would  be  secured  for  the  escape  of  the 
inmates  even  if  a  fire  should  start  in  the  night,  and  it  is 


HOW"  TO  BUILD  A  HOTEL. 


485 


almost  criminal  to  erect  buildings  for  the  habitation  of 
human  beings  on  modern  fire  trap  principles. 

Take,  for  instance,  the  simple  precaution  of  throwing  a 
few  shovelfuls  of  ordinary  lime  mortar  into  the  hollow 
spaces  at  the  feet  of  ordinary  "fore-and-aft"  partitions, 
such  as  those  which  divide  rooms  from  hallways  ;  it  would 
seem  that  a  conscientious  builder,  even  if  he  were  not  paid 
under  his  contract  for  taking  this  precaution,  would  not 
neglect  it.  If  at  every  floor  he  should  let  his  workmen  cast 
in  the  broken  bits  of  brick,  loose  mortar  and  incombustible 
material  which  he  afterward  carts  away  at  an  expense,  he 
would  make  a  partition  almost  as  fireproof  as  if  filled  in 
with  brick  from  top  to  bottom,  it  being  borne  in  mind  that 
the  danger  of  an  ordinary  partition  lies,  not  in  the  fact 
that  it  is  not  filled  in  solidly  with  brick,  or  that  it  has  an 
air  space,  but  that  this  air-space  extends  from  one  story 
to  another,  creating  a  flue  for  a  araft.  This  matter  is 
more  fully  explained  by  the  accompanying  illustration. 

Fire  Divisions.  Where  a  frame  hotel  is  a  necessity,  it 
should  be  cut  up  into  sections  not  longer  than  100  feet 
each,  and  the  ends  of  the  sections  racing  each  other  should 
be  of  brick,  separated,  if  possible,  by  a  space  of  fifty  feet  or 
more.  A  fireproof,  connecting  bridge  way  on  the  first  floor 
will  secure  the  convenience  of  one  structure.  The  end 
brick  or  stone  walls  should  be  carried  above  the  roof  and 
beyond  the  line  of  rear  aad  front  walls,  so  as  to  prove  a 
sufficient  barrier  to  the  spread  of  fire  from  one  division  or 
section  to  another.  Fire  shutters  provided  to  the  windows 
in  the  ends  which  expose  each  other  would  be  an  admirable 
precaution,  but  I  presume  would  be  regarded  as  an  expen- 
sive feature.  Wire  glass  in  metal  frames  would  answer 
the  purpose. 

Roof.  Avoid  mansard  roofs,  they  are  fire  traps.  Shingle 
roofs  to  porticoes  and  piazzas  under  bed  room  windows, 
are  apt  to  be  ignited  by  castaway  cigars  and  cigarettes. 

Revolving  Doors.  A  revolving  fireproof  door,  glazed  with 
wire  glass,  in  the  hall  opening  through  walls  dividing  large 
hotels  into  sections,  would  be  an  admirable  precaution, 


48(5 


MANUKACTOUIKS  OK  SPECIAL  H A Z A  lilts. 


and  preferable  to  an  iron  or  tin-covered  wood  door,  for 
the  reason  that  escaping  inmates  could  see  through  it  and 
nse  it  without  leaving  it  open. 

Floors.  Wooden  floors  should  be  double,  one  course 
being  laid  diagonally  crossway  of  the  other.  "Salamander" 
(a  fire  retard  ant  constructed  of  heavy  strawboard  covered 
with  fireproof  cement,  both  sides,  so  that  it  is  like  a  piece 
of  slate)  or  sheet  tin,  or  sheet  iron,  or  asbestos  between 
floors  would  tend  to  retard  the  passage  of  fire.  The  floors 
should  be  deafened  in  any  case,  for  the  comfort  of  inma  tes, 
to  prevent  the  annoyance  of  noises  passing  from  one  story 
to  another.  Tin's  should  be  done  by  deafening  boards  on 
cleats  nailed  to  the  beams,  with  lime  mortar  or  concrete 
laid  on  the  deafening  boards,  and  an  airspace  between  the 
top  of  the  deafening  and  the  floor  boards  above.  This 
would  give  two  air  spaces  between  the  plastered  ceiling 
of  the  room  below  and  the  floors  of  the  room  above,  and 
would  also  be  a  partial  fire  stop. 

In  frame  hotels  the  staircases  should  be  protected  in 
brick  towers,  even  if  no  other  brick  is  used  in  the  building, 
and  the  ventilating  shafts  should  be  of  burnt  clay  blocks 
in  "Tee"  or  angle  iron  framework,  if  the  owner  cannot 
afford  to  construct  of  brick.  There  should  be  nothing 
whatever  of  a  combustible  character  in  any  shaft  going 
from  floor  to  floor,  as  already  stated. 

Kitchen.  The  kitchen,  as  the  greatest  source  of  fire, 
should  be  cut  off  from  the  main  structure.  Where  the 
owner  cannot  do  this,  even  solid  double  planking  between 
the  kitchen  and  the  hotel  may  hold  a  fire  sufficiently  for 
the  escape  of  the  inmates,  as  compared  with  a  hollow  wall 
of  the  usual  kind.  It  would  cost  little  to  put  a  brick  or 
stone  wall  between  the  kitchen  and  the  main  structure, 
with  tin-covered  door  and  frame  with  iron  or  stone  sill, 
and  this  should  be  done. 

Laundry.  This  should  be  cut  off,  also,  as  it  is  unnecessary 
to  have  it  so  situated  as  to  burn  the  hotel  by  its  numerous 
fires  in  dry-room,  ironing-room,  &c.  It  can  at  small 
expense,  especially  where  land  is  cheap,  be  located  where 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  HOTEL. 


487 


it  would  burn  without  endangering  the  main  structure. 
A  cheap  fireproof  dry  room  can  be  made  of  sheet  or  corru- 
gated iron  on  angle  and  Tee  iron  frame.  For  further 
suggestions  as  to  laundry,  see  page  496. 

Staircases.  These  ought  to  be  enclosed  with  brick  walls. 
The  next  best  is  with  T  and  angle  iron  framing  and  4-inch 
burnt 'clay  blocks,  plastered  on  both  sides.  If  the  owner 
cannot  afford  to  do  this,  he  would  do  well  to  use  double 
planking  for  the  enclosure,  especially  if  covered  with  tin, 
so  as  lo  prevent  the  rapid  Hashing  of  fire. 

Elevator  Shafts.  These  should  be  enclosed  in  brick  or  terra 
cotta,  in  the  same  manner  as  suggested  for  staircases. 

The  suggestions  as  to  the  construction  of  chimneys  and 
fireplaces  elsewhere  stated,  as  to  the  kitchen,  dining-room, 
laundry,  slop  closets,  toilet-rooms,  fire  appliances,  and 
especially  the  simple  and  cheap  but  effective  pails  of  water, 
all  apply  to  frame  hotels.  To  the  extent  that  an  owner 
feels  he  can  afford  to  go  in  recognizing  some  of  the  other 
suggestions  made  hereafter  under  the  head  of  brick  and 
fireproof  hotels,  he  must,  of  course,  be  the  judge. 

The  following  description  of  "  The  Mount  Washington," 

a  frame  hotel  located  at  Carroll,  N.  H.,  will  show  how 

thorough^  practicable  it  is  to  erect  a  wooden  building  on 

slow-burning  lines  which  will  probably  insure  the  escape 

of  the  inmates  in  case  of  fire  : 

"  The  ouilding  is  substantial  frame,  covered  with  Portland  cement 
on  expanded  metal  on  a  first-story  of  stone.  Roofed  with  an  approved 
felt  roofing.  "Plates"  form  tire  stops  at  each  floor,  in  addition  to 
which  spaces  behind  mop-boards  (6  inches  high)  are  filled  in  with 
concrete,  and  joists  are  filled  in  above  all  girders  with  concrete  flush 
with  floor,  forming  stops  in  all  horizontal  spaces.  Finish  is  hard 
plaster  on  metal  lathing.  All  concealed  spaces  between  studding  and 
joists,  including  both  sides  of  first  layer  of  floor  boards,  were  painted 
with  approved  fire  retarding  paint  (asbestine)  before  applying  finish. 
Interior  finish  generally  painted  with  similar  paint  or  oil  paint,  under- 
laid with  fire-retarding  paint.  Elevators  in  fireproof  shaft  of  metal 
and  hard  plaster,  with  standard  fire  doors.  Several  good  cut-off  doors 
in  each  corridor  above  first.  Heat,  steam  from  outside.  Light,  incan- 
descent electric  from  outside.  To  have  hydrants  outside  supplied  from 
reservoir  on  mountain  at  about  70  lbs.  pressure  through  large  mains. 
Standpipes  and  small  hose  throughout.  Grinnell  automatic  sprinklers 
in  all  hazardous  portions,  including  entire  kitchen,  entire  basement, 
elevators,  porters'  rooms,  coat  rooms  and  upper  corridors.  Laundry 
is  in  separate  building.    Drilled  fire  department  of  employes  Ample 


INS 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


fire  escapes.-  Watchman  and  watch-clock.  All  woodwork,  exposed  or 
otherwise,  is  protected  by  approved  lire  retardants  of  the  best  grade, 
and  concrete  stops  are  used  freely  to  prevent  any  joist  spaces  from 
acting  as  flues  to  convey  fire." 

BRICK  OR  STONE  NON-FIREPROOF  HOTELS. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  majority  of  brick  and  stone 
hotels,  whose  enclosing  walls  suggest  to  the  inmates  con- 
ditions of  safety,  if  not  of  fireproof  construction,  are  simply 
fire-traps  of  the  worst  description,  like  the  Windsor  Hotel 
of  New  York  ;  infinitely  less  safe  than  the  slow-burning, 
frame  construction  alread^v  explained.  Their  brick  or 
stone  walls  simply  envelop  cheap  frame  interiors,  with 
hollow  spaces  between  plaster  furring  and  the  outer  wall 
and  between  the  lath  and  plaster  stud  partitions  separating 
the  rooms,  which  would  literally  breathe  fire  from  cellar 
to  roof. 

Outer  Enclosing  Walls.  The  best  masonry  for  fire  resisting 
purposes  is  good,  hard  burned  brick.  Stone  is  not  so  safe, 
especially  limestone,  granite,  marble,  etc.  It  is  certain  to 
disintegrate  under  the  combined  effect  of  fire  and  water, 
and  should  not  be  employed  even  for  templates  on  which 
to  rest  the  ends  of  beams  in  the  brick  wall ;  cast-iron 
templates  should  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

Roof.  If  the  hotel  is  not  of  fireproof  construction,  a  metal 
roof  of  tin  is  better  than  slate  or  composition.  Slates  are 
apt  to  crack  with  the  heat  and  open  up  drafts.  Moreover, 
they  involve  a  pitched  roof,  which  implies  an  empty  roof 
space — always  objectionable  from  a  fire  viewpoint.  If  the 
building,  however,  is  fireproof  the  roof  should  be  in 
keeping  with  the  best  methods  of  fireproof  construction, 
and  any  cheaper  construction  will  be  shortsighted  and 
inconsistent. 

Mansard  roofs  are  decidedly  objectionable.  Their  con- 
struction favors  rapid  burning  ;  even  where  the  framework 
is  of  T  and  angle  iron  it  is  not  usually  protected,  and  the 
heat  of  a  fire  will  cause  an  early  collapse  of  the  roof.  A 
mansard  roof  has  been  aptly  described  by  an  experienced 
fire  chief  as  a  lumber-yard  on  top  of  a  building.  Where 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  HOTEL. 


489 


hotel  fires  get  into  the  hollow  spaces  of  a  roof,  they  are 
seldom  extinguished  short  of  total  destruction. 

Plaster  Corners.  These  should  be  avoided  if  possible,  but 
where  unavoidable  should  be  protected  by  wooden  corner 
guards,  to  keep  the  plaster  from  being  knocked  off  by 
moving  trunks  or  furniture. 

Elevator  Shafts  should  be  of  fireproof  material.  Brick  is 
best  for  enclosing  walls.  Under  no  circumstances  should 
they  be  sheathed  with  wood,  or  with  plaster  on  wooden 
lathing;  and  the  slide  guides  from  top  to  bottom  of  the 
shaft  for  the  elevator  car  should  be  of  iron  ;  they  are 
usually  of  wood,  which  becomes  soaked  with  oil  and  the 
medium  of  rapid  ascent  of  fire.  It  is  quite  common  in 
hotels  to  sheath  these  shafts  with  yellow  or  pitch  pine, 
of  the  most  ignitible  character.  Such  was  the  lining  of 
the  shaft  in  the  Park  Avenue  Hotel,  in  whose  disastrous 
fire  twenty  lives  were  lost  in  February,  1902.  This  building 
was  in  many  respects  one  of  the  best  fireproof  hotels  in  the 
country,  having  brick  segmental  arches  in  the  floors.  It 
had,  however,  strangely  enough,  elevator  shafts  sheathed 
with  pitch  pine  ;  one  of  the  upper  staircnses  was  of  wood, 
and  some  of  the  partitions  of  rooms  were  of  ordinary 
wooden  lath  and  plaster.  If  the  inmates  had  remained  in 
their  rooms,  however,  they  would  probably  have  saved 
their  lives.  They  sought  exit  through  the  hallways  and 
were  suffocated  with  smoke  while  trying  to  escape. 

It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  few  people  are  burned 
to  death  in  fires;  fortunately  the  gases  and  smoke  of  com- 
bustion suffocate  them  before  they  experience  the  torture 
of  being  burned.  If  the  unfortunates  in  this  instance  had 
shut  their  doors  and  windows,  the  fire  department  would 
have  extinguished  the  fire  and  rescued  them. 

The  insurance  rate  increase  for  wooden  sheathing  in 
elevator  shafts  is  25  cents  per  $100,  ($2.50  per  1000),  a 
lifelong  tax. 

The  great  loss  of  life  in  the  Windsor  Hotel  fire,  of  March 
17,  1899,  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  fire  spread  rapidly 
from  top  to  bottom  of  the  hotel  because  the  windows  on 


L90 


M  ANUFACTOKIKS  OK  SPKCIAL  HAZARDS. 


every  floor  of  the  building  were  open,  to  enable  the  inmates 
to  see  a  procession  which  was  passing  at  the  time,  present- 
ing the  condition  of  a  stove  with  the  lower  and  upper 
dampers  open. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  elevator  shafts  act  as  chimneys, 
furnishing  a  strong  draft  to  drive  lire  from  the  lower  floors 
to  the  upper  stories,  they  should  have  nothing  ignitible 
in  them.  Where  iron  grillwork  is  used,  wire  glass  should 
be  provided  behind  the  grill,  and  any  sash  doors  should  be 
of  wire  glass. 

In  the  New  Willard  Hotel,  in  Washington,  the  doors  to 
the  elevators  are  glazed  from  the  top  of  the  door  to  within 
about  three  feet  of  the  floor,  which  enables  the  operator 
to  see  those  waiting  at  landings. 

A  brick  staircase  tower  built  flush  with  the  outer  wall  is 
not  unsightly,  and  one  such  at  each  end  of  the  structure 
would  probably  afford  safe  egress  for  all  of  the  inmates. 
If  the  entrance  to  this  tower  is  arranged  at  each  floor  from 
an  outside  iron  balcony,  it  will  prevent  the  tower  from 
becoming  rilled  with  smoke. 

It  is,  I  think,  a  mistake  to  have  staircases  surround 
elevator  shafts,  practically  in  the  same  opening,  where 
ascending  smoke  and  gases  would  suffocate  escaping 
guests.    They  should  be  separated. 

Lamp  closets,  oil  closets  and  waste  closets  should  not  be 
near  the  elevators,  for  obvious  reasons,  as  a  fire  starting  in 
them  would  rapidly  spread  through  the  shaft. 

An  inexpensive  elevator  shaft,  which  will  hold  a  fire  for 
a  considerable  time,  is  one  built  of  porous  terra  cotta 
blocks,  using  6  inch  blocks  for  the  lower  story  and  topping 
out  with  4-inch  ;  wire  lath  and  plaster  both  sides  ;  Tee  and 
angle  iron  frame;  no  constructional  work  should  enter 
this  at  any  floor. 

The  bottom  of  the  elevator  shaft  should  be  cemented 
and  so  constructed  as  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of 
rubbish,  waste  paper,  &c.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find 
shavings,  rubbish,  oily  waste  and  other  dangerous  material 
at  the  bottom  of  elevator  shafts.    They  should  be  watched 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  HOTEL. 


491 


carefully  and  kept  clean.  All  elevator  shafts  should 
extend  six  feet  above  the  roof. 

Ventilating  Shafts.  It  is,  of  course,  necessary  in  hotels  to 
have  ventilating  shafts  especially  on  lines  of  bath  rooms 
and  toilet-rooms.  These  shafts  should  always  be  thorough- 
ly fireproof,  without  any  woodwork  whatever  in  them. 
They  are  too  frequently,  like  elevator  shafts,  sheathed 
with  wood  or  finished  in  plaster  on  wooden  lath.  The 
windows  opening  on  them  from  bath-rooms  should  be  of 
metal  sash,  with  wire  glass,  and  care  should  be  taken  that 
nothing  to  start  a  fire  is  allowed  near  the  bottom  of  the 
shaft.  If  the  owner  is  not  willing  to  go  to  the  expense  of 
brick  or  fireproof  terra  cotta  block  construction  for  these 
shafts  (and  he  ought  not  to  assume  the  care  of  his  fellow- 
beings  by  night  and  day  unless  he  is),  metallic  lathing,  of 
the  wire  netting  kind,  should  be  used,  as  it  is  a  valuable 
fire  retardant. 

Wire  Lathing.  Plaster  on  wire  lathing  will  prove  more 
economical  than  wooden  lathing,  as  the  latter  results  in 
cracked  ceilings,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  wooden  laths 
are  often  nailed  too  close  together  and  sufficient  plaster 
is  not  pushed  through  the  interstices  to  "clinch"  or  "key  " 
and  make  a  good  job.  There  can  be  little  cheating  by  the 
plasterer  if  wire  lathing  is  used  ;  sufficient  plaster  must  be 
pushed  through  to  get  a  good  "clinch"  on  the  back  of  the 
wire  netting.  The  result  is  a  job  which  lasts  longer  and 
resists  fire  and  water  sometimes  for  hours.  While  the 
initial  cost  of  metallic  lathing  is  somewhat  greater  than 
for  wooden  lathing,  it  will  prove  the  more  economical  in 
the  end,  if  the  building  should  last  for  say  ten  years.  I 
do  not  like  expanded  metal  lath  as  well  as  wire  lathing. 

Chimneys,  Flues,  Etc.  A  correspondent  writes  me  as  follows : 

"  In  adjusting  a  loss  by  lightning  on  a  large  new  frame  school  build- 
ing, I  found  the  chimney  demolished.  It  was  built  from  the  ground, 
extended  inside  the  studding  up  one  end  of  the  building  to  the  end 
joist  of  the  second  floor;  here  the  flue  builder  dropped  out  two  inches 
to  pass  the  2"  x  VI"  joist  by  setting  a  few  courses  of  brick  on  edge  flat 
against  this  joist,  enlarging  the  flue  to  its  usual  size  from  top  of  the 
joist  to  the  next  floor,  and  so  on  ;  in  other  words,  the  front  of  the 
chimney  was  carried  up  even,  so  when  complete  it  was  a  brick  chimney 


492  MANUFACTORIES  Oil  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 

with  a  2"  x  12  "  pine  joist  running  through  it  at  the  top  of  each  story. 
Fortunately  the  stroke  of  lightning  saved  a  fire,  which  must  inevitably 
have  occurred,  and  probably  saved  the  lives  of  many  innocent  school 
children.  At  last  accounts  this  contractor  who  built  the  job  was  still 
at  large,  but  he  ought  not  to  be" — 

in  which  conclusion  I  agree  with  him. 

Flues  should  never  be  surrounded  with  less  than  eight 
inches  of  good  brickwork,  laid  in  cement.  A  further  pre- 
caution would  be  to  line  them  with  tubing  of  cast  iron  or 
burnt  clay;  but  a  4  inch  or  "half  brick"  fine  lined  with 
burnt  clay  is  not  so  good  as  one  surrounded  by  8  inches 
of  brick,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  seldom  faithfully  con- 
structed. The  interior  capacity  of  a  flue,  especially  for  a 
fireplace  burning  wood,  which  is  not  always  dry,  should 
be  not  less  than  eight  inches  by  twelve.  It  should  be 
carried  well  above  the  roof,  and  in  the  case  of  a  shingle 
roof,  well  above  the  peak,  and  the  flashing  around  the 
chimney  should  be  of  copper  or  other  metal,  secure!}' 
cemented  into  the  groove  or  joint  in  the  brickwork  for  a 
height  of  at  least  8  inches  above  the  roof,  and  lap  over 
the  flashing  below,  which  should  extend  up  7£  inches 
above  the  roof,  but  the  lap  should  not  be  within  one  inch 
of  the  roof.  (Note. — This  to  prevent  ascent  of  water  by 
capillar}'  attraction.)  Where  shoulders  occur  in  a  roof, 
tending  to  lodge  snow,  crickets  or  pitch  roofs  should  be 
made  to  slide  snow  beyond  the  chimney  and  prevent  its 
piling  up  behind  it. 

The  chimneys,  should  be  carried  straight  up  from  the 
ground  and  not  drawn  to  one  side  to  reach  convenient 
opening  places  on  upper  floors.  Above  the  roof  black 
cement  mortar  should  be  used,  and  all  smoke-flues  should 
be  carefully  watched  while  being  built,  from  the  bottom 
of  the  flue  or  from  the  throat  of  each  fireplace  continuously 
to  the  extreme  height  of  the  flue.  Some  contractors  save 
brick  without  regard  to  possible  loss  of  life.  The  ends  of 
the  lining- pipe  should  fit  close  together,  and  the  pipe 
should  be  built  in  as  the  flue  or  flues  are  carried  up.  All 
flues  for  fireplaces  should  be  of  a  capacity  8"  x  12",  and 
the  furnace  and  range-flues  should  also  be  8"  x  12"  inside 
capacity.    Vitrified  drain  pipe  makes  good  flue  lining. 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  HOTEL. 


493 


All  flues  which  are  not  lined  should  have  struck  joints  ; 
no  parging  or  plastering  should  be  allowed  on  the  inside 
of  any  flue.    All  flues  should  be  lined,  however. 

A  builder  of  long  experience  and  practical  ideas*  writes 

me  as  follows  : 

"  I  dislike  a  stone  cap  on  the  top  of  a  chimney.  If  you  wish  a  down 
draft  and  a  smoky  room  put  on  a  broad  margin  stone  «ap  and  you  will 
get  it  every  time.  I  run  every  flue  lining  say  four  inches  above  my  top 
course  of  brick  ;  batter  back  one-half  inch  each  course  until  I  get  to 
full  size  of  chimney,  and  parge  off  the  top  course  to  within  one  inch 
of  the  top  of  lining  with  best  Portland  cement.  Here  is  a  top  that  as 
the  wind  strikes  it  creates  a  vacuum  in  the  flue  ;  the  sharper  the  top 
of  the  chimney  the  better  the  draft." 

I  think  his  suggestion  a  good  one,  as  the  effect  of  the 
wind  from  any  direction  on  such  a  chimney  top  is  to  help 
the  draft,  not  to  interfere  with  it. 

It  is  claimed  by  the  same  gentleman  that  an  8"x  12"  flue 

will  draw  better  than  a  circular  flue.    He  writes  me  : 

"  I  keep  a  space  of  one  inch  between  the  lining  and  brickwork,  for 
the  reason  that  the  brickwork  will  settle,  while  the  lining  does  not ;  at 
the  joints  of  each  2//  length  of  lining  I  corbel  out  a  brick  to  just  bite 
the  lining  at  the  centre  of  the  joint, ;  I  also  plaster  the  chimney  inside 
to  full  height  and  outside  to  roof  cover." 

Fireplaces.  The  back  of  all  fireplaces  should  be  inclined 
toward  the  front,  beginning  six  courses  of  brick  from  the 
floor  of  the  hearth,  as  per  drawings  (see  diagram,  page  89), 
to  secure  a  good  draft,  and  the  fireplaces  should  be  lined 
with  firebrick,  laid  with  close-rubbed  joints  (or  with  cast- 
iron  fireplacedining,  as  per  design  and  pattern  specified, 
if  cast  iron  is  preferred).  The  front  opening  of  all  fire- 
places should  be  supported  by  two  iron  bars  £"x2",  9  inches 
longer  than  the  width  of  the  opening,  and  should  be  fitted 
with  automatic  ash-dump  grate. 

It  will  also  be  observed  in  the  illustration  (page  89)  that  a 
level  shelf  appears  in  the  flue  above  the  fireplace  opening. 
Descending  currents  of  air  and  smoke  strike  this  shelf, 
rebound,  and  return  up  the  chimney  without  puffing  out 
into  the  room.  It  is  possible,  and  sometimes  necessary, 
to  have  a  cast-iron  plate  resting  on  this  shelf,  so  that  it  can 
be  drawn  forward  as  occasion  may  require,  to  contract  the 
throat  of  the  flue,  the  capacity  of  which,  as  already  stated, 

*  Mr.  J.  C.  Hosmkr  of  Boston. 


494 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


should  correspond  somewhat  with  the  size  of  the  fireplace 
opening,  to  the  extent  of  having  an  area  about  one-tenth 
or  one  eleventh  of  the  latter. 

The  Murdock  Grate  Company's  throat  damper,  which 
has  a  flange  in  front  for  support  of  opening,  and  is  worked 
by  a  drop  lever  easily  with  a  poker,  is  an  admirable 
arrangement. 

No  chimney  should  be  enlarged  where  it  passes  the  roof 
to  form  any  overhang  or  projection  over  the  roof. 

The  chimney  walls  from  the  cellar  to  first  floor  may  be 
carried  up  to  form  ash  pits,  securely  inclosed  with  brick- 
work, these  to  have  12"  x  10"  iron  doors,  with  frame,  in 
cellar,  to  be  built  in  during  construction. 

Chimneys  must  be  built  from  ground.  No  chimney  should  be 
started  or  built  upon  any  floor  or  beam  of  wood,  and  in  no 
case  should  a  chimney  be  corbeled  out  more  than  8  inches 
from  the  wall,  and  in  all  cases  the  corbeling  should  consist 
of  at  least  five  courses  of  brick.* 

All  hearths  should  be  constructed  with  trimmer  arches 
extending  20  inches  from  the  chimney-breast  to  a  "skew 
back  "  or  wedge-shaped  piece  of  wood  spiked  to  the  header- 
beam,  and  the  top  of  the  arch  should  be  filled  with  2  inches 
of  concrete  to  the  top  of  finish  floor.  The  header-beam 
should  be  double  tenoned  into  the  trimmer-beams  and  oak 
pinned.  Stirrup  iron  construction  is  apt  to  cause  cracks 
in  plastered  ceiling,  because  of  difference  in  shrinkage  of 
header  and  trimmer-beams  ;  and  there  should  be  no  wooden 
lath  or  furring  on  the  chimney-breast. 

It  will  be  observed  in  the  illustration,  (page  89),  that 
the  trimmer-arch  abuts  upon  a  wooden  skew  back  or  wedge 
of  wood  securely  spiked  to  the  header-beam.  The  skew 
back  is  in  turn  supported  by  a  fillet  of  wood  spiked  to  the 
beam.  This  is  necessary  to  secure  a  proper  arch.  If  the 
f outing  of  the  arch  comes  squarely  against  the  wooden 
header-beam  the  shrinkage  of  the  latter  will  in  time  release 
the  arch  and  allow  it  to  fall.  It  is  however,  unfortunately 
the  practice  not  only  to  omit  this  skew  back,  but  to  omit 

*  This  is  a  provision  of  the  New  York  building  law,  and  it  ought  not 
to  l»e  deviated  from  in  any  case. 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  HOTEL. 


495 


the  trimmer  arch  altogether,  and  to  support  the  hearth 
directly  upon  the  floor-joists.  This  is  a  most  dangerous 
construction,  and  a  lire  is  only  a  question  of  time.  It  seems 
incomprehensible  that  an  honest  builder  having  any  decent 


TRIMMER  BEAM 


TAILBEAM 


TAILBEAM 


< 


o 

< 

-J 
Q. 

u 
tr 


BRICK 


TAILBEAM  ) 


TAILBEAM  / 


TRIMMER 


FIRE  PLACE  SHOWING  HEADER,  TRIMMER  AND  TAIL  BEAMS. 

regard  for  safety  to  life  would  build  in  this  way;  and  yet 
fires  from  this  cause  are  frequent.  In  one  case  coming 
under  my  observation  serious  damage  was  done  to  a  hand- 
some dwelling,  where  the  builder  had  not  only  constructed 
the  hearth  in  this  way,  but  had  actually  swept  the  wooden 
shavings  from  the  floors  into  the  hollow  spaces  under  the 
hearth.  But  for  the  fact  that  the  fire  w;is  extinguished 
in  time  to  discover  this  evidence  of  criminal  indifference 
to  human  life,  the  guilt  of  this  builder,  who  was  no  better 
than  a  would  be  murderer,  would  never  have  been  known. 
The  writer  cannot  too  earnestly  urge  the  importance  of 
watching  the  construction  of  chimneys,  hearths,  etc.  It 
involves  small  expense,  but  important  consequences. 


400 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


English  tile  8  inches  square  and  2  inches  thick  forms  a 
good  hearth,  but  is  more  expensive  than  the  concrete. 

Laundry.  The  laundry,  unless  in  a  thoroughly  fireproof 
room,  should,  in  all  cases,  be  outside  of  the  building,  where 
its  burning  would  not  expose  the  hotel.  In  any  case,  the 
dry-room  should  not  have  any  woodwork  about  it.  The 
usual  construction,  even  in  the  best  hotels,  is  a  network  of 
steam  pipes  on  the  floor,  above  which  the  clothes  are  hung, 
shoved  in  and  out  on  movable  racks.  Wood  continuously 
subjected  to  heat  becomes  so  ignitible  that  it  has  been 
suspected  of  spontaneous  ignition.  At  any  rate,  a  garment 
falling  upon  the  steam  pipes  below,  or  a  match  or  name 
touching  the  dry  woodwork,  would  cause  immediate-com- 
bustion. Steam  pipes  should  be  protected  with  wire 
netting  to  prevent  their  getting  in  contact  with  fallen 
garments  from  the  racks.  To  cover  wooden  or  plastered 
ceiling  above,  or  the  side  walls,  with  sheet  iron  is  not  a 
sufficient  protection,  although  if  the  metal  were  kept  far 
enough  away  from  the  woodwork  to  leave  an  air  space 
behind  it,  the  woodwork  would  probably  not  be  ignited. 
Most  people  make  the  mistake  of  nailing  metal  shields  to 
protect  woodwork  tightly  to  the  woodwork  itself.  It 
should  always  be  kept  away  from  wood,  as  iron  is  a  con- 
ductor of  heat,  and  air  is  not.  A  space  of  even  half  an 
inch  would  tend  to  safety.  Sheet  tin  is  much  better  for  this 
purpose  than  sheet  iron,  because  of  its  reflecting  qualities. 

The  laundry  building  should  be  not  over  one  story  high, 
provided  with  a  monitor  skylight  for  ventilation  and  light- 
ing purposes.  A  steu  m  jet  is  an  admirable  fire-extinguish- 
ing precaution  for  the  dry-room,  and  fire  pails  filled  with 
water  should  be  liberally  provided. 

The  floor  of  the  laundry  should  be  concrete  with  cement 
surface,  mixed  one  part  cement  to  three  of  sand.  It  would 
be  well  to  float  the  floor  to  a  drain  with  bell  trap  in  the 
center  of  the  room.  If  irons  are  heated  by  electricity, 
National  Board  rules  should  be  followed. 

Kitchen.  This  should  be  outside  of  the  main  structure, 
unless  thoroughly  fireproof.    Care  should  be  taken  to  see 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  HOTEL. 


497 


that  the  bake  oven  is  not  near  woodwork  of  any  kind. 
Instances  have  been  known  where  wooden  posts  have  been 
ignited  through  20  inches  of  brickwork  surrounding  boilers 
and  ovens.  The  kitchen  should  be  of  liberal  size.  Any 
experienced  Chef  will  emphasize  the  importance  of  this 
suggestion.  The  vegetable  bakery,  the  butcher  shop  and 
the  pot-cleaning  rooms  should  be  separate,  cut  off  by  fire- 
proof doors  ("  Underwriters''  tin-covered  wood  pattern), 
with  iron  or  stone  sills.  It  is  quite  common  to  neglect 
this  latter  precaution  as  to  sills. 

It  would  be  well  also  to  have  the  entire  floor  of  the 
kitchen  of  concrete  or  cement,  or  of  brick  or  tile. 

Range.  The  range  should  not  rest  on  wooden  beams  or 
flooring  and  should  have  a  hearth  projecting  not  less  than 
3  feet  in  front  of  the  same  and  of  the  full  width  of  the 
range,  of  best  quality  of  rubbed  slate,  3  inches  thick  (or 
stone  or  encaustic  tile  laid  in  a  proper  manner). 

The  range  should  have  a  ventilating-flue  by  the  side  of 
the  smoke-flue  not  less  than  8  inches  square,  in  addition  to 
the  smoke  flue,  which  should  be  not  less  than  8"  x  12", 
lined  with  tile.  The  range  must  not  be  set  next  a  strut 
lath  and  plaster  partition. 

Dining  Room.  This  should  have  a  high  ceiling,  to  secure 
ventilation  without  drafts,  with  windows  in  the  "  clere" 
story  and  be  on  cool  side  of  house.  The  best  arrangement 
of  this  kind  I  have  seen  is  that  of  the  Royal  Poinciana. 

Where  a  high  ceiling  cannot  be  provided,  making  it 
necessary  to  open  the  lower  windows  to  secure  ventilation, 
the  simple  precaution  of  opening  them  from  the  top  about 
half  an  inch  all  around  the  room  would  prevent  complaints 
of  drafts  and  keep  the  air  of  the  room  in  proper  condition. 
When  one  person  complains  of  the  heat  of  a  room,  the 
average  waiter  will  usually  pull  down  windows  for  a  foot 
or  more,  insuring  immediate  and  justifiable  complaints 
from  others.  If  the  windows  were  opened  slightly  from 
the  top  before  meals,  they  would  not  be  noticed  and  a 
rational  adjustment  of  the  matter  would  secure  exemption 
from  complaint. 


498  MANUFACTORIES  OK  SPKCIAL  HAZARDS. 


Bath-Rooms.  These  need  not  be  large,  although  they  are 
more  comfortable  if  roomy.  All  bath-rooms  and  toilet- 
rooms  should  Jiave  windows  to  outer  air.  Ventilating 
shafts  are  not  so  safe  for  health.  The  bath-rooms  of  the 
New  Willard  Hotel,  at  Washington,  are  5  feet  by  8  feet  2 
inches.  A  marble  wainscot  four  feet  high  is  an  admirable 
feature  ;  the  floor  being  finished  in  a,  sort  of  concrete  with 
marble  chippings,  rubbed  to  a  smooth  hard  finish,  is  an 
economical  flooring  and  quire  as  good  as  one  of  mosaic 
made  with  cement  and  square  marble  cubes.  The  bath-tub 
in  this  hotel  was  28  inches  wide  by  4  feet  9  inches  long  and 
21  inches  high  above  the  floor,  including  the  claw  feet. 
An  admirable  feature  of  this  bath-room  was  a  small  round 
stool,  13  inches  in  diameter,  of  wood  stained  to  represent 
cherry,  and  17^  inches  high — very  convenient  for  dressing. 

The  smallest  bath  room  I  ever  saw  was  in  the  Hotel 
Cambridge,  New  York,  being  only  4  feet  7  inches  wide 
by  6  feet.l  inch  long,  as  per  plan  herewith.  The  bath-tub 
occupied  the  entire  length,  with  the  toilet  and  wash  stand 
opposite  each  other,  the  door  opening  between  them.  This 
small  bath-room,  (see  plan),  which  is  a  very  comfortable 
one  notwithstanding  its  size,  is  an  evidence  of  what  may 
be  done  in  hotels,  the  owners  of  which  claim  that  bath- 
rooms are  impracticable  for  want  of  space.  Bath  rooms 
have  grown  to  be  such  necessities,  to  say  nothing  of  com- 
fort, in  the  estimation  of  the  traveling  public,  that  they 
should  be  provided  and  at  a  reasonable  charge.  The  latest 
Astor  Hotel  in  New  York  has  four  hundred  bath  rooms 
to  six  hundred  bed-rooms.  One  bath-room  to  two  bed- 
rooms is  a  better  proportion. 

An  admirable  arrangement  of  bath  room  and  closets  is 
that  of  the  Waldorf-Astoria,  diagram  herewith.  This  bath- 
room and  the  arrangement  of  the  New  Willard,  with  closets 
both  sides,  would  commend  themselves  without  elaboration. 

Bath-rooms  should  be  provided  with  small  mirrors, 
22x18.  In  the  Royal  Poinciana  mirrors  of  this  size  are 
made  of  common  pine  painted  with  enamel  white  paint, 
with  a  small  shelf  and  towel  rack  connected.  They  are  a 
most  convenient  feature. 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  HOTEL. 


499 


I  z 

■  o> 

■  0  • 

=rr 

■  a 

cc 
o 

(Q 

.  J 

1  

1  ^ 

L°BBY 

PR 

oi  V 

u. 

T  g 

q  >2.  £ 

«t 
a 

DIAGRAM  OF  THE  CAMBRIDGE, 
NEW  YORK. 


THIRTY  THIRD  STREET 


WALDORF-ASTORIA, 

Fifth  Avenue,  New  York. 
Fourth  Floor— Showing  rooms  and  arrangement  of  bath-rooms  and  closets. 


500 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


An  important  feature  of  a  hotel  bath-room  which  should 
never  be  omitted  is  a  waterproof  floor,  of  concrete  or  asphalt, 
so  graded  that  in  case  the  bath-tub  overflows  the  water 
will  run  to  an  ordinary  pipe,  inch  and  a  quarter  in 
diameter,  passing  through  the  wall  to  the  outside  of  the 
building  and  connecting  with  a  metal  leader  or  projecting 
sufficiently  beyond  the  wall  to  prevent  staining  it.  The 
leader  should  not  connect  with  the  drain  or  sewer  on 
account  of  sewer  gas.  It  can  open  on  the  ground,  as  it 
would  seldom  run  water.  Such  a  leader  would  save  the 
wall  from  being  stained.  An  elaborately  frescoed  ceiling 
in  the  dining-room  of  the  Waldorf-Astoria,  New  York, 
was  ruined  in  this  way,  and  I  have  seen  enough  cases 
of  injury  to  ceilings  of  hotels  from  this  cause  to  enforce 
the  wisdom  and  economy  of  1  h is  simple  and  inexpensive 
precaution.  The  waste  and  overflow  pipe  of  the  tub  should 
be  large  enough  to  carry  off  water  of  both  faucets,  taking 
into  account  velocity  of  flow  or  pressure,  not  less  than 
1^  inch  in  any  case. 

There  should  be  a  number  of  hooks  in  the  bath  room,  on 
the  back  of  the  door  and  at  other  points,  as  a  convenience 
for  hanging  clothes,  towels,  etc.  The  best  towel  rack  is  a 
nickel-plated  rod. 

All  bath  and  toilet  rooms  should  have  outside  windows 
with  stained  or  ground  glass.    They  need  not  be  large. 

Water  Closets.  In  ordering  these  specify  the  pattern  by 
name,  as  manufacturers  do  not  put  their  name  on  "seconds," 
cracked  or  imperfect  closets. 

Closets.  These  should  be  liberal  in  size,  lighted  if  possi- 
ble by  an  electric  light,  which  can  be  arranged  to  shut  or 
switch  off  by  closing  of  door,  and  with  shelves  five  feet 
above  the  floor,  and  hooks  below  the  shelves.  It  is  always 
a  wise  economy  to  take  enough  space  from  the  bed  rooms 
to  give  liberal  closets. 

Windows.  A  storm-proof  window,  especially  for  northern 
exposures,  is  made  by  having  the  sash  grooved  to  fit  a 
tongue  in  the  frame.  The  Waldorf-Astoria  windows  are 
built  in  this  way.    In  some  cases  the  tongue  is  on  the  sill 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  HOTEL. 


501 


and  the  groove  in  the  bottom  of  the  window  sash  ;  but  a 
tongue  and  groove  around  the  entire  window  is  better 
still  and  makes  a  noiseless  and  storm-proof  window.  If 
windows  are  not  grooved,  anti-rattling  catches  should  be 
provided.    Window  chains  are  cheaper  than  cords. 

Windows  should  have  low  sills  and  large  panes;  and  a 
better  wall  space  for  arranging  furniture  is  secured  by 
putting  two  windows  close  together,  instead  of  separating 
them  by  a  pier  or  wall  space. 

Avoid  French  windows,  i.  e.,  the  kind  that  open  like 
doors.    They  are  always  inconvenient. 

All  windows  should  be  provided  with  double  curtains  or 
shades,  one  of  green  and  the  other  of  brown  holland,  and 
they  should  always  be  provided  with  outside  blinds.  If 
fly  or  mosquito  screens  are  needed  they  should  be  of 
"cop  bronze,"  which  is  rustless.  The  outside  blinds 
should  be  of  one  piece,  and  not  double,  for  convenience  and 
economy.  They  should  be  kept  in  good  order  and.  should 
not  be  stuck  together  with  paint.  Painters  are  usually 
careless  on  this  point,  resulting  in  the  slats  being  broken 
in  attempts  to  open  them. 

Outside  blinds,  however,  are  not  convenient  in  cities 
and  are  liable  to  be  neglected  and  torn  off  by  wind,  and 
inside  or  Venetian  shutters  are  more  convenient. 

Doors.  Double  doors  to  communications  between  bed- 
rooms en  suite  are  especially  important,  particularly  in  the 
case  of  bath-rooms.  The  locks  should  not  be  opposite 
each  other  where  double  doors  are  provided.  The  panels 
should  not  be  less  than  f  inch  thick.  Double  doors  are 
necessary  to  prevent  annoyance  from  loud  talking  and  to 
exclude  the  odors  of  tobacco  smoke.  Keyless  double  bolt 
locks  to  doors  should  be  provided. 

Electric  Wiring.  This  should  be  in  accordance  with  the 
rules  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  which 
may  be  procured  from  any  of  the  local  insurance  men. 

Chandeliers  should  not  hang  within  6  feet  4  inches  of 
the  floor.  An  economical  lighting  of  rooms  where  elec- 
tricity is  available  may  be  secured  by  clusters  of  three  light 


MAN  UFACTOKIKS  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


bulbs  in  the  middle  of  the  ceiling.  This  saves  the  cost  of 
a  chandelier  and  gives  a  better  diffused  light.  In  the 
ladies'  writing  room  of  the  Royal  Poiticiana,  at  Palm  Beach, 
three  clusters  of  five  bulbs  each,  light  the  room  admirably, 
and  it  is  a  large  one. 

Slop  Closets.  These  should  have  an  outer  window,  and 
should  not  be  iti  communication  with  toilet  rooms.  In 
some  cases  they  are  incorporated  with  the  toilet  rooms, 
with  partitions  not  running  to  the  ceiling,  which  is  deci 
dedly  objectionable.  They  should  not  be  receptacles  for 
waste  paper  and  rubbish,  which  should,  in  all  cases,  be 
carried  immediately  out  of  the  building,  where  its  burning 
would  not  endanger  the  structure.  Slop  closets  should 
not  be  under  staircases  or  near  elevators,  for  the  reason 
that  they  are  too  often  receptacles  for  waste  paper,  rubbish, 
oily  waste  and  other  fire  breeders.  All  sweepings  are 
dangerous.  A  fire  occurred  under  the  main  stairway  of  a 
hotel  in  which  the  writer  was  a  guest,  caused  by  a  cigarette 
thrown  carelessly  through  the  door,  which  ignited  the 
waste  paper  kept  in  a  barrel.  Slop  closets  should  have 
sash  doors,  with  ground  wire  glass,  so  that  any  fire  starting 
in  them  would  be  detected  quickly  ;  and  they  should  be 
kept  locked.  They  should  be  of  large  and  convenient  size, 
and  they  should  contain  receptacles  for  soiled  sheets  and 
linen. 

Transoms.  These  should  be  one  foot  high  and  of  dark 
green  glass,  or  else  covered  with  green  holland,  to  keep  the 
light  of  the  halls  from  illuminating  bed-rooms,  to  the 
annoyance  of  guests,  and  hinged  on  the  lower  side  so  as  to 
open  upward  and  prevent  direct  drafts  over  the  beds.  If 
the  doors  were  metal  covered  and  the  transoms  "wire 
glass"  the  conditions  would  be  ideal. 

Music  Room.  Ball  Room,  with  Stage.  &c.  This  should  be  out- 
side the  main  building,  or  underneath  rooms  allowed  for 
bachelors  or  others  who  do  not  object  to  noise.  In  the 
case  of  the  Royal  Palm,  at  Miami,  Florida,  this  room  is 
outside  of  the  main  structure.  Unless  the  music  room  is 
separated  from  the  main  structure,  there  should  be  rigid 
rules  as  to  playing  pianos  after  11  o'clock  P.  M. 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  HOTEL. 


503 


Smoking  Room.  To  some  persons  tobacco  smoke  is  poison. 
To  all  who  do  not  smoke  it  is  disagreeable  ;  and  even  to 
those  who  do,  too  much  smoke,  especially  a  mixture  of 
bad  cigars  with  good  ones,  is  anything  but  comfortable. 
At  any  rate,  there  is  no  reason  why  even  a  minority  should 
not  be  considered  by  having  a  proper  amount  of  space  in 
the  reading  rooms,  parlors  and  piazzas  reserved  for  their 
comfort.  In  most  hotels  they  are  utterly  ignored.  The 
smoking-room  should  be  ventilated  by  a  3-foot  pipe  carried 
to  the  roof.  This  would  keep  the  room  comfortable  for 
those  who  smoke  as  well  as  for  those  who  do  not.  In 
too  many  cases  the  smoking-room  is  so  arranged  that  the 
smoke  goes  through  all  of  the  bed-rooms  by  natural  drafts 
through  the  halls. 

Boot  and  Shoe  Boxes.  A  convenient  feature  of  the  Waldorf- 
Astoria,  which  I  have  not  seen  elsewhere,  is  a  box  in  which 
shoes  are  left  at  night,  to  be  cleaned  and  blacked.  It  is 
arranged  in  the  closet  and  opens  on  the  hall,  with  a  door 
having  a  pane  of  glass,  through  which  the  porter  can  see 
shoes  left  for  cleaning,  unlocking  it  from  the  hallway. 
The  halls  are  thus  kept  clear  of  the  slovenly  appearance 
of  various  kinds  of  footwear  left  in  plain  sight  through 
a  large  portion  of  the  evening. 

Writing  Desks.  These  should  be  provided  in  rooms.  They 
may  be  made  cheaply  of  stained  wood  or  cherry,  or  white 
pine  painted  with  white  enamel  paint.  They  should  be 
substantial,  not  shaky.  They  are  a  great  convenience,  and 
save  money  in  the  labor  of  carrying  ink,  pens,  &c,  to  the 
rooms,  and,  moreover,  save  staining  of  table  cloths  and 
carpets,  inevitable  where  they  are  not  provided  and  where 
ink  is  carried  to  rooms.  In  the  writing  room,  separate 
desks  should  be  provided,  as  well  as  one  large  writing 
table.  Most  people  object  to  sitting  near  other  persons 
while  writing  letters. 

Steam  Risers.  These  if  incorporated  in  the  wall  should 
be  protected  with  non  conducting  material  to  prevent  their 
heating  intermediate  rooms  through  which  they  pass, 
whose  occupants  may  not  want  the  steam  turned  on. 
There  should  be  a  separate  line  of  risers  for  different  floors. 


504 


MANUFACTORIES  OH  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


Piazzas.  These  usually  spoil  the  bed-rooms  nearest  them, 
because  of  the  noise  and  conversations  carried  on  by  those 
guests  who  stay  up  late  at  night.  An  admirable  arrange- 
ment at  the  Hotel  Royal  Palm,  at  Miami,  Fia.,  (see  plan 
herewith),  is  to  have  them  arranged  about  twenty  feet  from 
the  main  building,  with  a  roof  protecting  them,  the  space 
between  the  piazzas  and  the  main  building,  containing  bed- 
rooms, &c,  being  utilized  for  shrubs,  palms,  etc.  Where 
they  are  next  to  dining-rooms  there  is  not  so  much  objec- 
tion, but  they  darken  a  dining-room,  and  even  in  such  case 
it  is  better  to  have  them  separate. 

One  end  of  a  piazza  should  be  reserved  where  smoking 
is  not  allowed. 

The  balusters  can  be  protected  from  having  the  paint 
worn  off  if  a  foot  rest  of  2  inch  galvanized  iron  pipe  is 
arranged  in  front  of  them.  Otherwise  they  will  soon 
become  disfigured  and  unsightly.  This  pipe  is  a  feature 
of  the  Royal  Poinciana  and  Breakers  Hotels,  at  Palm 
Beach. 

Boiler  Room.  It  is  important  that  this  should  be  kept 
clean.  Under  no  circumstances  should  fuel,  especially 
bituminous  coal,  be  piled  against  the  brickwork  of  the 
boiler,  and  all  kindling  material  should  be  kept  a  safe 
distance  from  the  furnace  mouth. 

Baggage  Room.  This  should  have  rubber  floor,  unless 
arranged  under  the  office,  where  the  noise  of  moving 
baggage  would  not  disturb  sleepers. 

FIREPROOF  HOTELS. 

These,  of  course,  are  not  to  be  found,  as  a  rule,  outside 
of  large  cities.  The  building  law  of  New  York  requires 
that  all  hotels  over  35  feet,  or  three  stories  in  height, 
should  be  fireproof,  and  the  law  should  be  universal.  The 
construction  should  be  that  recommended  on  pages  106-111. 
More  explicit  directions  as  to  fireproof  construction,  have 
been  published  by  me  in  pamphlet  form. 

At  this  point  I  wish  to  emphasize  that  in  no  class  of 
hazards  is  it  more  important  to  avoid  stone  treads  of 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  HOTEL. 


505 


508 


MANUFACTOKIKS  Oli  SPifiClAL  HAZARDS. 


marble  or  slate  for  staircases,  unless  beneath  the  stone  is 
an  iron  support,  which  will  insure  a  good  footing  after  the 
stone  has  disintegrated,  as  already  explained  on  page  91. 

Fire-Resisting  Floors.    The  best  floor  is  one  of  iron  beams, 
spaced  not  overlive  feet  on  centres,  with  brick  segmental 
arches.    Next  to  brick  for  such  segmental  arches  in  relia 
bility  is  burnt  clay  or  terra  cotta. 

It  is  my  opinion — but  there  are  many  who  entertain  a 
different  one — that  the  old-fashioned  brick  segmental  arch 
is  the  most  reliable  for  resisting  fire  ;  that  next  to  this  in 
safety  stands  the  porous,  terra  cotta  arch,  with  end  con- 
struction, i.  e.,  t  lie  blocks  or  separate  pieces  placed  end  to 
end  between  the  beams,  instead  of  side  by  side  in  what  is 
known  as  "side  construction."  This  is  said  to  be  stronger 
than  side  construction.  It  is  claimed  by  many  experts 
that  porous  terra  cotta  is  a  better  non  conductor  than  brick 
on  account  of  its  interior  air  spaces.  The  arch  should  not 
be  less  than  four  inches  thick  at  the  crown,  having  a  rise 
of  at  least  1^  inches  to  each  foot  of  span  between  the  beams, 
and  there  should  be  a  covering  of  good  Portland  cement 
and  gravel  concrete  over  this  to  ensure  a  waterproof  floor. 
Cinder  filling  will  burn — crushed  slag  from  blast  furnaces 
is  better,  but  the  Portland  cement  concrete  should  not  be 
omitted  for  waterproofing  purposes.  Concrete  arches, 
however,  while  not  equal  to  brick,  terra  cotta  or  burnt  clay 
arches,  are  economical  floors,  and  are  practically  safe 
enough  for  the  bed-room  floors  of  hotels. 

There  are  many  patent  floor  arches  for  filling  between 
I-beams  which  have  great  merit  when  properly  put  in, 
but  I  doubt  if  any  of  them  is  equal  to  brick  or  burnt 
clay,  and  it  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  when 
employed  they  should  be  constructed  with  the  same  care 
with  which  they  are  prepared  for  tests.  This  is  almost 
equally  true,  however,  as  regards  brick  and  burnt  clay 
arches.  There  is  less  likelihood  of  poor  installation  work, 
however,  with  arches  of  brick  or  porous  terra  cotta  or 
burnt  clay.  Arches  should  be  laid  in  cement,  not  lime 
mortar.    They  should  not  be  laid  in  freezing  weather,  and 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  HOTEL. 


507 


where  concrete  is  used  the  broken  stone  or  gravel  should 
be  carefully  washed  and  the  cement  should  be  of  the  best 
quality.  Some  of  the  better  qualities  of  patent  floors  are 
the  following :  Fawcett,  G-uastavino,  R;ipp  (which  should 
be  segmental  arch  form — not  flat),  Columbian,  Metropolitan, 
Roebling,  Manhattan  or  Expanded  Metal,  etc.  These  floors 
are  fully  illustrated  in  most  of  the  text  books  on  construc- 
tion. In  all  of  them,  I  repeat,  the  spacing  of  beams  should 
not  exceed  five  feet. 

If  the  building  is  to  be  throughout  of  fireproof  construc- 
tion, the  roof  to  conform  should  be  constructed  of  brick  or 
tile,  the  roof  beams  being  of  iron  and,  where  tanks  are 
supported,  of  sufficient  strength  to  carry  many  times  the 
actual  probable  weight  of  the  water  and  the  containing 
tank  itself.  If  possible  the  roof  tank  should  start  on  a 
corner  of  a  brick  building  or  straddle  a  party  wall. 

Slate  roofs,  on  very  high  buildings,  especially  on  street 
fronts,  are  objectionable  as,  in  case  of  fire,  the  slates  crack 
and,  falling  to  the  street,  injure  the  firemen.  A  fiat  roof 
of  brick-tile  is  better  than  any  other.  All  slate  should  be 
laid  in  elastic  cement. 

All  water  on  roofs  from  rain  or  melting  snow  should 
be  drained  from  the  front  or  sides  to  leaders,  so  as  to  avoid 
drip  points,  from  which  icicles  could  form.  Too  little 
attention  is  paid  to  the  great  danger  of  injury  to  pedes- 
trians from  falling  snow  or  icicles  on  high  buildings.  This 
may  not  be  a  suggestion  strictly  germane  to  this  article, 
but  it  is  a  matter  so  often  overlooked  as  to  warrant  its 
being  referred  to  in  a  treatise  intended  to  deal  more  or  less 
thoroughly  with  the  subject  of  fireproof  buildings. 

CAUSES  OF  FIRES  IN  HOTELS. 

The  numerous  fires  in  hotels  are  caused,  in  many  cases, 
by  drunken  guests,  who  are  careless  with  cigarettes,  cigars, 
matches,  &c,  especially  in  toilet  rooms,  where  loose  paper 
either  on  floor  or  in  wooden  boxes  on  the  floor  should  not 
be  allowed.  25  cents  per  $100  extra  should  be  charged  for 
this  fault  in  the  insurance  rate. 


508 


MANUFACTORIES  OK  SPKCIAL  HAZARDS. 


By  rubbish  in  cellars,  at  the  foot  of  elevator  shafts, 
under  piazzas  which  are  raised  from  the  ground,  often 
with  open  lattice  work,  or  under  platforms  near  the 
entrances,  with  open  finish,  thro  ugh  the  open  cracks  of 
which  lighted  cigarettes  or  cigars  find  easy  lodgment,  to 
ignite  rubbish  below — a  common  fault. 

By  matches  kept  in  drawers  of  bureaus,  ignited  by 
opening  and  closing  of  drawers  and  breaking  out  into  fire 
long  after  careless  persons  have  left  the  room.  Only 
"safety"  matches,  igniting  on  specially  prepared  surfaces, 
should  be  used  in  hotels. 

Steam  Pipes,  put  in  insecurely  and  not  arranged  with 
guards  to  keep  them  away  from  woodwork. 

Electric-light  Wiring.    Not  properly  installed. 

By  incendiaries,  who  find  many  opportunities  of  setting 
fire  to  rooms  for  purposes  of  robbery. 

By  carelessness  of  women  using  curling  irons. 

Lace  and  muslin  curtains  blowing  into  fireplaces  or  gas- 
lights— a  frequent  cause  of  fires,  especially  in  bed-rooms. 
Curtains  are  liable  to  be  ignited  by  careless  guests  using 
matches. 

As  I  write  a  fire  occurs  in  the  Herald  Square  Hotel  in 
New  York  in  this  way. 

A  fire  in  the  Hotel  Imperial  of  New  York,  October,  1902, 
caused  by  curtains  blown  into  an  alcohol  lump  for  heating 
curling  irons,  emphasizes  both  causes.  Fortunately  the 
building  is  fireproof  and  the  damage  was  only  $500. 

By  spontaneous  combustion  in  waste  closets. 

By  fires  starting  in  repair  rooms  where  old  furniture  is 
mended,  glued,  upholstered,  &c.  In  one  of  the  largest 
frame  hotels  in  California  I  found  the  room  for  repairing 
old  furniture  on  the  top  floor  of  the  building  where  its 
burning  would  have  involved  the  whole  property. 

In  oil  and  lamp  rooms,  which  should  always  be  outside 
of  the  main  structure.  No  gasolene  should  be  used  about 
a  hotel  ! 

By  swinging  gas-brackets  swinging  against  woodwork 
or  curtains. 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  HOTEL. 


509 


Open  fireplaces  unprovided  with  wire  netting  fenders 
covering  the  opening — very  important  ! 

Sawdust  Spittoons.  These  are  prolific  causes  of  fires  from 
cast  off  cigarettes  or  cigar  stumps.  They  should  not  be 
allowed  in  hotels,  and  are  often  found  in  bar-rooms  and 
toilet-rooms. 

Kitchen  Fires.  These  occur  from  bake  ovens,  boiling  over 
of  fat  used  for  frying  doughnuts,  &c,  &c,  or  from  piling 
firewood  near  the  ovens  or  ranges. 

"A  hotel  man  tells  the  following  in  regard  to  hotel  fires  :  Whenever 
you  hear  of  a  hotel  fire  whose  origin  is  a  mystery,  it  is  safe  to  attribute 
it  to  tiie  cause  I  will  give.  The  best  cooking  lard  is  the  fat  that  is 
fried  out  of  the  fat  part  of  beef.  In  restaurants  and  hotels  it  is  put 
into  a  caldron  during  the  day  and  set  on  the  range  over  night.  A 
light  tire  is  usually  kept  in  the  range  to  save  the  trouble  of  starting  it 
in  the  morning.  During  the  night  it  may  happen  that  an  unusual 
draught  is  created  by  a  high  wind.  The  fire  blazes  up,  the  caldron 
begins  to  boil  and  the  fat  is  in  the  flame.  Next  it  is  in  the  pot,  and 
then  follows  an  explosion,  scattering  the  blazing  grease  in  every 
direction.  Result — a  fire  of  mysterious  origin,  which  destroys  the 
building  and  all  of  its  contents." — From  the  Boston  Advertiser. 

FIRE  APPLIANCES. 

Every  hotel  should  have  a  stand  pipe  not  less  than  three 
inches  in  diameter,  (four  inch  pipe  is  better),  with  outlets 
for  hose  every  hundred  feet  and  if  possible  near  a  staircase, 
so  that  the  hose  can  be  used  until  the  last  moment.  There 
should  be  fifty  feet  of  hose  at  each  outlet,  and  the  valve 
should  be  a  lever  valve,  opening  by  pulling  it  from  the 
wall,  so  that  it  can  be  pulled  only  in  one  direction.  Few 
persons  understand  handling  a  wheel  valve,  especially  in 
the  excitement  attending  a  fire.  Automatic  hose-reels 
which  open  the  valve  when  the  hose  is  unwound  are  best. 

Fire  pails,  painted  red,  with  round  bottoms,  arranged 
on  a  shelf  with  holes  to  fit  the  round  bottoms  (which 
insures  their  not  being  carried  off  to  use  for  other  pur- 
poses), should  be  provided  at  the  rate  of  six  filled  pails 
for  every  50  running  feet  of  hallway.  They  are  admirable 
fire-extinguishing  appliances,  superior  to  all  others,  because 
anyone  knows  how  to  use  them. 

Axes  and  crowbars  should  be  provided  every  hundred 
feet. 


510 


MANUFACTORIES  OK  SPICCIAL  HAZARDS. 


Iii  iire  department  towns  there  should  be  a  special 
building  signal  with  alarm  boxes  in  halls  on  each  floor 
connected  with  the  nearest  street  box  of  the  city  tire 
department,  to  insure  prompt  arrival  of  firemen.  A  liberal 
supply  of  fire  escapes  should  be  provided  and  the  ladders 
leading  from  those  on  the  exterior  of  the  building  should 
be  between  windows  and  not  opposite  them.  This  precau- 
tion is  generally  overlooked  and  a  tire  on  any  floor  is  apt 
to  interfere  with  passing  down  the  fire  escapes.  Fire 
gongs,  which  may  be  sounded  from  the  office,  should  be  in 
the  halls  on  each  floor,  or  better  still  in  each  room,  to 
arouse  guests  in  case  of  danger. 

Watch-clocks,  insuring  careful  work  of  watchmen,  with 
stations  at  proper  points,  to  ensure  thorough  supervision, 
are  necessary  ;  and  large  alarm  bells,  capable  of  being 
rung  from  the  office  as  well  as  from  each  floor,  should  be 
arranged  for  wakening  guests. 

Candles  atid  candlesticks  should  be  provided  in  all 
rooms.  As  already  stated,  electric  lights  and  gas  are 
usually  extinguished  at  an  early  stage  of  a  fire. 

As  already  suggested,  lamps  should  be  provided  in  the 
halls,  on  shelves  at  least  seven  feet  from  the  floor.  Those 
located  near  staircases  and  elevators  with  red  shades. 

PREVENTION   VS.  EXTINCTION. 

All  fire  appliances,  however,  no  matter  how  thorough, 
important  as  they  are,  are  of  little  value  as  compared  with 
the  prevention  of  fire.  In  no  other  class  of  risks  can  it  be 
more  truly  said  that  an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a 
pound  of  cure.  All  dangerous  processes  which  tend  to 
start  fires,  therefore,  should  be  outside  of  the  building. 
The  kitchen,  the  bake  ovens,  the  laundry,  the  waste  rooms, 
the  paint  and  oil  rooms,  the  lamp  filling  rooms,  furniture 
repair  and  upholstering  rooms,  carpenter  shop,  &c,  &c, 
should  never  be  allowed  where  their  ignition  would 
endanger  the  main  structure. 

An  average  of  over  three  hotels  a  day  destroyed  by  fire 
during  the  year  just  closed,  throughout  the  United  States, 
is  a  fearful  record  of  criminal  indifference  to  proper  con- 
struction, fully  justifying  the  admonitions  of  this  treatise. 


HOW  To  INSPECT  THEM. 


511 


Hot  Houses.    (See  Green  Houses.) 

Houses  of  Refuge.  Reform  Schools.  Etc.  Decline.  Tlie  moral 
hazard  connected  with  unruly  and  vicious  inmates  is  one  that 
cannot  be  measured  by  obtainable  rates. 

Hub  and  Spoke  Factories.  Refer  to  company  with  full  partic- 
ulars. 

Ice  Houses.  These  are  not  insurable  unless  so  located  as  to  be 
surely  rilled  every  year  and  winters  can  be  relied  upon.  Where 
the  water  is  pure  and  not  in  danger  of  contamination  and  near 
a  good  market,  companies  may  regard  them  favorably  at  high 
rates,  but  should  be  advised  with  before  binding.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  ice  will  not  bear  high  freight  charges.  The 
question  of  forest  or  grass  fire  exposure  is  important. 

Ice.  Artificial.  Manufactories.  These  are  not  desirable  when  in 
competition  with  a  sure  supply  of  natural  ice.  Where  natural 
ice  cannot  be  obtained  they  may  be  good  risks  at  proper  rates, 
if  the  boiler  hazard  is  properly  guarded.  Refer  to  company 
with  full  explanation  of  the  process  and  careful  inspection  and 
report. 

Incubators.  Decline. 

India  Rubber  Manufactories.  These  have  not  been  profitable  to 
companies.  Owing  to  the  use  of  benzine,  as  a  solvent,  fires  are 
frequent  and  rapid.  Decline  them  for  this  company.  The  use 
of  alcohol  and  linseed  oil  in  the  manufacture  of  rubber  cloth 
may  be  productive  of  fires  in  this  class  of  risks.  Bisulphide  of 
carbon  used  is  volatile  and  liable  to  explosion.  Great  care  is 
necessary  with  it. 

A  fire  occurred  in  the  Goodyear  India  Rubber  Glove  factory 
at  Naugatuck,  Conn.,  December  26th,  1872,  caused  by  an  ex- 
plosion from  electricity,  to  which  these  risks  are  peculiarly  liable. 
A  workman  was  engaged,  at  the  time,  in  hanging  rubber  cloths 
in  the  steam  vulcanizing  chamber  attached  to  the  works.  '  'Sud- 
denly, without  any  warning,  the  fire  streamed  from  his  hands 
to  the  cloth,  an  explosion  followed  and,  in  a  moment,  the  build- 
ing was  in  flames.  This  cloth  is  treated  with  linseed  oil  and 
alcohol,  and  it  is  the  theory  of  the  superintendent  that  the  vapor 
of  the  alcohol  was  ignited  by  the  electric  fire."  Soft  rubber  fac- 
tories use  large  amounts  of  benzine  or  naphtha  cement,  and 
rubber  boot  and  shoe  factories  use  cement,  also,  in  large  quan- 


512 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


tities,  together  with  varnish  thinned  with  henzine  or  naphtha. 
This  hazard  should  be  separated  from  the  main  building.  Pails- 
full  of  sand  should  be  liberally  provided  in  rooms  where  cement 
is  used.  Gossamer  rubber  factories  have  the  hazard  of  spreading 
liquid  rubber  on  cloth,  the  rubber  being  thinned  with  benzine  or 
naphtha.  The  process  necessitates  the  presence  of  a  large 
amount  of  liquid  rubber  in  the  room  and  carries  with  it  the  haz- 
ard of  spreading  by  machinery.  The  room  where  this  process 
is  carried  on  should  be  thoroughly  ventilated,  to  carry  off  the 
fumes,  and  the  machine  should  be  equipped  to  carry  off  electri- 
city and  so  avoid  the  danger  of  electric  sparks.  Very  few  com- 
panies write  these  risks  and  only  at  high  rates,  and  the  company 
should  be  conferred  with  before  binding. 

There  is  less  danger  in  hard  rubber  manufactories  than  in  soft 
rubber,  on  account  of  the  difference  in  process. 

Ink  Manufactories.  Advise  company  as  to  oil  boiling  and  safety 
of  appliances  for  use  of  fire.  These  risks  should  pay  full  rates. 
Those  making  writing  ink  are  less  hazardous  than  those  making 
printing  inks.  The  latter  carry  with  them  the  hazard  of  oil 
boiling  and  mixing  lamp-black,  colors  and  linseed  oil  by  steam 
power — practically  a  paint  mill  hazard. 

Insane  Asylums.    (See  Asylums.) 

Instrument  Makers.  The  stock,  especially  in  process  of  manu- 
facture, is  exceedingly  delicate  and  liable  to  damage  by  water. 
They  should  pay  full  rates.  The  physical  hazards  are  simply 
those  of  metal  workers. 

Iron  Foundries.    (See  Foundries.) 

Iron  Furnaces.    (See  Furnaces.) 

Iron  Pipe  Manufactories.    (See  Pipe.) 

Jails.  These  risks  as  usually  constructed  are  uninsurable  ex- 
cept at  full  rates,  and  they  are  bad  exposures  to  court  houses, 
being  sometimes  intentionally  set  on  fire  by  outside  friends  of 
prisoners  in  the  hope  that  the  excitement  attending  the  fire  and 
the  removal  of  prisoners  may  offer  facilities  for  escape  or  rescue. 

Japanning  Works.    (See  page  411.) 

Jewelry  Manufactories.  These  are  good  risks  at  fair  rates.  The 
physical  hazards  will  be  readily  seen  on  inspection,  and  should 
be  reported  upon. 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


513 


Junk  and  Rag  Stores.  Decline.  Aside  from  the  unsatisfactory 
character  of  the  stock  for  the  purpose  of  adjusting  losses,  they 
contain  heterogeneous  accumulations  of  inflammable  and  com- 
bustible materials,  liable  to  spontaneous  ignition,  &c,  and 
there  is  no  money  in  the  class  at  current  rates. 

Jute  Factories.  These  require  the  most  careful  examination  and 
rates  should  be  full,  and  tbe  risks  should  not  be  made  binding 
without  the  consent  of  the  company  first  obtained.  The  pro- 
cesses are  dangerous  and  more  or  less  dirty,  and  raw  jute  is 
particularly  subject  to  spontaneous  ignition.  Fires  are  rapid 
and  usually  mean  total  losses.  They  should  be  thoroughly 
sprinkled. 

Kerosene  Refineries.  Do  not  bind  without  consent  of  company 
first  obtained.    They  are,  of  course,  especially  dangerous. 

Kilns.  These  are  undesirable  as  separate  risks  and  they  are 
not  favorably  regarded  even  in  connection  with  breweries,  wood- 
workers and  other  risks  of  which  they  are  an  incident.  Where 
any  woodwork  enters  into  the  framing  of  the  kiln,  whether 
claimed  to  be  safely  protected  by  brick  or  terra  cotta  or  not,  it 
is  safe  to  decline  them.    (See  Dry-Rooms,  page  409.) 

Kindling  Wood  Factories.  Decline.  Few  companies  write  them, 
and  only  at  very  high  rates.  Buildings  are  usually  of  cheap 
construction  and  the  hazard  is  a  dangerous  one.  In  modern 
risks  the  drying  hazard  is  a  serious  one,  and  I  have  already 
emphasized  the  almost  uninsurable  nature  of  a  wood  dry-room 
process. 

Knitting  Mills.  These  have  not  been  profitable  at  current  rates 
and  companies  do  not  write  them  unless  exceptionally  well  con- 
structed and  managed.  They  should  be  inspected  according  to 
the  rules  of  Cotton  and  Woolen  Mills,  which  see  page  446. 

Ladder  Manufactories.  Those  manufacturing  step  ladders  in- 
volve soft  wood  processes  and  should  pay  about  50  <fo  more  than 
rung  ladder  manufactories.  They  should  pay  same  rates  as 
carpenter  shops. 

Laboratories,  Chemical.  Same  rates  as  Chemical  Works,  which 
see  page  441. 

Lamp-Black  Manufactories.  Few  companies  write  these,  and 
they  should  be  consulted  before  binding.    The  process  is  a  dan- 


514  MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 

gerous  one  and  buildings  are  usually  of  cheap  construction,  built 
with  the  expectation  of  frequent  fires.  The  material  itself  is 
liable  to  spontaneous  ignition  and  should  be  stored  where  it  will 
be  kept  dry. 

Lamp  Manufactories.  These  involve  the  hazards  of  Glass  and 
Metal  Working  and  should  be  inspected  and  reported  on  accord- 
ing to  these  hazards. 

Lard  Oil  Refineries.  As  a  class  these  are  undesirable.  They 
should  not  be  bound  without  consent  of  the  company  first  ob- 
tained and  full  report  as  to  the  use  of  fire,  heat,  boiling,  etc.,  etc. 

Lath  and  Shingle  Mills.  These  have  always  been  undesirable 
risks.  They  are  cheap  offshoots  of  planing  and  saw  mills  and 
the  large  quantities  of  small-dimensioned  wood,  excess  of  shav- 
ings and  chronic  carelessness  have  made  them  unprofitable. 

Laundries.  These  have  not  been  profitable  risks  and  fires  are 
almost  certain  to  occur  in  the  drying  portion  if  it  is  not  fireproof 
as  it  should  always  be.  Too  often  the  clothes  are  dried  on  racks 
which  are  shoved  into  wooden  frames  containing  steam  pipes, 
and  a  garment  falling  on  the  pipes,  or  dust  collecting,  is  almost 
certain  to  result  in  fire.  Floors  should  be  concrete  and  wire 
netting  above  steam  pipes  provided  to  prevent  clothes  from 
falling  on  them.  Advise  company  fully  on  these  important 
points. 

Lead  Manufactories.  Lead  pipe,  sheet  lead,  etc.  This  involves, 
of  course,  the  furnace  hazard,  which  should  be  carefully  in- 
spected and  reported  upon ;  also  the  handling  of  hot  metal  in 
large  quantities. 

Licorice  Manufactories.  These  involve  the  physical  hazards  of 
grinding,  boiling,  &c,  which  can  be  measured  by  any  intelligent 
agent.  The  dust  hazard  connected  with  the  grinding  should 
not  be  ignored  (see  Flour  Mills.)  A  stock  of  licorice  root  it  is 
claimed  is  very  susceptible  to  damage,  and  it  is  said  to  become 
easily  impregnated  with  smoke  and  water  and  made  unfit  for 
use ;  special  attention  is  drawn  to  this  fact  by  the  recent  fire  in 
the  MacAndrews  &  Forbes  establishment  in  Camden,  N.  J. 
Lines  upon  it  should  not  be  taken  at  rates  less  than  3$,  even 
with  good  buildings  which  under  proper  schedules  would  rate 
not  over  1  Be  careful  to  insure  the  stock  of  licorice  root 
under  a  specific  amount  and  rate. 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


515 


Linoleum  Manufactories.    (See  Oil  Cloth,  page  521.) 

Linseed  Oil  Mills.  Refer  to  company  with  full  advices  as  to 
the  particular  process  of  manufacture. 

Lithographing  Establishments.  An  unprofitable  class.  In  some 
cases  carelessly  managed  as  to  greasy  rags,  rubbish,  refuse,  etc. 
The  stock  is  peculiarly  subject  to  damage  and  excessive  claims 
from  water  or  smoke.  The  stones  should  never  be  insured 
beyond  their  value  as  stones,  as  the  drawings  on  them  may  be 
utterly  worthless  after  they  have  been  once  used  for  printing  an 
edition.  The  presses  are  heavy  and  they  are  frequently  upstairs 
where  fires  get  under  headway  before  being  discovered  and 
where  firemen  cannot  reach  them.  Do  not  bind  without  consent 
of  company  first  obtained  on  full  advice. 

Livery  Stables.  Small  lines  at  full  rates  may  be  written,  with 
a  specific  and  proper  amount  on  horses  and  a  limit  of  claim  on 
any  one  in  case  of  loss.  The  class  is  often  insured  for  a  small 
percentage  of  the  value,  with  some  such  clause  as,  "on  10  horses, 
not  exceeding  $150  on  any  one  horse."  This  might  mean  any 
ten  of  100  horses,  the  owner  counting  on  being  fully  covered 
with  insurance  on  ten  with  the  expectation  of  not  having  more 
than  that  number  in  the  building  at  the  time  of  the  fire. 

Such  phraseology  as  "$500  on  five  horses"  would  not  prevent 
a  claim  of  $500  on  any  one,  even  though  there  were  twenty. 
Nor  would  the  additional  words  "not  exceeding  $100  on  any 
one"  mend  the  matter,  except  to  prevent  claim  for  more  than 
that  amount  on  any  one.  The  policy  would  still  be  faulty  in 
that  it  might  be  covering  a  much  larger  number  of  animals  than 
five  and  a  larger  value  than  $500.  In  case  any  five  animals 
should  be  killed  by  lightning  or  burned,  the  claim  would  be  that 
the  identical  five  were  the  ones  insured.    (See  page  302.) 

High  priced  animals,  blooded  stallions,  jacks,  race  horses, 
brood  mares,  etc.,  should  not  be  insured  without  the  consent  of 
company. 

The  concentrated  value  within  the  space  of  a  horse  stall,  of  an 
exceptionally  valuable  animal,  subject  to  total  loss  by  the  effect 
of  fire  or  smoke  on  a  single  vital  organ,  the  suffocation  of  a 
single  pair  of  lungs,  for  example,  is  a  feature  which  should  not 
be  lost  sight  of  in  the  rate.  Five  thousand  dollars  insurance  on 
50  animals  where  the  loss  of  any  one  could  not  exceeed  $100  is 


5 1 6 


MANUFACTORIES  OK  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


a  much  better  risk  with  respect  to  probabilities  of  salvage  than 
$5,000  insurance  on  a  single  horse. 

With  a  certain  class  of  owners,  also,  a  serious  moral  hazard 
may  arise  from  a  slight  injury  to  a  valuable  animal  reducing  its 
salable  value  possibly  90 

In  the  case  of  breeding,  racing  and  training  stables,  the  stable 
rules  should  prohibit  the  use  of  matches,  kerosene  oil  lanterns, 
&c,  &c.  Probably  the  most  fruitful  causes  of  fires  in  stables 
are  dropped  matches,  the  animals  igniting  them  with  their  feet. 

Animals  above  or  below  the  grade  floor  should  be  charged  for 
at  the  rate  of  10  cents  added  for  each  floor  above  or  below  the 
grade. 

City  stables  are  sometimes  three  and  four  stories  high  and 
horses  stalled  on  these  upper  floors  are  nearly  always  suffocated 
by  the  ascending  smoke.  It  is  unnecessary  to  suggest,  also,  that 
sleighs  on  upper  floors,  or  carriages,  should  pay  higher  rates 
than  where  they  are  on  the  grade  floor,  where  they  can  be  saved, 
although  the  rates  are  usually  based  on  the  supposition  of  such 
favorable  salvage  conditions.  Specific  amounts  should  be  in- 
sured on  horses,  on  rolling  stock,  with  a  limit  on  any  one  vehicle, 
on  hay  and  feed,  and  on  harness.  The  last  two  items  seldom 
show  any  salvage  and  for  this  reason  ought  to  be  specifically 
insured.  Where  horses  are  brought  home  late  at  night  fires 
sometimes  result  from  careless  use  of  lights  by  sleepy  or  intoxi- 
cated hostlers.  Automatic  sprinklers  would  be  admirable  fire 
extinguishing  appliances  for  stables  with  a  sprinkler  head  over 
each  stall.  In  such  cases  a  fire  caused  by  the  ignition  of  a  stray 
match  under  the  foot  of  a  horse  would  be  extinguished  before  it 
could  spread  beyond  the  stall  in  which  it  started. 

Live  Stock,  Horses,  Cattle,  Sheep,  Hogs.  If  the  policy  con- 
tains the  following  clause,  the  company  may  authorize  a  reduc- 
tion in  rate  on  the  amount  covering  live  stock : 

"The  amount  payable  on  any  one  animal  in  case  of  loss  shall 
not  exceed  the  sum  produced  by  dividing  the  total  amount  in- 
sured upon  the  class  to  which  the  animal  belongs  by  the  total 
number  of  animals  in  the  class  owned  by  the  assured,  not  ex- 
ceeding $  on  any  one,  and  in  no  case  exceeding  the 

actual  cash  value  of  the  animal." 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


51? 


For  example,  $1,000  insured  on  horses  would  mean  that  $100 
could  be  collected  on  any  one  if  there  were  ten  (and  the  one  lost 
were  worth  $100) ;  $200  on  any  one  if  there  were  five,  and  the 
one  lost  were  worth  $200. 

No  rate  on  live  stock,  especially  on  such  animals  as  cattle, 
sheep,  &c,  running  at  large  in  fields,  could  be  relied  upon 
without  some  such  clause  as  the  above ;  nor  would  the  number 
of  animals  on  the  farm  at  the  time  of  writing  the  insurance  be 
any  guarantee  that  the  number  at  risk  would  not  have  been 
largely  increased  at  the  time  of  a  fire.  A  small  amount  of  in- 
surance on  a  large  herd  of  cattle  would  entail  severe  loss  to  the 
underwriter  in  the  course  of  a  five-year  term  from  lightning 
claims  alone,  especially  in  a  wire  fence  country. 

Lock  Factories.  Inspect  as  to  boiler-rooms,  dry-rooms,  japan- 
ning, forging,  foundry  work,  etc.,  etc. 

Locomotive  Works.  These  may  involve,  in  addition  to  machine 
shop  hazards,  foundry  work  woodwork,  sawing,  planing,  var- 
nishing, turning,  etc.    Inspect  carefully  and  advise  fully. 

Looking  Glass  and  Mirror  Plate  Manufactories.  These  should  pay 
full  rates.  The  stock  is  very  susceptible  to  damage,  both  man- 
ufactured and  in  process. 

Lumber  Yards.  Those  yards  where  lumber  is  piled  high  are 
poorer  risks  than  where  the  piles  are  low,  fires  being  difficult  to 
extinguish  when  the  piles  are  unusually  high,  and  an  additional 
charge  of  twenty-five  cents  should  be  made  in  the  rate  if  piles 
are  over  ten  feet  high.  Hardwood  yards  may,  also,  be  insured 
at  lower  rates  than  soft  lumber.  A  difference  may  be  made  in 
favor  of  "timber  yards"  where  none  of  the  timber  is  less  than 
3  x  5  in  size.  In  such  yards  the  piles  are,  usually,  low  and 
the  timber  is  piled  solid,  without  stripping.  It  is  also  seldom 
thoroughly  dry  and,  therefore,  does  not  ignite  easily. 

In  case  of  a  fire  in  a  lumber  yard,  boards  should  be  stood  upon 
end  against  the  piles  to  be  protected,  on  the  side  towards  the  fire, 
with  "broken"  or  "lap"  joints  and  kept  wet  with  the  aid  of  the 
engines.  This  will  prevent  the  entrance  of  fire  into  the  spaces 
between  the  lumber.  Lumber  being  generally  piled  with  small 
strips  between  the  courses  of  boards,  to  admit  of  a  circulation  of 
air  for  purposes  of  drying  and  seasoning,  a  fire  is  difficult  to 
extinguish  when  it  once  gains  access  to  the  interior  of  a  high  pile. 


518 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


Lumber  yards  may  be  so  exposed  by  planing  or  saw  mills  as 
to  call  for  mill  rates.  Wbere  tbe  owner  agrees  that  a  clear 
space  shall  be  maintained  between  the  lumber  and  such  an  ex- 
posure, to  obtain  a  concession  in  rate,  a  warranty  should  be 
written  in  the  policy,  as  per  following  National  Board  Standard 
Form  No.  9 : 

"It  is  a  condition  of  tins  contract  that  a  continuous  clear  space  of  feet 

shall  be  maintained  between  the  property  hereby  insured  and  any  woodwork 
in. if  establishment  or  dry  kiln,  otherwise  this  policy  shall  be  void;  this  doesnot 
prohibit  the  transportation  of  lumber  or  timber  products  across  such  clear 
space." 

If  exposed  by  steam  saw,  planing,  or  shingle  mill,  a  clear 
space  of,  at  least,  150  feet  should  be  maintained  to  constitute  an 
unexposed  risk.  Recent  fires  indicate  that  even  this  space  is  not 
sufficient. 

Few  classes  of  risks  are  so  inadequately  rated  as  lumber  yards 
exposed  by  saw  or  planing  mills.  It  is  safe  as  a  rule  to  say  that 
such  risks  should  pay  the  mill  rates.  The  "mill  yard"  clause 
of  the  National  Board  (see  Index)  should  be  used. 

The  continuous  lines  of  lumber  yards,  so  frequently  to  be 
found  along  water  fronts,  are  not  desirable  risks,  and  rates,  and 
particularly  lines,  should  be  governed  accordingly. 

Lumber  in  yards  divided  by  streets  or  alleys  of  the  width  of 
forty  feet  or  more,  must,  in  all  cases,  be  insured  specifically,  or 
the  average  clause  inserted.  The  average  or  co-insurance  clause 
should  be  inserted  in  policies  on  lumber. 

For  a  yard  iv ell  fenced,  a  deduction  in  rate  may  be  made. 

Lunatic  Asylums.    (See  Asylums.) 

Macaroni  Factories.  Report  as  to  cooking,  fire  appliances,  dry- 
ing arrangements,  etc.,  etc. 

Machine  Shops.  Refer  to  company  with  particulars,  especially 
as  to  any  woodwork  done.  In  some  machine  shops  the  amount 
of  woodworking  is  so  considerable  as  to  require  special  rating. 

Carelessness  in  not  properly  disposing  of  oily  cotton  waste  or 
rags  used  in  wiping  off  machinery  is  observable  in  some  estab- 
lishments. Metal  receptacles  should  be  provided  and  regularly 
emptied  every  night.  The  iron  filings,  lathe  chips,  etc.,  will 
cause  spontaneous  ignition  if  permitted  to  accumulate  and  to 
become  rusty  from  dampness.     (See  page  142.)     The  floors 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM 


51'.i 


should,  therefore,  be  kept  clean.  In  nut  and  bolt  works,  es- 
pecially, if  sawdust  is  used  for  cleaning,  the  danger  is  increased. 
(See  Foundries,  page  471.) 

Not  over  10  #  of  the  amount  of  insurance  should  cover  on 
patterns,  and  it  is  important  to  see  that  those  insured  are 
live  patterns  and  not  those  of  out  of  date  machinery,  which  may 
be  no  more  valuable  than  so  much  kindling  wood.  Even 
honest  owners  sometimes  attach  a  mistaken  value  to  a  useless 
pattern. 

Malt  Houses.  Examine  carefully  as  to  kilns.  It  is  safe  to  de- 
cline those  whose  kilns  contain  any  wood  in  their  construction. 

Match  Factories.  These  are  dangerous  risks  but  it  may  bo 
possible  to  construct  them  so  that  by  subdividing  the  hazards 
they  may  be  insured  at  full  rates,  but  it  is  not  likely  that  any 
match  factories  at  present  in  operation  can  be  regarded  as  in- 
surable. The  cutting  of  the  splints,  their  dn'ing,  the  dipping 
process — from  the  initial  process  to  the  packing  for  sale,  inclu- 
ding the  box  making — every  process  is  hazardous.  It  is  well 
known  that  phosphorus  deprived  of  the  water  in  which  it  is 
necessary  to  submerge  it,  will  take  fire,  but  knowledge  of  this 
danger  on  the  part  of  those  using  it  suffices  to  make  this  serious 
hazard  less  prolific  of  loss  than  some  of  the  processes  like  dry- 
ing, dipping,  etc.,  etc.,  as  to  which  parties  are  not  so  appre- 
hensive. Potassium  chlorate  is  dangerous  in  combinations  and 
would  be  especially  so  in  connection  with  sulphur  and  other 
chemicals  used  in  the  process.  Saltpetre  is  also  used.  Under 
no  circumstances  should  the  class  be  insured  without  the  consent 
of  the  company  first  obtained.  Adequate  rates  are  not  likely  to 
be  obtainable. 

Mattress  Making.  Even  the  best  of  these  risks  should  pay  in 
the  neighborhood  of  3  #  and  ought  not  to  be  insured  without  the 
consent  of  the  company  first  obtained.  The  picker  room  should 
be  completely  isolated. 

Menageries.  Accepted  by  few  companies.  Valuable  animals 
liable  to  be  suffocated  by  smoke,  carelessness  of  hands  as  to 
matches,  etc.,  etc.,  tend  to  make  the  class  undesirable.  Obtain 
consent  of  company  before  binding. 

Mining  Property.  This  should  not  be  insured  without  full  re- 
port to  the  company  and  consent  first  obtained.    Buildings  are 


520  MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


generally  of  cheap  construction,  and  the  arrangement  of  the 
boiler  and  stack,  which  latter  is  generally  of  iron,  should  be 
carefully  investigated  and  reported  upon.  The  class  of  help 
employed  usually  involves  a  serious  moral  hazard.  <  >ften  a 
moral  hazard  is  involved  through  uncertainty  of  veins. 

Morocco  Factories.  Advise  company  as  to  processes  and  haz- 
ards before  binding.  Building  and  machinery  lines  preferable 
to  lines  on  stock.  The  stock,  both  raw  and  finished,  is  more 
susceptible  to  damage  than  that  of  ordinary  leather  workers, 
but  the  old  process  morocco  factories  are  not  more  dangerous 
than  any  leather  worker — in  fact,  not  so  bad  as  the  ordinary 
currier  shop,  with  its  grease  and  oil  hazards.  Some  morocco 
factories  now  operating  under  this  name  are  really  patent 
leather  factories,  as  they  have  the  hazard  of  varnishing  and 
baking  the  leather,  although  not  to  the  extent  of  a  full-fledged 
patent  leather  factory.    The  rate  should  be  high. 

Moss  Factories.  These  are  cheap  structures  as  a  rule,  and  the 
processes  exceedingly  dangerous.    We  prefer  to  decline  them. 

Moulding  Mills.  Same  as  Planing  Mills.  They  should  rate 
about  25$  higher  than  planing  mills  doing  only  tongueing, 
grooving  and  surfacing. 

Museums.  The  contents  of  these  risks  are  undesirable  as  a 
rule.  The  values  are  unsatisfactory  as  to  claims  in  case  of  loss, 
and  they  often  combine  a  serious  cheap  theatre  hazard  with 
scenery. 

Nut  and  Bolt  Works.    (See  Bolt  and  Nut  Works,  page  433.) 

Oatmeal  Mills.  These  have  not  been  profitable  risks.  They 
have  all  the  dangers  of  flour  mills — grinding,  dust  explosion 
hazards,  etc. — with  the  added  hazards  of  kilns,  which  should  be 
fireproof  but  seldom  are.  Do  not  bind  without  consent  of  com- 
pany obtained  after  full  advice. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  material  should  not  be  discharged  directly 
from  the  shelling  and  grinding  apparatus  into  the  elevator, 
because  the  movement  of  its  cups  would  create  a  current  of 
air,  but  that  they  should  pass  immediately  into  a  feeder,  and 
that  the  dust  of  oatmeal  mills  is  so  much  dryer  than  that  of 
flour  mills  that  a  specially  explosive  hazard  is  involved. 


How  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


521 


Office  Furniture  and  Fixtures.    (See  Fixtures,  page  4C.4. ) 

Oil  Mills.    (See  Linseed,  Cotton  Seed  and  Lard  Oil.) 

Oil  Cloth  Manufactories.  These  have  not  been  profitable  to  com- 
panies, notwithstanding  the  high  rates  paid  on  them.  The  pro- 
cesses are  exceedingly  dangerous,  and  I  have  never  seen  a  risk 
which  was  properly  divided.  The  chief  hazard  is  the  cutting  of 
the  cloth,  the  printing  and  the  drying,  which  includes  the  haz- 
ards of  painting  and  varnishing.  There  is  more  or  less  electric 
hazard  at  the  machine,  and  the  extensive  drying  processes  in- 
volve conditions  which  mean  rapid  and  serious  fires,  the  cloth 
being  festooned  in  large  drying  rooms.  There  are  also  the 
extensive  mixing  and  grinding  hazards  by  steam  power  equal 
to  those  of  a  paint-mill.  This  part  of  the  work  should  be  entirely 
separated  from  the  other  buildings. 

Linoleum  factories  involve  the  grinding  of  cork  and  extensive 
use  of  linseed  oil,  and  have  practically  the  same  printing  hazard 
as  an  ordinary  oilcloth  factory. 

Oil  Clothing  Manufactories.  Some  of  these  establishments  are 
of  large  area;  the  hazard  is  involved  in  the  coating  of  the  cloth 
with  linseed  oil,  extensive  drying  processess  and  the  danger  of 
spontaneous  combustion  peculiar  to  the  materials  used. 

Oil  Refineries.  Decline. 

Oil  Warehouses  and  Oil  Tanks — Petroleum  or  Kerosene.  Few 
companies  write  these. 
Opera  Houses.    (See  Theatres. ) 

Organ  and  Piano  Manufactories.  Report  fully  as  to  the  various 
processes — sawing,  planing,  cabinet  work,  gluing,  drying,  var- 
nishing, etc.,  etc.  They  should  pay  full  rates.  The  stock, 
whether  in  process  of  manufacture  or  finished,  is  very  suscept- 
ible to  damage  by  smoke,  heat  and  water. 

Organs  in  Churches.  These  should  pay  materially  higher  rates 
than  the  church  structure  itself — at  least  four  times  as  much. 
As  a  rule  they  should  be  insured  with  the  church  and  the 
amount  on  the  organ  divided  in  this  way  among  all  of  the 
companies  interested. 

Packing  Box  Manufactories.   (See  Box  Manufactories,  page  434.) 

Pail  Manufactories.    (See  Bucket  Manufactories,  page  436.) 


522 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


Paint  Manufactories,  including  Color  Manufactories.  Inspect 
carefully  and  advise  company  fully  as  to  use  and  storage  of  oils, 
etc.,  character  of  paint  made,  drying  processes,  furnaces  where 
material  is  burned,  and  drying  of  the  ground  material  in  oils. 
Many  of  the  establishments  manufacturing  cheap  paints  use 
benzine  and  naphtha  for  thinning.  Very  high  rates  are  nec- 
essary and  few  companies  write  them. 

Panoramas.  Cycloramas,  Cinemetographs,  Etc.  Decline.  The 
latter  are  very  liable  to  fires  from  ignited  celluloid  films. 
Extravagant  claims  are  often  made  on  large  paintings  where 
only  a  small  surface  is  injured  by  fire  or  smoke.  Buildings  are 
unsuited  for  any  other  use  and  are  undesirable. 

Paper  Box  Manufactories.    (See  Box  Manufactories,  page  434.) 

Paper  Hanging  Manufactories.    (See  Wall  Paper.) 

Paper  Mills.  Refer  to  company  with  full  survey.  These  risks 
would  be  much  improved  if  the  different  processes  were  separ- 
ated by  fire  walls  and  iron  doors;  the  sliding,  self-closing 
doors  recommended  on  page  371  being  the  most  desirable  for 
the  purpose.  Such  a  division  would,  clearly,  be  more  in  the 
interest  of  the  owner  than  of  the  company,  as  he  could  then 
insure  the  values  of  non-hazardous  portions  of  his  risk  for  spec- 
ific amounts  and  at  lower  rates  than  are  now  charged  for  the 
whole,  thus  securing  the  advantage  of  a  saving  in  the  matter 
of  rate,  but  a  still  greater  advantage  in  the  fact  that  his  entire 
property  could  not  be  destroyed,  and  his  business  brought  to  a 
stand-still,  by  a  single,  untoward  accident. 

In  a  mill  so  divided,  the  dusting  and  cutting  of  rags  by 
machinery  might  be  easily  and  at  small  cost  isolated.  The 
storing  of  rags,  more  particularly  of  the  lower  grades,  and  the 
sorting  of  them — unless  thoroughly  dusted  before  going  into  the 
hands  of  the  sorters — should  be  cut  off  by  a  fire  wall  with 
standard  doors.  The  sizing,  also,  should  not  be  prepared  (un- 
less heated  by  steam)  where  it  will  endanger  the  mill.  The 
process  of  making  paper,  after  the  rags  or  stock  are  in  the 
bleach,  is  not  a  dangerous  one;  and  where  the  drying  of  the 
paper  is  safely  managed — it  is  generally  dried  by  steam-pipes 
in  the  att:c,  which  should  be  thoroughly  examined  to  see  that 
steam-pipes  are,  at  no  point,  in  contact  with  wood,  and  that 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


523 


neither  ligh  ts  nor  smoking  are  permitted — a  lower  rate  might 
be  charged  than  is  due  to  the  more  dangerous  processes. 

The  use  of  cotton  waste  should  render  a  risk  uninsurable. 
(See  "Cotton  and  Woolen  Mill  Fires.") 

Examine  as  to  the  storage  and  handling  of  lime. 

Straw  Paper  Mills  and  Man  illa  Mills,  as  usually  managed, 
are  not  desirable  risks  at  current  and  obtainable  rates. 

The  stacks  of  straw  should  be,  at  least,  150  feet  from  the  mill 
and  only  the  straw  required  for  each  day's  work  should  be  per- 
mitted in  or  near  the  mill.  The  cutting  of  old  rope,  etc.,  should 
be  separated  from  the  mill,  as  before  recommended. 

Fire  Appliances. — These  should  be  complete,  as  recom- 
mended for  special  hazards,  pp.  420-421.  Steam  jets  are, 
probably,  the  most  effective  of  all  fire  appliances  for  paper  mills, 
and  should  be  provided  in  each  room,  particularly  in  the  dusting, 
cutting  and  drying  rooms.  A  steam  jet  in  each  dusting  ma- 
chine would  be  a  desirable  precaution,  in  view  of  the  fires  caused 
by  matches  or  foreign  substances  passing  through  the  machines. 

Paper  mills  to  be  standard  risks  should  not  be  over  three 
stories  high. 

Patent  Leather  Manufactories.  The  hazard  of  removing  the  fats 
and  greases  from  the  leather  by  immersing  hides  in  naphtha 
baths  is  an  especially  dangerous  one  and  needs  to  be  carefully 
isolated.  The  drying  process  and  the  arrangement  of  ovens 
need  careful  inspection,  especially  as  to  the  arrangement  of 
steam-pipes.  The  composition  or  mixture  which  produces  the 
patent  finish  on  the  leather  is  liable  to  ignition,  and  some  suppose 
to  spontaneous  ignition.  The  storage  of  lamp-black  should 
be  safely  arranged.  The  whole  process  is  one  favoring  quick 
ignition  and  intense  combustion.  The  class  has  not  been  profit- 
able, although  high  rates  of  premiums  have  been  charged.  They 
should  not  be  insured  without  the  consent  of  the  company  first 
obtained  on  full  report. 

Patent  Medicine  Manufactories.  Report  fully  as  to  processes, 
heat  used,  chemicals  stored,  etc.,  etc.  Some  of  them  have  all 
the  hazards  of  chemical  works. 

Patterns.  Wooden  patterns,  as  already  explained,  for  ma- 
chines no  longer  in  demand,  are  utterly  valueless.  Moreover, 


524 


MAM  F.UToKIKS  OK  SFK<  IAI,  HAZARDS. 


a  slight  injury  to  any  part  of  a  pattern  is  sometimes  claimed  to 
necessitate  an  entirely  new  pattern.  They  are  undesirable  and 
they  should  only  be  insured  as  a  certain  percentage  of  insurance 
on  foundry  or  other  risk  using  them. 

Pawnbrokers.  The  following  form  of  policy  should  be  used, 
full  rates  obtained,  and  moral  hazard  carefully  investigated: 

$  On  the  Right  and  Interest  of  the  assured  in  the  articles  and 

stork  of  merchandise,  (merchandise  in  fireproof  safes  excepted)  held  in  trust 
or  in  pledge  by  said  assured  as  pawnbrokers  including  interest  accrued 
thereon  as  allowed  by  law. 

$  On  the  Right  and  Interest  of  the  assured  in  the  articles  and 

stock  of  merchandise,  in  fireproof  safes  only,  held  in  trust  or  in  pledge  hy 
said  assured  as  pawnbrokers,  including  interest  accrued  thereon  as  allowed 
by  law 

$  On  merchandise,  the  property  solely  of  said  assured,  all 

contained  in  the  building  while  occupied  as   

situate  

This  insurance  does  not  protect  the  interest  of  parties  whose  goods  are 
pledged  to  the  assured;  nor  does  it  cover  the  excess  of  the  amount  loaned, 
with  its  lawful  accrued  interest,  upon  any  article  above  the  sound  value  of 
the  same  at  the  time  of  any  fire. 

Penitentiaries.  Prisons  and  Prison  Workshops.  These  are  un- 
desirable risks,  especially  on  goods  of  contractors  in  process  of 
manufacture.  Shops  are  frequently  burned  by  convicts  com- 
pelled to  work  in  them  against  their  will,  either  out  of  spite  or 
to  secure  excitement  which  would  favor  a  break  for  liberty. 
Consult  company  before  binding.    High  rates  are  necessary. 

Phosphate  Mills.  These  combine  the  hazards  of  acid  making 
with  Glover  and  Guy-Lussac  towers,  the  use  of  saltpetre  and 
its  storage,  the  danger  of  spontaneous  ignition  of  empty  saltpetre 
bags  in  sunlight,  the  danger  of  spontaneous  combustion  in  am- 
moniacal  products  of  blood,  etc.,  and  should  be  carefully  in- 
spected and  consent  of  company  obtained  before  insuring 

Photographers'  Stocks.  The  policy  should  exclude  negatives, 
dry  plates  and  films.  Insurance  on  these  is  usually  worth  five 
times  the  rate  on  the  general  stock,  whereas  negatives  are  fre- 
quently included  in  the  policy  covering  the  other  property.  It 
is  a  safe  general  rule  to  limit  the  loss  on  any  one  negative  to  a 
small  nominal  amount,  say,  ten  or  fifteen  cents,  and  some- 
times only  to  their  value  as  glass. 


HOW  TO  INSPEC  T  THEM. 


525 


Manufactories  of  dry  plates  and  films  are  exceeding  hazardous 
risks,  the  process  requiring  the  use  of  explosive  chemicals ;  and 
in  making  films  there  is  the  added  hazard  of  the  presence  on  the 
premises  of  large  quantities  of  celluloid,  which  in  case  of  fire  is 
likely  to  result  in  quick  and  total  destruction. 

Piano  Manufactories.    (See  Organ  and  Piano  Manufactories.) 

Picture  Frame  Manufactories.  These  are  undesirable  at  current 
rates.  Much  woodworking  is  done  and  the  stock  is  particularly 
susceptible  to  damage  from  water,  fire  and  smoke.  If  moulding 
is  made  on  premises,  same  rates  as  moulding  mills. 

Pie  Bakeries.    (See  Bakeries.) 

Pipe  Manufactories — Burned  Clay  Drain  and  Sewer  Pipe,  etc. 
These  have  all  the  hazards  of  potteries  and  are  usually  of  cheap 
frame  shed  construction,  and  are  undesirable  risks.  High  rates 
necessary. 

Pipe  Manufactories — Iron.  These  involve  the  hazards  of  rolling 
mills,  wrought  iron  works,  and  of  foundries  for  cast-iron.  In 
cast-iron  pipe  manufactories  there  is  added  to  the  usual  foundry 
hazard  that  of  making  hay  rope,  with  which  the  wooden  core  is 
wound  before  being  coated  with  clay,  and  this  necessitates  the 
carrying  of  large  quantities  of  hay  and  straw  and  storing  of  it ; 
the  process  should  be  entirely  separated  from  the  other  buildings. 
They  have  also  the  hazard  of  tarring  the  pipe,  which  should  be 
done  outside. 

Cold  drawn  tube  factories  carry  the  hazard  of  a  large  amount 
of  mineral  oil,  making  very  greasy  risks. 

Planing  Mills.  These  risks  might  be  greatly  improved.  They 
are,  as  at  present  constructed,  very  liable  to  fire,  and  being 
generally  filled  with  lumber,  shavings  and  other  combustible 
material — every  beam,  rafter  and  flat  surface,  where  dust  can 
find  a  resting  place,  being  usually  covered  with  a  fine,  combus- 
tible collection  of  material  which  ignites  like  tinder — they  gen- 
erally prove  a  total  loss.  The  dust  of  a  planing  mill,  like  that 
of  a  tannery  bark  mill,  will  carry  fire  long  after  it  is  supposed 
to  be  extinguished.  It  is  also  very  liable  to  ignite  from  a  heated 
journal  or  from  a  spark  of  electricity  from  belts,  and  its  collection 
in  the  quantities  usual  to  some  risks  should  be  prevented,  if 
possible,  by  avoiding  the  "shoulders"  formed  under  eaves,  and 


526  MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 

by  squared  timbers  which  afford  resting  places  for  it.  The  mill 
should  be  so  constructed  that  it  may  be  easily  kept  clean,  the 
walls  and  ceilings  being  regularly  swept  down. 

Planing  mills  are  frequently  set  on  fire  by  what  are  known  as 
"back  draughts"  at  the  furnaces,  which  are  hazards  inseparable 
from  the  use  of  shavings  for  fuel.  On  rainy  days,  when  the 
fuel  is  damp,  the  smoke  is  dense  and  heavier  than  the  atmos- 
phere, for  the  double  reason  that,  on  such  days,  the  atmosphere, 
itself,  is  lighter  than  in  fair  weather,  and  the  lumber  to  be 
planed  is  wet,  the  shavings  used  for  fuel  being,  therefore,  more 
or  less  damp  and  heavy.  The  draught  of  the  chimneys,  on  such 
days,  is  insufficient  to  carry  off  the  smoke  and  is  often  reversed, 
throwing  the  entire  contents  of  the  furnaces  into  the  fire  room. 
For  this  reason,  the  boilers  should  either  be  outside  of  the  mill 
and  in  a  room  not  communicating  with  it.  or — if  in  a  communi- 
cating, fireproof  room — so  set  that  the  line  of  furnace  feed 
may  be  either  in  an  opposite  direction  from  the  communi- 
cation with  tlw  mill,  or  at  right  angles  to  it,  and  not  directly 
in  line  with  the  door,  as,  in  the  latter  case,  the  fire  might  be 
emptied  into  the  mill  itself  (see  diagram  and  explanation,  pp. 
309-31 1. )  There  should,  properly,  be  no  communication  between 
the  mill  and  the  boiler  room,  wdiich  should  be  cut  off  by  a  good 
fire  wall.  The  shavings  vault,  or  fuel  room,  should,  if  in  or 
under  the  mill,  be  fireproof,  and  so  constructed,  with  iron 
coverings  to  all  openings,  that  it  can,  in  case  of  fire  in  it,  be 
closed  as  nearly  air-tight  as  possible.  A  steam  jet  in  it  would 
instantly  extinguish  fire.  Under  no  circumstances  ought  it  to 
have  a  flue  or  chimney  to  the  outer  air,  as  such  a  chimney  would 
supply  the  oxygen  and  draught  for  combustion  and  prevent  the 
possibility  of  smothering  a  fire.  The  door  between  the  shavings 
vault  or  fuel  room  and  the  boiler  room  should,  also,  open  at 
right  angles  to  the  furnace  feed.  A  mill  with  the  boilers 
inside  and  not  in  a  fireproof  room  should  be  regarded  as  unin- 
surable. 

Where  boilers  are  underground,  and  where  the  space  above 
them  is  used  for  piling  lumber  or  for  storing  shavings,  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  make  them  safe  and  best  to  decline  the 
mill. 

Where  shavings  are  conveyed  to  the  furnaces  by  chutes  or 
conveyors,  with  blowers,  the  conveyors  should  be  of  metal  and 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


52? 


never  of  wood,  and  they  should  empty  into  the  shavings  vault 
or  fuel  room  and  never  into  the  fire  room,  and  should  be  closed 
when  not  in  use. 

The  shavings  should  be  removed,  as  fast  as  made,  by  blowers, 
and  if  not  so  removed,  should  all  be  gathered  into  the  vault  at 
night,  and  the  doors  to  the  vault  securely  closed.  If  it  is  im- 
possible to  get  all  of  them  in,  they  should  be  swept  up  into  a 
pile,  the  surface  of  which  should  be  thoroughly  wetted  down 
with  a  hose.  Loose  shavings,  scattered  over  the  floor,  or  about 
the  entrances  of  the  mill,  are  more  dangerous  than  those  in  piles. 
In  case  of  a  fire,  it  will  seldom  be  found  that  a  large  pile  of 
shavings  is  entirely  burned  up.  As  a  rule,  the  surface  only  is 
burned  off  and  the  fire  goes  out  for  want  of  air.  The  rule  of 
the  mill,  therefore,  should  be  to  have  all  shavings  swept  up  at 
night,  and  the  hose  well  played  over  the  pile  and  around  the 
doorways,  to  prevent  danger  from  castaway  cigars  or  matches 
of  passers-by  or  from  the  intentional  acts  of  malicious  persons. 

Most  of  the  machinery  of  a  planing  mill — the  cylinders  of 
planing  machines,  tongueing  and  grooving  cutter-heads,  cir- 
cular saws,  etc.,  run  at  great  speed,  and  journals  of  the  best 
and  hardest  metal  are  frequently  melted  by  friction.  The 
boys  or  other  low-priced  hands  employed,  in  some  mills,  to  tend 
small  circular  saws,  seldom  think  of  examining  the  bearings  of 
mandrels  to  see  if  they  are  thoroughly  cool  before  going  home, 
and,  for  this  reason,  some  reliable  person  should  make  it  his 
duty  to  regularly  examine  all  journals  after  shutting  down  for 
the  day. 

The  watchman  should  commence  his  watch  as  soon  as  the 
hands  leave,  and  should  be  provided  with  a  closed  proper  lantern. 
(See  page  421.) 

A  planing  mill  might  be  so  constructed  as  to  be  insured  at 
four  per  cent,  with  more  profit  to  underwriters  than,  as  gener- 
ally constructed,  at  eight  per  cent. 

A  mill  built  upon  the  following  plan  might  be  regarded  as  a 
standard  risk : 

STANDARD  PLANING  MILL. 

Building.  Brick  or  stone  walls,  18  inches  thick,  not  over  5000 
square  feet  of  area  (say  50  x  100,)  one  story  high,  roof  of  metal 


528 


MANUFACTORIES  <>K  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


or  slate,  or  shingles  laid  in  mortar,  and  floor  of  earth,  brick  or 
stone  or  heavy  two-inch  (or  three-inch)  plank,  laid  upon  the 
earth,  without  any  intermediate  space.  Such  a  floor  is  both 
safe  and  economical.  The  main  building  should  be  used  for 
planing  and  sawing  purposes  only — the  dry -room,  boiler  room, 
sash  and  blind  making  and  painting  should  be  in  separate,  fire- 
proof divisions,  not  endangering  the  mill.  The  shavings  vault 
or  fuel  room  should  be  so  constructed  as  not  to  expose  the  mill, 
and  with  a  steam  jet  (valve  outside),  and  the  shavings  to  be  re- 
moved from  the  machines  to  the  fuel  room,  as  fast  as  made,  by 
blowers  and  metallic  conductors. 

Heating.    None  except  in  office. 

Lighting.    Mill  to  run  by  daylight  only. 

Boiler  Room.  To  be  fireproof  and  not  endangering  the  mill. 
Earth,  brick  or  stone  floor  and  fireproof  roof.  Fireman  to  have 
no  other  duties  than  attending  to  the  boiler,  and  the  boilers  to 
be  so  arranged  that  nothing  combustible  can  be  piled  or  de- 
posited over  them,  as  recommended  on  page  405. 

Boiler  Chimney.  Of  brick,  double  walls  (see  page  406),  to  be 
not  less  than  twenty  feet  higher  than  surrounding  roofs,  and 
with  a  spark  arrester. 

Fire  Appliances.  Force  pump  with  sufficient  2%-inch  hose 
attached  to  reach  all  parts  of  the  mill.  Steam  jets  to  each 
room,  including  the  shavings  vault  and  dry-room — valves  to  be 
outside  of  the  room  in  each  case.  Sprinklers  in  main  mill,  and 
casks  of  water  and  pails  to  each  room. 

Watchman  with  Watch-Clock  or  Watch  and  using  a  covered  light, 
burning  a  safe  oil. 

Regulations.  Mill  to  be  cleaned  up  every  night,  all  the  shav- 
ings to  be  gathered  into  the  fuel-room  and  the  mill  to  be  well 
wet  down,  especially  about  the  doorways.  The  mill  to  be  se- 
curely closed  so  that  nothing  can  be  thrown  in  from  outside. 

Charge  for  deficiencies  from  such  a  standard,  as  follows : 

Basis  Rate  $4.00 

If  Frame  Walls,  add   1.00 

Note. — This  charge  does  not  include  that  for  shingle  roof. 

Height.    Each  story  over  one  (if  over  two,  decline)  50 

Area.    Each  1000  square  feet,  or  fraction  thereof,  over 

standard  25 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


529 


Roof.    Composition  25  cents,  shingle  50 

Access  to  Roof.    If  over  one  story  and  no  scuttle  25 

Ladders.    None  10 

Floor.    Not  according  to  standard  50 

Heating.    Not  permitted  outside  office. 

Watchman.    If  none  50 

If  watchman  but  no  watch  clock  25 

Boiler  Room.  Fireproof,  but  communicating  with  mill 
by  door,  opening  in  an  opposite  direction  from  fur- 
nace feed  or  at  right  angles  to  it — with  iron  door.  .50 

If  without  iron  door   1.00 

If  communicating  by  door  opening  in  direct  line  of 

furnace  feed,  with  iron  door   1.00 

If  without  iron  door — uninsurable. 
Communicating  with  fuel  room  by  door  opening  at 
right  angles  to  furnace  feed  or  in  an  opposite 

direction  from  it — if  with  iron  door  25 

If  without  iron  door  50 

Communicating  with  fuel  room  by  door  opening  in  direct 

line  of  furnace  feed — if  with  iron  door  50 

If  without  iron  door   1.00 

Shavings  or  Fuel  Room.  According  to  standard — of 
brick,  with  iron  covers  to  all  openings,  whether  for  the 
admission  or  removal  of  shavings — if  not  so  constructed, 
to  be  outside  of  mill,  and  where  its  burning  would  not 

endanger  the  mill.    If  without  steam  jet  10 

Blowers.    If  none  to  remove  shavings  to  fuel  room  25 

Boiler  Chimney.    Of  iron,  through  roof  ,  1.00 

If  metal  stack  on  brick  or  stone  base  rising  at  least  5 

feet  above  boiler  house  roof,  not  less  than  50 

No  spark  arrester  25 

Dry-Room.  To  be  cut  off  and  according  to  standard  rec- 
ommended on  page  409. 

Force  Pump  and  2%  Inch  Hose.    If  without,  add  25 

Casks  and  Pails.     Water  salted — in  every  room.  If 

without    50* 

Sprinklers.    None  25 

Steam  Jet.    In  main  mill,  shavings  vault,  dry-room;  if 


*This  charge  intended  to  secure  so  important  and  inexpensive  a  precaution. 


530 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


none,  charge  for  each  room 
Sash  and  Blind  Making  


.10 

1.00 


Night- Work.    Two-tenths  (r25)  of  rate  per  hour  of  night-work. 

In  view  of  the  combustible  nature  of  the  materials  and  dust 
of  planing  mills,  it  is  a  serious  question  as  to  whether  any 
obtainable  rate  is  adequate  for  night  work.  Not  less  than 
double  rates  should  be  charged  for  mills  running  at  night,  and 
short  rates  for  short  periods  Mills  running  only  a  portion  of 
the  evening  should  pay  at  the  rate  of  two-tenths  (x%  or  |)  of  the 
rate  for  each  hour  of  night-work ,  for  example,  a  mill  rated  at 
five  per  cent,  running  two  hours  every  night,  should  pay  T4„  of 
5  per  cent,  extra,  and,  therefore,  if  desiring  the  privilege  for  a 
month,  should  pay  short  rates  of  two  per  cent. — or  40  cents  per 
$100  extra. 

The  rate  should  be  higher,  in  proportion,  for  running  part  of 
the  night  than  for  running  the  whole,  as  the  presence  of  work- 
men, throughout  the  night,  might  secure  the  discovery  and 
extinction  of  fire,  whereas,  in  the  case  of  night- work  for  a  few 
hours  only,  the  mill  would  be  left,  after  a  long  day's  work,  with 
heated  journals  and  in  the  worst  possible  condition  for  fire. 

Covered  lights  should  be  a  stipulation  in  the  policy. 

If  by  Water  Power  deduct  one-fifth. 

Exposure.    Charge  according  to  hazard. 

While  substantial  brick  or  stone  mills  are  more  desirable,  on 
many  accounts,  than  frame  structures,  it  should  be  remembered 
that  wooden  buildings  burn  off  more  rapidly  and  with  less 
damage  to  substantial  contents,  such  as  planing  machines, 
engines,  boilers,  pumps,  etc.,  and  too  great  a  difference  in  rate 
should  not  be  made  in  favor  of  brick  mills  for  this  reason. 
Refer  applications  for  insurance  of  planing  mills  to  the 
company,  in  all  cases. 

Plaster  Mills.  Refer  to  company  with  full  particulars  as  to 
arrangement  of  furnaces  for  heating  the  calcining  kettles  and 
the  handling  of  the  freshly  calcined  calx  or  finished  plaster,  and 
the  other  hazards  come  in  contact  with.  Buildings  are  usually 
cheap  and  boilers  and  chimneys  need  careful  inspection. 

Playing  Card  Manufactories.  (See  Card  (Playing)  Manufac- 
tories, page  438.) 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


531 


Plow  Manufactories.  Small  hand-power  shops  usually  rate 
about  like  wheelwrights.  Steam  shops;  report  as  to  boiler 
room,  dry-room,  painting,  woodworking,  etc.,  etc. 

Poorhouses.    (See  Almshouses,  page  -126. ) 

Pork  Houses.  Packing  Houses.  Etc.  Refer  to  company,  in  ad- 
vance of  the  season,  for  approval,  after  which  policies  may  be 
written  by  the  agent.  In  inspecting  risks  of  this  class  the  fol- 
lowing hazards,  together  with  the  incidental  ones  often  found 
in  large  establishments,  should  be  investigated :  Rendering  and 
lard  tanks,  oleo  kettles,  bone  boiling,  tankage  drying,  dry-rooms 
for  bones,  bladders,  press-cloths,  hair,  etc.,  smoking,  branding, 
sulphur  burning,  storage  of  saltpetre  and  lime,  coopering,  re- 
pairing and  the  general  grease  hazard. 

Rendering  is  usually  done  in  large  vertical  iron  tanks,  gen- 
erally steam  heated.  This  method  is  much  safer  than  direct 
heat  kettles,  but  grease,  under  a  comparatively  low  pressure, 
generates  a  very  explosive  gas,  readily  ignited  by  contact  with 
flame.  For  this  reason,  no  lights  should  be  permitted  in  the 
lard  room,  and  proper  ventilation  should  be  provided  to  permit 
the  escape  of  such  gases.  In  addition  to  this  there  is  the  steam 
pipe  ignition  hazard,  and  the  clearance  of  pipes  and  tanks  from 
wood  should  be  looked  into. 

If  direct  heat  kettles  are  used,  they  should  be  well  set  in 
masonry,  the  tops  of  kettles  being  one  inch  higher  than  the 
surrounding  brick-work,  to  prevent  the  piling  up  of  fat  beyond 
the  capacity  of  the  kettles.  The  wall  should  be  covered  with 
an  iron  plate  having  a  guard  around  it  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
grease,  and  metal  extinguishers  should  be  suspended  over  the 
kettles,  to  be  let  down  in  case  of  fire.  Tight-fitting  covers  are 
better  extinguishers  for  burning  grease  than  water.  No  wood- 
work should  be  exposed  in  the  lard  room,  and  the  ceilings  should 
be,  at  least,  ten  feet  above  tops  of  kettles,  the  floor  being  of 
earth,  brick,  concrete  or  stone. 

Fires  should  be  carefully  extinguished  under  all  the  kettles, 
at  night,  to  prevent  their  flaming  up  again,  during  the  night, 
and  setting  fire  to  the  grease.  Carbonic  acid  gas  fire  extinguish- 
ers are  valuable  for  extinguishing  burning  grease  and  should 
be  provided. 


532 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


Where  rendering  is  done  by  kettles,  the  Jives  to  the  furnaces 
should  be  carefully  built,  the  walls  being,  at  least,  12  inches 
thick  built  from  the  ground.    (See  page  40(1.) 

Smoking.  This  should  be  entirely  outside  of  main  building 
or  cut  off  by  a  fire  wall,  rising  through  and  above  roof,  with 
iron  doors,  which  may  be  improved  by  having  "eyesights"  or 
apertures  in  them,  to  enable  the  man  in  charge,  or  smoker,  to 
examine  the  interior,  without  opening  the  door  and  admitting 
air.  Nozzle  holes,  also,  for  the  use  of  hose  or,  better  still,  for 
the  use  of  carbonic  acid  gas  extinguishers,  in  case  of  fire,  should 
be  provided. 

At  a  distance  of  not  less  than  nine  feet  above  the  fires,  and 
three  feet  below  the  meat,  a  perforated  iron  floor  should  be 
provided,  which  will  serve  the  double  purpose  of  preventing 
/lie  falling  of  meat  on  the  fires  and  of  distributing  the  as- 
rending  smoke  so  that  the  meat  in  all  parts  of  the  room  will  be 
reached.  The  fires  should  be  so  protected  .that  the  drippings  of 
meat  cannot  fall  on  them.  Ventilation  must  be  provided  to 
prevent  the  accumulation  of  explosive  gases  evolved  in  smoke 
houses.  It  is  well  known  to  intelligent  and  experienced  pork 
packers,  that  meat  is  better  cured  by  a  current  of  smoke  than 
by  confined  smoke,  and  that  no  saving  is  secured  by  the 
absence  of  proper  ventilation. 

Numerous  fires  have  occurred  from  the  gases  formed  in 
smoke-houses.  A  notable  instance  was  the  explosion  in  the 
smoke-house  of  Muldoon  &  Sharp,  in  St.  Louis.  A  fire  was 
discovered  near  the  centre  of  the  meat,  but  it  was  merely 
smoking  or  smoldering.  Water  was  introduced  and  an  explo- 
sion of  the  gases  followed — windows  and  brick- work  being 
shattered.  "'Simultaneously  with  the  report  (probably  from 
the  admission  of  air)  the  flames  arose  in  immense  volumes, 
where  before  had  been  only  dense,  black  smoke." 

The  origin  of  this  fire  was  attributed  to  the  drippings  from 
lio ins  upon  the  fires. 

As  I  write,  news  comes  of  the  destruction  (November 
1902)  of  the  large  Armour  packing  plant  at  Sioux  City,  Iowa, 
and  reports  of  tremendous  explosions,  which  shattered  build- 
ings, due,  probably,  to  gas  explosions,  although  the  explosions 
of  the  ammonia  supply  tanks  are  mentioned  specifically  as 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


533 


causing  serious  damage,  and  enforcing  the  importance  of 
having  such  supply  tanks  safely  located. 

The  "singeing"  process  of  removing  the  hair  from  hogs  is 
frequently  unsafe.  When  it  is  a  feature  of  the  risk,  it  should, 
in  all  cases,  be  done  outside — the  straw  used  not  being  kept 
where  it  would  expose  the  building. 

Inspectors  should  notice  whether  safe  lights  are  used.  Cut- 
ing  and  packing  is  often  done  at  night  and  hands  are  frequently 
careless.  Decline  any  risks  where  workmen  are  permitted  to 
use,  for  candlesticks,  such  substitutes  as  pieces  of  meat  or  wood, 
empty  bottles  or  iron  nuts. 

Slaughtering.  This  should  be  so  managed  as  not  to  be  a 
nuisance  to  those  owning  property  in  the  vicinity. 

In  insuring  pork  houses,  it  is  probably  unnecessary  to  remind 
agents  that  they  should  not  write  annual  policies,  at  the  current 
rates,  for  the  full  line  of  the  company,  upon  the  building  or  stock, 
tbus  cutting  the  company  off  from  the  more  profitable  short- 
rate  business  on  stock. 

When  necessary  to  write  an  annual  policy  for  a  small  amount, 
it  should  expressly  prohibit  all  of  the  privileges  of  slaugh- 
tering, rendering  and  smoking,  in  order  to  insure  their  being 
paid  for,  when  the  season  commences.  It  is  necessary  to  pro- 
hibit them  expressly,  because  a  policy  on  a  building  privileged 
to  be  occupied  as  a  "pork  house,"  might  be  claimed  to  permit, 
inferentially,  the  processes  incidental  to  a  "pork  house."  A113' 
policy,  therefore,  not  expressly  granting  the  privileges,  for  the 
usual  premium  charge,  should  expressly  prohibit  them,  as 
follows:  "smoking,  rendering  and  slaughtering  not  per- 
mitted under  this  policy.'"' 

When  privileges  are  granted,  the  following  are  the  rules  of 
the  National  Board : 

"Policies,  in  all  cases,  to  limit  the  time  of  privileges  in  writing,  or  when 
not  granted,  written  stipulation  to  that  effect  to  be  made. 

"All  privileges  granted  must  define  the  period  for  which  such  privileges  are 
granted,  by  an  explicit  provision,  giving  beginning  and  expiration  of  the 
period,  in  form  substantially  as  follows; 

"In  consideration  of  $  privilege  is  granted  for  days 

 privileges  (here  insert  slaughtering,  rendering  or  smoking, 

as  the  case  may  be,)  beginning  on  the  day  of  190. . 

and  ending  on  the  day  of  190.  .at  noon." 


534  MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


Potteries.  Report  fully  as  to  drying  ovens,  kilns,  storage  of 
wood,  etc.  They  have  been  unprofitable  as  a  class,  and  the 
company  will  require  full  advices.  The  packing-room  hazard 
is  a  serious  one,  necessitating  the  use  of  large  quantities  of  hay 
and  straw,  and  should  be  separated  from  the  other  buildings. 
There  is  also  a  serious  hazard  of  explosion  when  the  kiln  is  open : 
all  kiln  openings  should  be  hooded. 

Printeries.    (See  Bleacheries,  page  432.) 

Printing  Offices.  Inspect  carefully  for  carelessness  as  to  waste 
paper,  oily  rags,  use  of  benzine  for  cleaning  type,  &c.  News- 
paper offices  have  a  great  deal  of  night-work,  when  tired  and 
sleepy  men  are  apt  to  leave  the  building  at  a  late  hour  with 
dangerous  conditions  as  to  hot  journals,  discarded  cigar  and 
cigarette  stubs,  and  fires  are  very  likely  to  occur.  The  hazards 
of  electrotyping  and  stereotyping,  carrying  with  them  the  fur- 
nace hazard,  and  the  use  of  hot  lead  in  large  quantities,  are 
common  to  newspaper  printing  offices,  and  should  be  in  rooms 
having  fireproof  floors,  and  the  furnaces  should  be  carefully 
inspected.  Binderies  are  often  connected,  and  the  company 
should  be  advised  of  the  extent  of  this  hazard. 

Prisons.    (See  Penitentiaries.) 
Public  Halls.    (See  Halls,  page  475.  | 

Pulp  Manufactories.     The  grinding  process  is  usually  a  wet 

process  and  supposed  not  to  be  dangerous,  but  explosions  have 
occurred  in  factories  using  the  chemical  process,  which  would 
indicate  that  chemicals  which  cause  them  may  be  used  in  the 
digesters.  One  such  happened  in  August,  1902,  causing  the 
loss  of  seventeen  lives  and  great  damage  to  property.  Just 
what  caused  the  explosion  has  not  been  ascertained.  The 
digesters  are  filled  with  steam  under  high  pressure,  and  it  is 
possible  the  explosion  was  due  to  steam. 

In  chemical  pulp  factories  the  furnaces  for  reclaiming  the 
chemicals  should  be  separated  from  the  other  buildings.  The 
cutting  of  the  wood  into  chips  results  in  an  accumulation  of 
waste  wood  in  dangerous  condition  for  ignition,  that  part  of  the 
wood  not  used  for  pulp  being  usually  used  for  fuel  under  the 
boilers.  In  steam  power  plants  it  makes  the  boiler  hazard  just 
as  bad  in  such  cases  as  the  same  hazard  in  a  woodworker,  of 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


535 


back  draft,  &c. ;  so  that  in  most  cases,  if  not  all,  the  boiler 
should  be  outside  and  cut  off  from  the  other  buildings. 

Decline  chemical  and  sulphite  mills  unless  furnaces  are  out- 
side where  they  would  not  burn  the  main  buildings. 

Quartz  and  Stamp  Mills.  These  do  not  suggest  serious  physical 
hazards  at  first  sight,  but  they  have  not  been  profitable.  Pos- 
sibly sufficient  moral  hazard  exists  in  the  class  as  to  unprofit- 
ableness of  particular  mills  to  explain  the  mortality.  The 
company  would  require  full  advice  before  authorizing  lines,  and 
full  rates. 

Quilt  Manufactories — Comforters,  Etc.  Using  cotton  battings. 
These  are  rarely  insurable;  cheap  work  and  great  physical 
hazard.    Obtain  consent  of  company  before  binding. 

Rags.  Rags  in  iron  tied  bags,  with  no  assorting,  may  be 
insured  at  full  rates.  Where  assorting  is  done  the  danger  of 
spontaneous  combustion  is  too  great  and  so  much  care  is  nec- 
essary that  it  is  best  to  let  the  rag-man  insure  himself.  Few 
companies  insure  rag  risks.    Consult  company  before  binding. 

Railroad  Property.  This  has  been  unprofitable  as  a  class,  and 
when  rates  are  raised  to  the  point  of  adequacy  the  railroad  men 
immediately  insure  themselves  with  the  exception  of  such  par- 
ticular structures,  bridges,  machine  shops,  or  otherwise,  as  to 
which  they  have  apprehension  or  the  value  of  which  exceeds  an 
average  line. 

Rectifying  Establishments.  The  cold  process  has  little  physical 
hazard  beyond  the  possible  ignition  of  large  bodies  of  liquor 
exposed  to  vapor  ignition.  The  hot  process  is  that  of  a  distillery 
and  should  pay  same  rates. 

Reduction  Works.    (See  Quartz  Mills.) 

Refineries.  Oil.    (See  Oil  Refineries.) 

Reform  Schools.    (See  Houses  of  Refuge,  page  511.) 

Remote  Risks.  Obtain  the  consent  of  the  company  before 
binding,  giving  full  particulars.  A  remote  risk  of  any  kind  is 
likely  to  be  undesirable ;  manufacturing  establishments,  because 
they  are  too  far  away  from  transportation  facilities  to  be  profit- 
ably occupied;  hotels,  because  they  are  likely  to  be  used  for 
unlawful  purposes,  road  houses,  etc. ;  dwellings,  because  no  one 
wants  them  after  those  who  build  them  get  through  with  them 


536 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


— and  those  who  build  them  soon  find  they  are  too  far  away 
from  neighbors  to  be  pleasant.  Such  property  is  usually  not 
salable  and  is  likely  to  be  neglected.  The  agent  must  be  care- 
ful to  confine  himself  to  the  territory  named  in  his  commission; 
his  company  needs  not  merely  initial  knowledge  of  a  risk,  but 
frequent  supervision  of  it. 

Rice  Wills.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  there  is  little 
physical  hazard  apparent  about  a  rice  mill  outside  of  the  boiler 
room,  they  have  not  proved  profitable  risks  even  at  what  seemed 
to  be  full  rates. 

Road  Houses  and  Outskirt  Saloons.  The  shady  character  of  the 
majority  of  these  houses  makes  the  class  undesirable.  Decline 
them. 

Rolling  Mills.  Refer  to  company.  Modern  mills  are  almost 
fireproof  construction,  but  there  is  a  large  class  of  cheap  frame 
mills  with  low  wooden  roofs  which  would  not  pay  at  obtainable 
rates.    If  wooden  or  shingle  roof  it  is  best  to  decline. 

Roofing  Material  Manufactories.  Decline.  They  are  usually 
cheap  structures  with  exceedingly  dangerous  materials  liable 
to  running  fires  of  pitch,  asphalt,  &e. 

Rope  Walks.  These  require  full  rates.  The  class  has  not  been 
profitable. 

Rubber  Works.    (See  India  Rubber  Manufactories,  page  511.) 

Safe  Manufactories.  Examine  forging,  japanning,  varnishing, 
painting,  etc.,  etc.,  and  report  fully. 

Salt  Blocks  or  Works.  These  are  usually  cheap  wooden  struc- 
tures, particularly  liable  to  take  fire  easily  in  summer,  in  dry 
seasons,  and  are  often  connected  with  sawmills  or  other  expos- 
ures. The  old-fashioned  block  is  fast  disappearing,  because  the 
more  modern  method  of  evaporating  by  steam  is  now  used. 
Arrangement  of  boilers  and  steam-pipes  is  frequently  dangerous, 
and  the  size  of  the  structure  makes  a  high  rate  necessary. 

Sanitariums.  Most  of  these  have  all  the  hazards  of  season 
hotels,  with  a  possible  moral  hazard  involved  in  case  of  loss  of 
reputation  for  curative  purposes.  Many  of  them  involve  the 
hazards  of  insane  asylums,  especially  those  for  the  cure  of  the 
liquor  habit.  The  company  will  want  full  advice  on  all  these 
points.  Sanitariums  should  be  constructed  on  the  lines  recom- 
mended for  Hotels,  which  see  page  479. 


How  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


531 


Sash  and  Blind  Manufactories.  (See  Blind  Manufactories,  page 
432.) 

Saw  Factories.  Report  fully  as  to  metal  working,  and  wood- 
working of  handles,  etc.  The  stock  is  a  damageable  one  by 
water  as  well  as  by  heat. 

Saw  Mills.  A  serious  moral  hazard  attaches  to  all  mills  which 
have  exhausted  the  timber  convenient  to  them,  if  the  cost  of 
procuring  logs  is  such  as  to  prevent  their  competing  successfully 
with  mills  more  favorably  located.  A  moral  hazard  is,  some- 
times, connected  with  water-power  mills,  also,  when  the  supply 
of  water  is  not  sufficient  to  keep  them  in  constant  operation. 
Examine  carefully,  all  boiler  rooms,  to  see  that  combustible 
material  is  not  stored  over  the  boilers,  and  inquire  as  to  journals 
under  floors.  They  are  objectionable  as  they  are  liable  to  be 
covered  up  and  neglected. 

Examine  as  to  storage  of  lubricating  oils,  and  see  page  405 
for  an  instance  where  oil  was  stored  over  the  steam-boilers. 

Decline  all  applications  for  insurance  on  dilapidated,  un- 
painted  mills,  with  old  machinery  and  worn-out  boilers.  There 
are  many  such.  Roof  sprinklers  would  be  desirable  fire  ap- 
pliances for  saw  mills.  (See  page  422.)  A  roof -sprinkler  saved 
a  large  mill  at  Williamsport,  Pa.,  the  fire  burning  lumber  near 
the  mill  without  igniting  it. 

In  this  case  the  sprinkler- pipe  ran  along  the  ridge  of  the  roof 
and  under  the  eares,  on  each  side,  and  kept  the  roof  and  sides 
of  the  mill  thoroughly  wet. 

Where  the  boiler-house  of  a  saw  mill  is  built  of  brick  or  stone, 
with  iron  roof  or  girders,  neither  adjoining  nor  communicating 
with  mill  building,  no  charge  need  be  made  for  metal  stack. 

Schoolhouses.  (See  Academies,  page  423.)  The  tendency  to 
total  losses  on  this  class  has  been  greatly  increased  of  late  years, 
by  systems  of  ventilation  for  forcing  fresh  air  throughout  the 
building,  such  as  the  Sneed  Process.  Of  course,  fire  follows 
the  hollow  air  ducts  and  the  building  becomes  practically  a  pair 
of  lungs  for  breathing  flame.  A  valuable  schoolhouse  was 
lately  burned  in  Indiana  in  this  way  and  was  a  total  loss  to  the 
insurance  companies.  A  higher  rate  should  be  charged  for  this 
system  of  ventilation — at  least  25  cents  extra  per  hundred  dollars. 


538  MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 

Segar  Manufactories.    (See  Cigar  Manufactories,  page  442.) 
Seeds  and  Seed  Warehouses.  Decline. 

Shirt.  Collar  and  Cuff  Manufactories.  Confine  lines  to  buildings. 
Machinery  and  stocks  have  been  unprofitable  risks.  Report 
fully  as  to  laundry  hazard. 

Shoddy  Mills.  It  is  safe  to  decline  these;  few  companies  write 
them ;  the  physical  hazard  is  too  great  for  obtainable  rates,  and 
a  moral  hazard  is  also  frequently  involved.  They  have  the  haz- 
ards of  picking,  with  a  low  grade  of  stock  and  a  large  amount 
of  waste  in  the  card  room.  The  picking  hazard  should  be  in  a 
fireproof  apartment  where  it  could  not  possibly  burn  the  mill. 

Shoe  Manufactories.  These  have  not  been  profitable  risks  even 
in  New  England,  where  probably  the  industry  is  more  extensive 
than  in  any  other  section  of  the  country,  a  fact  which  ought  to 
have  led  to  the  detection  of  causes  of  fires  and  the  best  means 
of  preventing  them.  The  use  of  rubber  cement  has  been  largely 
controlled  as  a  fire  hazard  but  care  still  needs  to  be  observed. 
The  use  of  lamp-black  may  result  in  fires  from  spontaneous 
combustion  if  mixed  with  oil,  and  many  persons  are  ignorant  of 
this  fact.  The  scrapings  of  cutting  boards  and  benches  should 
be  carefully  removed  from  the  building  as  they  are  also  liable 
to  spontaneous  ignition.  Examine  carefully  as  to  the  heating 
of  paste,  wax  cups  and  kit  lamps,  drying  of  pasted  stock,  dis- 
position of  refuse  from  buffs,  brushes,  sandpapering  machines, 
edge-trimmers,  etc.,  swinging  uncovered  gas  jets,  storage  and 
use  of  benzine,  turpentine,  etc.  Cleanliness  should  be  observed 
everywhere. 

Shot  Towers.  Decline.  They  are  liable  to  fires  and  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  extinguish  them  on  account  of  their  great  height 
where  they  are  gravity  towers. 

Shuttle  Manufactories.    (See  Bobbin  Manufactories.) 

Silk  Mills.  The  physical  hazard  of  this  class  seems  to  be  a 
clean  one  but  rates  have  been  too  low  and  the  premiums  have 
not  equalled  the  losses  and  expenses.  Fires  spread  rapidly  and 
losses  are  usually  total.  The  loading  of  certain  kinds  of  silks 
and  cordonnet  with  oil  has  been  disastrous.  Stocks  of  this  kind 
are  particularly  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion.  They  should 
be  held  to  the  same  rules  of  construction,  management,  fire 
appliances,  etc.,  etc.,  as  cotton  and  woolen  mills. 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


539 


Skating  Rinks.  Decline. 

Slaughter  Houses.  When  rendering  and  the  use  of  fire  heat 
are  not  connected  the  physical  hazard  is  not  serious  hut  they  are 
almost  invariably  nuisances  to  all  neighbors  and  the  class  has 
been  unprofitable.  They  should  not  be  written  in  any  case 
without  the  consent  of  the  company  first  obtained  on  full  report. 
In  connection  with  pork  houses  they  may  be  taken  as  part  of 
the  pork  house  risk. 

Smelters.    (See  Quartz  Mills,  page  535.) 

Smoke  Houses.    (See  Pork  Houses,  page  532.) 

Soap  and  Candle  Factories.  These  are  sometimes  nuisances 
where  rendering  is  done  and  involve  serious  physical  hazards. 
We  should  not  be  bound  on  them  without  consent  of  company 
first  obtained.  It  is  not  likely  that  lines  will  be  accepted,  even 
at  full  rates,  if  rendering  is  done. 

Spice  Mills.  These  are  undesirable.  The  phj'sical  hazard  of 
grinding  is  considerable  and  the  susceptibilty  of  the  stock  to 
damage  by  water  or  smoke  makes  ordinary  rates  inadequate. 
Moreover,  a  fire  in  a  spice  mill  results  in  a  condition  of  atmos- 
phere which  prevents  firemen  from  entering  the  building,  and 
fires  are  very  apt  to  get  beyond  control  for  this  reason  alone. 

Spool  Manufactories.    Advise  as  to  woodworking  hazards. 

Sponging  and  Refinishing  Works.  Advise  fully  as  to  use  of  heat 
and  processes.  They  are  not  bad  risks  at  fair  rates.  Most  of 
the  stock  is  cloth  in  rolls. 

Stables — Boarding,  Car.  Express,  Training,  etc.,  etc.  (See 
Livery  Stables  for  physical  hazards.)  Avoid  insurance  on 
animals  of  fancy  values,  stallions,  racers,  etc.  We  cannot 
afford  to  pay  large  amounts,  as  already  explained,  from  the 
suffocation  of  a  single  pair  of  lungs  by  smoke  from  a  little 
burning  straw  or  hay. 

Stallions.  Decline.  A  slight  injury  to  these  animals  some- 
times reduces  their  value  95  and  no  obtainable  rate  will  pay 
for  the  risk. 

Stamp  and  Quartz  Mills.  The  hazard  most  to  be  feared  in  this 
class  of  risks,  probably,  is  the  moral  hazard  as  to  the  profitable- 
ness of  the  mill,  permanence  of  supply  of  ore,  etc.,  and  the  con- 
venience for  transportation  facilities  both  ways.    The  physical 


540 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


hazards  are  simply  those  of  steam  boilers  and  machinery,  with 
an  added  hazard  of  the  liability  to  friction  in  journals  and, 
therefore,  overheated  journals  from  the  fine  powder,  which  is 
apt  to  ruin  them  and  which  is  a  result  of  the  process.  They 
should  rate  high,  and  the  company  should  not  be  bound,  under 
any  circumstances,  without  its  consent  first  obtained  on  full 
advice;  as  it  probably  has  information  with  regard  to  each 
hazard  in  its  office.     (See  (Quartz  Mills.) 

Starch  Manufactories.  These  risks  have  been  unprofitable  to 
companies.  The  drying  of  starch  is  a  dangerous  process  and 
should  be  completely  isolated.  Fires  in  the  dry  rooms  are 
peculiarly  rapid  and  thorough  inspection  should  be  made.  In 
fact,  we  regard  the  hazards  of  a  drying  kiln  as  not  ratable  and 
the  contents  as  uninsurable.  They  should  be  entirely  outside 
of  the  main  structure.  Dust  explosions  are  frequent.  The 
flour  or  grinding  mill  hazard  should  be  examined.  If  the  dry 
kilns  are  completely  outside  of  the  factory  (to  communicate  even 
with  iron  doors  is  objectionable)  submit  full  survey  to  company. 
Potato  starch  factories  are  written  by  few  companies  and 
then  only  at  very  high  rates. 

State  Houses.    Same  as  Court  Houses,  (see  page  455.) 

Stave  and  Heading  Manufactories.  (See  Barrel  Factories,  page 
430.) 

Steamboats.  These  should  be  referred  to  company.  Avoid 
old  boats  and  boats  running  at  a  loss  to  owners  or  on  a  line 
where  destructive  competition  exists  or  boats  are  laid  up  in 
consequence  of  competition.  They  are  sometimes  burned  by 
rival  interests.  In  applying  to  the  company  for  insurance  on 
steamboats  advise  as  to  age,  value,  ownership,  fuel  burned, 
general  character  of  freight  carried,  and  route  (which  latter 
should  be  limited  in  the  policy,)  and  especially  whether  a  paying 
investment  to  owners.  The  Marine  ratings  are  important,  and 
no  boats  rating  lower  than  A  llA  should  be  taken.  Where 
boats  are  laid  up  during  the  winter  the  location  of  winter  moor- 
ing should  be  ascertained  and  the  company  advised.  It  quite 
frequently  happens  that  all  the  boats  of  a  line  are  moored  for 
the  winter  not  only  in  dangerous  proximity  to  woodworking  and 
other  special  hazards  on  the  water  front,  but  so  near  to  each 
other  that  they  would  inevitably  he  destroyed  by  a  single  fire 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


541 


and  the  Company  might  have  as  many  lines  involved  as  there 
are  boats.  In  considering  the  possibility  of  assistance  from  fire- 
boats,  harbor  tugs,  etc.,  the  probabilities  of  inaccessibility  in 
winter  owing  to  ice  must  be  taken  into  careful  consideration. 
The  Company  would  want  advice  as  to  all  of  these  facts  and  as 
to  the  number  of  watchmen  employed,  etc.,  etc.  Steam  tugs 
and  steam  dredges  have  been  particularly  unprofitable.  Ex- 
cursion boats  are  worth  50  fc  more  than  regular  trip  boats. 

Stereotypers.    (See  Electrotypers,  page  461.) 

Stock  Yards.  Cattle  Pens,  Etc.  These  should  be  examined 
carefully  as  to  storage  of  hay  and  straw,  carefulness  of  employes 
as  to  matches,  lanterns,  etc.,  and  proximity  to  special  hazards. 
The  Company  would  require  full  advice  before  authorizing  lines. 

Stove  Foundries.    (See  Foundries,  page  471.) 

Straw  Board  Mills.    (See  Paper  Mills,  page  522.) 

Straw  Goods  Manufactories.  Refer  to  Company  with  full  par- 
ticulars as  to  bleaching,  drying,  etc.  These  hazards  should  be 
entirely  separated  from  danger  to  the  main  values. 

Sugar  Refineries.  These  risks  are  seldom  found  outside  of 
large  cities,  where  they  are  controlled  by  large  corporations. 
The  buildings  are  unusually  high  and  a  fire  once  started  in  them 
is  likely  to  prove  total.  They  are  liable  to  spontaneous  com- 
bustion in  the  char  house  and  should  be  carefully  inspected  as 
to  boiling  and  other  heat  processes.  They  are  generally,  how- 
ever, carefully  managed.  It  is  seldom  that  they  should  rate 
less  than  2 

Sugar  Houses  on  Plantations.  Advise  fully  as  to  the  heat 
hazard,  especially  as  to  the  fuel  used  and  the  care  of  manage- 
ment. They  have  not  been  profitable  as  a  class.  The  method 
of  handling  cane,  however,  is  undergoing  a  change.  Large 
plants  for  this  purpose  are  located  at  central  points  and  buy 
their  cane  from  the  planters,  so  that  many  of  the  old-fashioned 
sugar  houses  are  out  of  use.  They  should  be  reported  on  as  to 
this  condition. 

Tack  Manufactories.  These  have  been  very  unprofitable.  It 
would  naturally  be  supposed  that  tacks  being  incombustible  are 
not  liable  to  damage.  On  the  contrary  they  will  rust  from 
water  thrown,  and  heavy  claims  result,  especially  from  un- 


542  MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


scrupulous  owners;  and  after  severe  heat  the  entire  contents  of 
a  box  of  tacks  will  be  found  almost  inseparable,  a  solid  mass  of 
worthless  iron. 

Tanneries  require  the  most  intelligent  examination  and  super- 
vision to  escape  the  moral  hazard  attaching  to  many  risks. 
Physically,  they  are  much  improved  by  the  complete  isolation 
of  the  bark  mill  and  boiler  room,  and  by  the  stacking  of  bark 
so  that  it  will  not  expose  the  tannery  or  be  exposed  to  locomotive 
or  other  sparks.  Bark-dust  is  very  retentive  of  fire ;  in  fact,  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  extinguish  a  fire  in  it  when  once  kindled, 
and  after  a  fire  is  supposed  to  be  out  it  may  conceal  and  carry 
sparks  for  hours.  No  lights,  fires,  or  smoking  should  be  per- 
mitted, and  where  spent  bark  is  used  for  fuel,  under  the  boilers, 
the  boiler-room,  as  before  stated,  should  not  expose  the  tannery. 
(See  Bark  Mills,  page  429.)  Care  should  be  taken  to  arrange 
the  conveyers  of  bark  to  the  boiler  rooms  so  that  they  may  not 
prove  conveyers  of  flame,  in  case  of  fire.  The  boiler  chimney 
should  be  of  brick,  as  recommended  on  page  406,  and  should  be 
provided  with  a  spark  arrester.  Care  should,  also,  be  observed 
in  the  storage  of  lime.  The  loosening  of  wool  from  skins  is 
sometimes  dangerously  managed.  A  serious  moral  hazard 
sometimes  results  when  the  supply  of  bark  has  been  exhausted, 
necessitating  its  transportation,  at  great  expense,  from  a  dis- 
tance. "A.  1"  ownership,  and  location  in  cities  or  large  villages, 
usually  insisted  upon.  Refer  all  applications  for  insuring 
tanneries  to  the  Company. 

Telephone  Offices,  Central  Stations.  These  must  not  be  insured 
without  consent  of  Company  first  obtained,  submitting  the 
proposed  form.  The  switchboards  especially  are  very  suscep- 
tible to  damage  and  are  often  of  large  value;  that  of  the 
telephone  exchange  in  New  York,  it  is  said  cost  half  a  million 
dollars. 

Water  pipes,  which  would  be  liable  to  leak,  or  automatic 
sprinkler  pipes,  are  objectionable  over  switchboards,  unless 
canopy  shelters  are  arranged  to  carry  water  past  the  contact 
points.    Such  shelter  should  also  be  provided  over  dynamos. 

Theatres.  Opera  Houses.  Etc.  These  risks  as  usually  constructed, 
especially  in  country  towns,  are  uninsurable  at  obtainable  rates. 
When  built  in  accordance  with  obvious  rules  of  safety,  we  mav 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


543 


begin  to  write  them;  but  as  at  present  constructed,  they  are 
unprofitable  risks.  They  are  carelessly  managed.  The  carpen- 
ter shop,  paint  shop,  etc.,  expose  the  main  building,  whereas 
they  should  be  entirely  outside  where  their  burning  could  not 
injure  the  theatre,  and  the  construction  of  the  stage,  with  its 
great  depth  for  lowering  scenery  and  its  great  height  for  rais- 
ing it,  with  highly  combustible  scenery  painted  with  inflam- 
mable paints,  wooden  shifting  appliances  in  a  dry  state,  flies, 
rigging  loft,  etc.,  etc.,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  extinguish  a 
fire  when  once  started.  Carelessness  of  actors  and  employes  as 
to  cigarettes,  cigars,  etc.,  and  the  fact  that  all  of  them  leave 
the  building  at  night  too  tired  to  be  careful  to  see  that  all  fires 
and  lights  are  out  and  that  no  fires  are  smouldering,  makes 
them  exceedingly  dangerous.  Many  of  the  exhibitions,  more- 
over, use  dangerous  materials  for  scenic  effects  and  fireworks, 
and  the  fire  appliances  are  seldom  of  the  best.  The  day  will, 
probably,  come  when  all  theatre  and  opera  houses  will  be  re- 
quired, by  law,  to  be  securely  divided  into  two  separate  risks, 
by  a  fire-wall  running  through  the  roof — effectually  cutting  off 
the  stage,  dressing  rooms,  carpenter  shop,  etc.,  from  the  audi- 
torium, a  fireproof  curtain  or  drop  door  being  so  constructed  as 
to  cut  off  all  communication  between  the  stage,  with  its  scenery, 
and  the  rest  of  the  building.  The  draught  formed  by  opening 
the  doors,  for  the  exit  of  an  audience,  would  have  the  tendency 
to  draw  the  smoke,  gases  and  flame  of  a  stage  fire  into  the 
auditorium  (as  in  the  case  of  the  Brooklyn  Theatre),  to  the 
great  danger  of  those  who  might,  otherwise,  escape.  For  this 
reason,  the  wall  should  extend  through  the  roof,  effectually 
cutting  off  all  communication  between  the  stage  and  the  empty 
space  or  attic  usually  left  between  the  ceiling  of  the  audi- 
torium and  the  roof. 

All  passageways,  hall- ways,  etc.,  should  gradually  widen 
to  the  point  of  exit,  sharp  angles  and  corners  being  avoided. 
This  simple  precaution  would  prevent  the  choking  of  a  passage 
by  a  crowd,  as  it  would  be  impossible  to  block  up  a  passage- 
way so  constructed.  Under  no  circumstances,  should  a  hall- 
way be  narrower,  at  any  point  in  its  length,  than  at  its  exit 
beginning.    Strong  iron  railings,  without  balustrades  *  should 

*Balustrades  are  objectionable  as,  in  case  of  a  leg  or  foot  becoming  caught 
in  them,  they  might  lead  to  an  obstruction  of  the  passage. 


544 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


be  provided  on  each  side  of  all  staircases,  as  they  would  assist 
in  preventing  the  falling  of  individuals  and  other  ill  effects  of  a 
rush.  The  terrible  disaster  in  the  Brooklyn  Theatre,  in  De- 
cember, 1876,  by  which  over  three  hundred  human  beings 
perished,  would  indicate  that  the  floors  and  supports  of  halls 
and  staircases  should  be  much  stronger  than  the  other  portions 
of  the  building,  and  that  the  strength  required  by  law  to  bear 
the  safe  loading  (see  page  90)  is  not  sufficient,  in  view  of  the 
vibration  and  sudden  strain  caused  by  a  rush  and  panic  of 
the  inmates. 

Doors  to  places  of  exit  should  always  swing  outwards,  and 
each  section  of  seats  should  have  a  separate  exit,  to  avoid  the 
Crowding  incidental  to  an  alarm  of  fire  and  a  panic  on  the  part 
of  the  inmates. 

The  New  York  Building  Law  is  very  stringent.  It  requires 
that  there  shall  be  at  least  one  front  on  a  street  and,  unless  on  a 
corner,  that  there  shall  be  passageways  on  both  sides  of  the 
building  for  the  escape  of  the  audience.  This  would  facilitate, 
also,  the  operations  of  the  firemen.  To  overcome  differences  of 
level  between  courts,  corridors,  lobbies,  etc.,  gradients  or  inclined 
floors  must  be  employed  instead  of  steps,  with  a  rise  of  not  over 
1  foot  in  12.  All  doors  are  required  to  open  outwards  and  to 
be  fireproof.  No  workshop,  storage  or  general  property  room 
is  allowed  above  or  under  the  stage  or  auditorium  or  in  any 
of  the  fly  galleries.  They  may  be  located  in  the  rear  or  at  the 
side  of  the  stage,  but  it  is  required  that  they  shall  be  separated 
by  a  brick  wall  with  fireproof  doors.  The  staircases  are  required 
to  be  enclosed  in  brick  walls  and  fireproof,  and  a  proscenium 
wall  built  of  brick  is  required  between  the  auditorium  and  the 
stage  and  extending  at  least  four  feet  above  the  stage  roof,  with 
a  fireproof  curtain  to  protect  the  opening,  sliding  within  iron 
grooves  with  a  lap  of  not  less  than  six  inches  on  each  side  of 
the  opening.  Skylights  are  required  over  the  stage,  so  con- 
structed as  to  open  instantly  on  the  cutting  or  burning  of  a 
hempen  cord,  to  admit  of  the  escape  of  smoke  or  gases  at  the 
early  stage  of  a  fire.  The  stage  is  required  to  be  of  fireproof 
materials  and  the  fly  galleries,  including  pin  rolls,  to  be  con- 
structed of  metal  with  fireproof  floors.  The  rigging  loft  is  also 
required  to  be  fireproof,  and  the  stage  scenery  is  to  be  saturated 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


545 


with  some  fire  resisting  material  or  chemical.  The  walls  sepa- 
rating the  dressing  rooms,  and  the  partitions  dividing  the  dress- 
ing rooms,  are  required  to  he  fireproof.  Circular  or  winding 
stairs  are  prohibited.  The  width  of  staircases  is  proportioned 
to  the  seating  capacity.  All  staircases  over  8  feet  in  width  are 
required  to  have  a  center  hand  rail  of  metal,  strongly  supported 
by  metal  standards,  to  prevent  individuals  from  falling  on  the 
stairs  in  a  panic.  Automatic  sprinklers  are  required  over  the 
stage,  with  standpipes  at  each  proscenium  opening.  Fire  hose, 
casks  of  water,  and  huckets,  and  other  appliances  for  extinguish- 
ing fire,  are  to  be  provided,  and  a  fireman  from  the  city  fire 
department  is  required  to  be  present  at  ever}r  performance.  Oil 
lamps  are  required  on  shelves,  to  be  kept  lighted,  in  case  the 
electric  lights  or  gas  lights  become  extinguished.  Every  city 
and  town  in  the  country  would  do  well  to  enact  a  law  on  the 
lines  of  the  New  York  regulations.  The  precautions  observed 
in  Paris  might,  with  profit,  be  followed  here — those  of  permit- 
ting no  performance  to  take  place  without  a  small  engine  sta- 
tioned on  the  stage,  with  two  or  more  experienced  firemen  in 
attendance. 

Some  of  the  fires  in  this  class  of  risks  may  be  due  to  the  spon- 
taneous combustion  of  scenery  canvas,  painted  in  oil  colors,  and 
rolled  up  when  not  in  use.  (See  page  145.)  While  in  use  ex- 
posed to  currents  of  air,  it  would  not  be  dangerous,  except  from 
its  liability  to  ignite  upon  contact  with  flame,  but  when  rolled 
up  or  covered  up,  in  any  way,  so  as  to  confine  the  heat  gene- 
rated spontaneously,  it  would  be  very  liable  to  burn. 

The  fact  that  so  long  ago  as  1830  Mr.  Braid  wood,  Superin- 
tendent of  the  London  Fire  Brigade,  recommended  the  simple 
but  important  precaution  of  cutting  off  the  stage,  with  its 
accompaniments  of  dressing  rooms,  storage  rooms,  paint  room 
and  carpenter  shop,  from  the  auditorium,  by  a  fire-wall  and  iron 
curtain,  and  the  fact  that,  up  to  this  time,  there  are  only  a  few 
cities  which  require  it,  shows  how  little  attention  is  usually  paid 
to  the  opinions  and  suggestions  of  experienced  and  practical 
firemen.  If  these  curtains  should  be  double,  with  an  air  space 
between  the  two,  they  would  be  better,  and,  besides,  in  case  one 
should  not  happen  to  work,  the  other  might.  It  should  be  the 
business  of  a  particular  individual,  regularly  and  judiciously 


546 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


stationed  for  the  purpose,  to  attend  to  the  letting  down  of  the 
curtains,  in  case  of  fire,  and  they  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  be 
closed  from  the  auditorium  side.  Egress  may  be  easily  pro- 
vided from  the  stage  and  dressing  rooms  for  actors  and  em- 
ployees. The  simple  provision  of  sprinkler  pipes  between  these 
curtains,  so  arranged  over  the  top  of  the  arch  and  down  the 
sides  as  to  form,  literally,  a  curtain  of  ivater,  in  case  of  a  fire, 
would  not  only  keep  the  iron  from  warping,  but  prevent  the 
escape  of  smoke  and  gases  into  the  auditorium.  Such  a  pro- 
vision would  be  somewhat  similar  to  the  spray  of  water  used  in 
connection  with  a  hose  pipe,  to  enable  firemen  to  approach  fire, 
without  danger  or  discomfort. 

A  system  of  sprinklers  above  the  scenery  and  woodwork  of 
the  stage  is  such  a  valuable  protection  that  it  should  always  be 
required. 

While  all  appliances  for  the  control  of  a  fire  and  its  extinction 
and  for  the  escape  of  the  audience,  however,  are  desirable  and 
imperative,  it  should  be  remembered  that  precautions  for  pre- 
venting fire  are  still  more  important,  and,  to  this  end,  the 
scenery  and  woodwork  of  the  stage,  instead  of  being  highly  in- 
flammable, as  is  now  almost  universally  the  case,  should  be 
rendered  incombustible  by  preparing  them  with  simple,  in- 
expensive and  well  known  chemicals. 

All  of  the  appointments  of  the  stage — the  scenery  (often 
painted  with  oil  paints),  borders  and  woodwork — are  of  the 
most  inflammable  description,  in  some  cases,  benzine  actually 
being  used,  and  purchased  by  the  barrel.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
state  where  this  dangerous  material  is  used  on  scenery,  no 
provision  of  wire  screens  to  protect  foot  and  border  lights  would 
prevent  fire,  as  the  gas  generated  by  the  benzine  would,  itself, 
seek  the  gas  jet  and  ignite  through  the  wire. 

Among  the  chemicals  recommended  for  the  purpose  of  render- 
ing scenery  uninflammable  may  be  mentioned  borax,  alum  and 
the  tungstates  of  sodium  or  potassium. 

The  canvas,  ropes,  etc.,  may  be  soaked  in  a  solution  of  tung- 
state  of  soda  (one  bucketful  of  the  salt  to  seven  bucketfuls  of 
hot  water)  for  thirty  minutes,  and  when  thoroughly  dry,  in  a 
solution  of  silicate  of  soda,  commonly  known  as  "soluble 
glass,'''  diluted  in  the  same  proportion.    The  same  application 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


547 


will  render  woodwork  safe,  but  it  is  claimed  that  a  solution  of 
tungstate  of  molybdenum  is  better  for  the  purpose. 

Phosphate  of  ammonia  is,  also,  recommended  for  scenery. 
It  requires  only  one  process  and  is,  therefore,  more  convenient 
than  the  tungstates. 

Thread  Manufactories.  (See  Cotton  and  Woolen  Mills,  page  446. ) 

Tile  Manufactories.  Report  fully  as  to  character  of  buildings, 
arrangement  of  kilns,  etc.,  etc.  They  are  usually  cheap  affairs 
and  uninsurable,  and  the  Company  will  want  full  advice  before 
authorizing  lines. 

Tobacco  Barns  or  Curing  Houses.  These  are  farm  risks  located 
near  the  tobacco  fields  and  are  usually  of  light  frame  or  log 
construction.  The  hazards  connected  with  the  drying  process 
are  serious,  and  usually  poorly  guarded,  and  the  class  has  been 
unprofitable.  The  salable  character  of  tobacco  tempts  dishonest 
parties  to  rob  them  at  night  and  set  fire  to  them  to  cover  the 
theft,  which  is  probably  the  reason  that  enough  are  burned  out 
of  one  hundred  to  make  obtainable  rates  inadequate. 

They  cannot  be  safely  insured  during  the  time  when  fire  heat 
is  used,  and  for  this  reason  annual  or  long  term  policies  must 
not  be  written  without  the  following  clause : 

"The  use  of  artificial  or  fire  heat  is  not  permitted  while 
th  is  policy  is  in  force. "  This  will  insure  notice  when  fire  heat 
is  used. 

The  arrangement  of  tobacco  for  curing  in  a  tobacco  barn 
presents  every  element  of  danger.  It  is  usually  hung  on  sticks 
and  so  arranged  as  to  hang  higher  in  the  centre  than  on  the 
sides,  leaving  a  hollow  space  in  the  centre.  In  the  middle  of 
the  floor  a  log  fire  is  made,  any  sparks  from  which,  as  when 
the  fire  is  being  fed,  are  liable  to  ignite  the  tobocco.  We  prefer 
to  take  no  chances,  Seventeen  barns  controlled  by  one  concern 
were  burned  in  two  weeks. 

As  already  stated  under  heading  '  'Tobacco  Prizing  and  Re- 
handling  Houses,"  those  hazards  are  sometimes  insured  as 
barns,  when  prizing  and  rehandling  houses  are  the  risks 
covered. 

Decline  tobacco  barns  for  tenants. 

Obtain  consent  of  company  before  binding. 


548 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


Tobacco  Prizeries,  Stemmeries  and  Rehandling  Houses.    Refer  to 

Company.  These  risks  are  often  in  towns  with  fire  department 
protection,  hut  on  account  of  their  light  construction  combined 
with  the  large  quantities  of  loose  and  hanging  tobacco,  total 
losses  usually  result  when  they  once  get  on  fire.  The  chief 
hazard  is  the  use  of  steam  for  "ordering"  and  drying;  pipes 
should  be  kept  free  from  woodwork  and  not  under  the  drying 
tobacco  where  it  could  fall  on  them.  Dry  room  should  prefer- 
ably be  cut  off  from  main  building.  No  smoking  or  lights 
should  be  permitted.  Casks  of  water  and  pails  should  be  liber- 
ally provided. 

The  class,  as  a  rule,  may  safely  be  declined.  It  has  been  very 
unprofitable.  If  any  exceptions  can  be  made  it  is  only  in  the 
case  of  houses  in  towns  having  a  population  of  2,500  or  over, 
where  the  warehousemen  are  monied  men  and  do  a  small 
prizing  and  rehandling  business  to  accommodate  producers  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  town.  The  smaller  houses  in  the 
country  may  be  regarded  as  uninsurable.  Books  of  account 
are  generally  burned  with  the  house,  and  the  only  book  pro- 
duced by  the  owner  is  usually  a  small  pocket,  pencil  memor- 
andum, wholly  unreliable. 

Houses  using  fire  heat,  in  districts  producing  dark,  heavy 
tobacco,  are  especially  dangerous  while  in  process  of  drying,  fire 
heat  being  necessary  to  cure  the  heavy,  large  tobacco  growing 
on  low,  flat  and  black  soil,  like  that  in  certain  sections,  which 
tobacco  is  full  of  water  and  cures  too  slowly  without  fire  heat. 
It  is  largely  stemmed  for  the  English  market. 

Tobacco  raised  on  hilly  ground  is  usually  a  light,  small  leaf, 
does  not  require  heat,  and  the  fire  risk  is  a  better  one. 

It  is  customary  to  call  prizing  and  rehandling  houses  tobacco 
barns,  and  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  company  is  not 
insuring  a  more  objectionable  risk  under  the  description  of  a 
"barn."  As  already  stated,  however,  it  is  best  to  decline  risks 
outside  of  important,  larger  towns,  with  fire  departments. 

Tobacco  Storage  and  Sales  Warehouses.  Physical  hazards  con- 
nected therewith  are  not  important,  but  if  a  fire  once  starts 
serious  loss  usually  results.  No  smoking  should  be  permitted 
during  sales.  Obtain  from  Company  at  the  beginning  of  the 
season  the  maximum  line  it  is  willing  to  carry. 


HOW  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


549 


Tobacco  Factories.  Refer  to  Company,  with  advices  regard- 
ing the  class  of  goods  manufactured,  and  the  processes  con- 
nected therewith.  Special  attention  should  he  given  to  arrange- 
ment and  location  of  dry  rooms,  dressers  or  steamers  (these 
should  be  located  outside — if  inside  an  extra  rate  should  be 
charged) ;  and  flavoring  or  licorice  kettles  should  be  safely 
arranged  on  the  ground  floor.  If  fine  cut  or  smoking  tobacco 
is  manufactured  look  carefully  into  the  heating  apparatus  con- 
nected with  the  rotary  dryers.  Presses  should  be  insured 
specifically  and  separately  from  machinery  or  fixtures.  Keep 
stock  lines  down  on  account  of  susceptibility  to  damage. 

Experience  teaches  that  large  claims  are  sometimes  made  on 
tobacco,  after  a  fire,  where  the  actual  loss  is  trifling. 
Toboggan  Slides.  Decline. 

Tool  Manufactories.    (See  Hardware  Manufactories,  page  475.) 

Town  Halls.    Same  as  Court  Houses,  (see  page  455.) 

Toy  Manufactories.  Few  companies  write  these,  even  at  high 
rates;  the  physical  hazard  and  susceptibility  of  stock  to  damage 
make  obtainable  rates  inadequate.  Wooden  toy  factories  have 
all  the  hazards  of  woodworkers,  together  with  the  additional 
hazard  of  painting,  generally  done  by  dipping.  This  should  be 
carried  on  in  a  separate  compartment  where  it  would  not  en- 
danger the  main  values,  and  the  room  needs  to  be  freely  venti- 
lated, as  the  paint  is  usually  thinned  with  benzine  or  naphtha. 
The  company  should  be  consulted  before  binding. 

Traction  Risks — Horse  Car,  Trolley,  Etc.,  Etc.  The  Company 
will  want  full  advice  as  to  the  motive  power.  If  by  horses  or 
mules,  they  will  want  full  advice  as  to  the  stables;  also  as  to 
whether  stoves  are  used  in  the  cars;  if  not,  how  heated.  Numer- 
ous fires  have  occurred  from  carelessness  as  to  stoves,  and  also 
from  electric  heaters  when  trolley  poles  are  not  removed  from 
the  wires  as  soon  as  cars  are  brought  into  the  barns.  Co-insurance 
to  the  extent  of  80$  of  value  will  be  insisted  upon,  and  cars 
will  not  be  insured  under  any  circumstances  without  co-insur- 
ance or  at  low  rates.     (See  Car  Stables,  page  4:58.) 

Training  Stables.  (See  Livery  Stables,  page  515.)  Blooded 
animals  of  fancy  values  may  safely  be  regarded  as  uninsurable 
at  obtainable  rates.    We  prefer  to  decline  them. 


550 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


Trunk  Manufactories.  These  have  been  exceedingly  unprofit- 
able. The  physical  hazards  of  woodworking,  gluing,  etc..  etc., 
justify  full  rates.     Painting  and  japanning  should  he  cut  off. 

Tug  Boats.    (See  Steamboats). 

Turpentine  Distilleries.  Decline.  Structures  are  cheap  and  the 
hazard  of  ignition  serious. 

Type  Foundries.  These  are  unprofitable  as  a  class.  They  are 
usually  on  the  upper  floors  of  buildings,  are  too  often  carelessly 
managed ;  and  the  melting  arrangements  are  often  on  shabby 
wooden  platforms  covered  with  a  single  brick  in  thickness,  with 
room  between  the  bricks  to  allow  ashes,  etc.,  to  sift  down  be- 
tween, only  serving  to  conceal  charred  floor  conditions. 

Upholsterers.  (See  Mattress  Factories,  page  515.)  The 
physical  hazard  of  picking  combustible  material,  &c,  is  suffi- 
cient to  justify  higher  rates  than  those  obtained,  to  say  nothing 
of  other  dangers. 

Varnish  Factories.  Full  rates  should  be  charged.  The  burn- 
ing should  be  entirely  separate  from  the  other  processes  and 
values  and  in  a  fireproof  structure,  and  not  covered  by  the 
policy.  The  fact  is  the  class  do  not  usually  pay  adequate  rates, 
except  for  fireproof  establishments,  which  as  a  rule  are  not  in- 
sured . 

Vessels.    (See  Steamboats. ) 

Vinegar  Manufactories.  Those  manufacturing  vinegar  from 
fruit,  apple  cider,  etc.,  are  not  serious  risks  if  properly  con- 
structed.   Those  that  use  alcohol  should  be  declined. 

Wadding  and  Batting  Manufactories.  Decline.  (See  Batting 
Manufactories,  page  430.) 

Wagon  Manufactories.  The  large  works  involve  all  of  the 
woodworking  hazards,  especially  the  naphtha  paint  hazard,  to- 
gether with  the  usual  metal  working  hazards,  and  the  Company 
should  be  advised  fully  as  to  all  of  these.  A  full-fledged  wagon 
manufactory  is  practically  a  machine  shop,  planing  mill,  saw 
mill,  and  paint  shop  combined.  Small  wheelwright  shops  are 
profitable  at  fair  rates. 

Wall  Paper  Manufactories.  These  risks  have  never  paid  at  cur- 
rent rates.  Aside  from  the  physical  hazard  of  paper  mills  they 
have  the  hazard  of  chemicals,  coloring  processes,  sizing,  etc., 


ITo\V  TO  INSPECT  THEM. 


551 


etc.,  and  the  stock  is  exceedingly  susceptible  to  damage  by 
water  and,  it  is  claimed,  also  by  smoke.  In  fact,  claims  upon 
wall  paper  have  been  so  serious  of  late  years,  even  in  the  case 
of  stocks  of  stores,  that  the  companies  find  it  necessary  to  de- 
cline them  unless  in  conscientious  hands  and  at  very  full  rates. 
In  a  recent  instance  it  was  claimed  that  a  stock  of  wall  paper, 
which  had  been  damaged  so  slightly  to  all  appearances  that  the 
adjusters  thought  the  damage  was  only  s^on,  was  damaged  to 
a  considerably  greater  extent.  The  companies  were  confronted 
with  demands  for  an  appraisal,  which  resulted  in  an  award  of 
over  $80,000,  the  owners  claiming  that  defects  in  the  wall  paper, 
owing  to  chemical  reactions  due  to  the  heat  and  smoke,  might 
develop  months  after  the  paper  was  on  the  walls  of  dwelling 
houses.  Such  claims  would  justify  declining  the  class  unless 
at  rates  which  would  practically  be  prohibitory.  The  drying 
process  is  a  dangerous  one,  the  arrangement  of  stock  forming 
ideal  conditions  for  the  quick  spread  of  fire.  Losses  are  usually 
total. 

Waste,  "clean."  It  is  often  the  case  that  cop  and  other  waste, 
silk  noels,  etc.,  are  claimed  to  be  so  clean  as  to  warrant  low 
rates  of  insurance,  but  the  claimant  overlooks  the  fact  that 
almost  any  collection  of  so-called  '  'clean  waste'1  is  liable  to  have 
in  it  oily  waste,  where  an  employe  in  a  manufactory  has  used  a 
small  portion  for  wiping  off  machinery,  and  it  is  safe  to  decline 
any  risk  on  the  material  and  to  assume  that  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  ''clean  waste." 

Watch  Manufactories.  The  physical  hazard  of  this  class  is  not 
serious.  Advise  the  Company  fully  as  to  construction,  use  of 
fire  heat,  carefulness,  etc.,  etc.  The  stock  is  very  susceptible 
to  damage  and  should  pay  full  rates.  It  is  more  damageable 
in  the  exposed  conditions  of  unassembled  parts,  as  in  a  factory, 
than  in  the  case  of  finished  watches  in  a  jewelry  store,  although 
some  underwriters  seem  to  regard  a  watch  manufactory  as 
favorably  as  a  jewelry  store.  All  the  machinery  is  delicate 
and  easily  ruined. 

Water  Cures,  Sanitariums.     (See  Sanitariums.) 

Weaving  Mills.  (See  Cotton  and  Woolen  Mills,  page  44t;.)  In 
this  class  of  risk  the  spinning,  carding  and  picking  hazards 
would  be  eliminated,  the  mill  buying  its  warps. 


MANUFACTORIES  OR  SPECIAL  HAZARDS. 


Wire  Works.  Advise  Company  fully  as  to  construction,  care- 
fulness of  management,  etc.  They  have  not  been  profitable 
risks.  Report  fully  as  to  the  use  of  oil  for  tempering,  and 
arrangement  and  location  of  apparatus.  A  fire  occurred  in  the 
R.  H.  Wolff  &  Co.  wire  works,  New  York,  caused  by  over- 
heating of  oil  in  a  tempering  furnace  tank.  The  outlet  pipe  at 
the  bottom  of  the  tank  became  clogged  and  the  heated  wire 
passing  through  the  oil  raised  its  temperature  to  the  point  of 
ignition  and  fire  ensued.  This  outlet  pipe  should  be  of  sufficient 
size  to  prevent  clogging.  A  fire  occurred  April.  18!)G,  in  the 
Washburn  &  Moen  Mfg.  Co.  factory,  Worcester,  Mass.  The 
oil  used  as  a  fuel  in  tempering  and  hardening  furnaces  was 
stored  in  two  large  tanks  outside,  being  pumped  to  a  secondary 
tank  inside.  It  is  probable  that  a  small  quantity  of  oil  in  the 
pipe,  released  l>y  workmen  in  making  repairs,  flowed  down  up- 
on a  portion  of  the  ovens.  The  ovens  were  not  being  operated 
but  were  hot  enough  to  vaporize  this  oil  and  set  it  on  fire. 

Where  electrical  insulated  wire  is  made  the  additional  hazard 
of  handling  rubber  and  weaving  the  covering,  etc.,  adds  to  the 
risk. 

Wood.    (See  Cord  Wood,  page  -445.) 

Wood  Pulp  Manufactories.    (See  Pulp  Manufactories,  page  534.) 

Woodworkers.  The  hazards  of  planing  and  saw  mills,  box 
manufactories,  furniture  manufactories,  etc.,  have  already  been 
explained.  They  involve  the  hazards  of  all  other  classes  of 
woodworking. 

White  Lead  Works.  These  should  be  referred  to  the  Company 
before  binding  and  an  additional  charge  of  hot  less  than  Ifc 
should  be  made  where  boiling  of  oil  is  done  in  the  building  or 
where  its  burning  will  expose  the  building.  The  class  has  not 
been  profitable. 

Willow-Ware  Manufactories,  or  stocks  composed  wholly  or  largely 
of  willow-ware,  are  not  desirable  risks  at  current  rates.  Such 
merchandise  damages  easily  by  smoke. 

Wooden  Ware  Manufactories.  These  have  been  unprofitable  to 
companies.  The  physical  hazard  is  serious,  especially  as  to  dry 
rooms,  and  current  rates  are  inadequate.  Advise  the  Company 
fully  before  binding. 


!lo\\    TO  [KSPECT  THEM. 


553 


Wool  Scouring  Risks.  It  is  difficult  to  account  for  the  tires 
that  have  occurred  in  this  class,  hut  it  is  possibly  due  to  the  dry- 
ing hazard.  The  scouring  of  wool  is  a  soap  and  water  process, 
water  being  used  in  large  quantities,  so  that  a  large  portion  of 
the  establishment  is  wet.  New  processes  are  being  introduced 
involving  the  use  of  chemicals  and  benzine  and  should  be  care- 
fully watched. 

Woolen  and  Cotton  Mills.    (See  Cotton  Mills,  page  446.) 

Yachts.  Refer  to  Company  with  full  particulars.  They  are 
unprofitable  as  a  class,  rapidly  deteriorate  in  value,  changing 
with  the  whims  of  owners,  who  soon  tire  of  them  or  want  larger 
and  speedier  boats  and  lose  interest  in  the  safety  of  one  well  in- 
sured. 

Zylonite  Manufactories.    (See  Celluloid.) 

N.  B. — The  reason  for  marking  so  man}*  of  the  foregoing 
hazards  as  to  be  declined  is  that,  at  current  rates,  they  are 
unprofitable. 

When  circumstances  are  so  modified  as  to  make  them  paying 
risks,  companies  are  entirely  willing  to  write  them.  In  the 
meantime,  where  a  number  of  special  hazards,  including  those 
marked  to  be  declined,  are  located  at  an  agency,  the  agent 
should  report  the  fact  to  the  Company,  in  order  that  an  inspec- 
tion of  them  may  be  made  by  a  competent  special  agent,  and  a 
specific  understanding  arrived  at  as  to  the  insurance  of  them ; 
for  while,  as  a  class,  many  of  them  may  be  bad,  some  may  be 
fit  to  be  insured  at  a  proper  rate. 


FORMS  OF  POLICIES. 


I  approach  this  subject  with  a  profound  sense  at  once  of  its 
importance  and  of  the  difficulty  of  properly  treating  it.  After 
the  rate  has  been  carefully  computed  the  form  of  policy  may  be 
so  worded  as  to  literally  cut  it  in  two,  perhaps  in  four,  as  was 
the  case  actually  in  a  manufacturing  risk  of  large  values  divided 
into  four  separate  risks,  where  specific  insurance  was  sought 
for  a  small  percentage  of  the  value  in  each  and  floating  insurance 
for  the  difference  covering  in  its  range  all  four  localities. 
Underwriters  were  deceived  by  the  clause  in  the  floater  that  the 
policy  should  not  attach  until  the  specific  insurance  was  ex- 
hausted. It  was  exhausted  one  day  in  one  of  the  four  sub- 
divisions and  the  floating  insurers  paid  a  total  loss,  whereas  the 
specific  insurers  got  off  with  salvage  on  account  of  the  80$  co- 
insurance clause. 

The  late  Mr.  Clarence  Knowle's  once  described  a  floater  as  a 
policy  which  floats  all  around  until  there  is  a  fire  and  then  lights 
at  the  exact  location. 

It  was  recently  discovered  in  the  territory  of  the  New  York 
Fire  Insurance  Exchange  that  floating  policies  might  be  ex- 
hausted and  the  specific  insurers  escape  with  a  still  greater  sal- 
vage under  the  standard  co-insurance  form  of  New  York  State, 
which  provides  as  follows : 

This  Company  shall  not  be  liable  for  a  greater  proportion  of  any  loss  or 
damage  to  the  property  described  herein  than  the  sum  hereby  insured  bears  to 
eighty  per  centum  (80  %)  of  the  actual  cash  value  of  said  property  at  the  time 
such  loss  shall  happen.  In  case  of  claim  for  loss  on  the  property  described 
herein  not  exceeding  five  per  cent.  (5£)  of  the  maximum  amount  named  in  the 
policies  written  thereon  and  in  force  at  the  time  such  loss  shall  happen  no 
special  inventory  or  appraisement  of  the  undamaged  property  shall  be  required. 
If  the  insurance  under  this  policy  be  divided  into  two  or  more  items,  these 
clauses  shall  apply  to  each  item  separately. 


NEW  YORK  STANDARD  POLICY. 


It  will  be  observed  that  this  clause  does  not  provide  that  any 
specific  amount  of  insurance  shall  be  carried  by  the  property- 
owner,  but  that  the  company  shall  not  be  called  upon  to  pay  a 
greater  percentage  of  any  loss  than  the  amount  of  its  policy 
bears  to  80  #  of  the  actual  cash  value  of  the  property.  It 
would,  therefore,  be  "exhausted"  when  it  had  paid  all  it  could 
be  made  to  pay  in  accordance  with  its  terms. 

Let  us  suppose,  for  example,  a  value  of  $100,000  in  a  given 
warehouse  insured  specifically  for  $20,000.  A  specific  insurance 
to  this  amount  in  case  of  a  $40,000  loss  would  be  liable  for  only 
one-fourth  of  the  $40,000,  or  $10,000,  that  being  the  proportion 
which  twenty  thousand  bears  to  eighty  thousand  or  80^.  The 
floating  insurers,  however,  might  claim  that  they  were  not 
liable  until  the  specific  had  been  exhausted,  meaning  thereby 
the  whole  $20,000  had  been  paid,  which  would  make  the  float- 
ing insurance  loss  $20,000.  But  this  contention  would  not  hold 
under  the  phraseology  of  the  clause,  and  they  would  clearly  be 
liable  for  $30,000. 

1  was  impressed  while  chairman  of  the  Committee  of  the 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  on  Forms  of  Policies, 
which  had  repeated  sessions,  with  the  difficulty  of  drawing  con- 
tracts which  would  be  just  alike  to  the  companies  and  to  the 
assured.  In  repeated  instances  phraseology  which  seemed  so 
nearly  right  that  a  unanimous  vote  could  have  been  secured 
upon  it  was  afterwards  found  defective  in  one  respect  or  another, 
necessitating  reconsideration.  The  patience  which  the  gentle- 
men composing  the  committee  brought  to  the  task  and  their 
willingness  to  listen  each  to  the  opinion  of  every  other  member 
resulted  in  the  adoption  of  a  series  of  forms  which  proved  gener- 
ally acceptable  to  the  fraternity. 

I  believe  this  task  of  formulating  contracts  which  shall  cover 
all  classes  of  risks  and  all  conditions  of  hazards  is  the  most 
important  one  connected  with  the  business  of  insurance.  The 
ablest  lawyers  should  be  employed  ;  but  lawyers  alone  could  not 
deal  properly  with  the  question  without  the  advice  and  judg- 
ment of  underwriters,  whose  experience  as  to  the  construction 
of  clauses  and  the  handling  of  claims  would  be  absolutely 
necessary  for  the  proper  performance  of  the  task.  They  would, 
in  fact,  be  more  independent  of  the  lawyers  than  would  the 
lawyers  be  of  them. 


FORMS  OF  POLICIES. 


The  standard  form  of  policy  of  Now  York  State  was  adopted 
by  a  combination  of  these  two  important  elements,  and  the 
policy  which  has  since  been  adopted  by  other  States  is  the  re- 
sult of  their  conferences  and  combined  judgment.  It  may 
be  susceptible  of  improvement,  of  course,  but  asa  whole  it  meets 
the  case  more  clearly  than  any  policy  contract  yet  drawn. 
Those  who  framed  it  brought  to  their  task  an  honest  desire  to 
make  a  policy  which  should  not  only  protect  the  rights  of 
underwriters,  but  be  just  to  all  honest  claimants;  and  the 
phraseology  of  the  contract  was  specially  designed  to  meet  the 
construction  which  had  been  placed  upon  ambiguous  phrases 
by  the  courts  of  highest  resort.  It  would  be  well  in  all  cases 
of  lawsuits  to  bear  in  mind  when  decisions  are  glibly  quoted 
to  sustain  interpretations  of  particular  phrases,  that  the  policy 
in  question  before  the  court  may  have  been  very  differently 
worded  from  the  standard  form  now  in  use. 

In  a  very  early  and  celebrated  case,  a  learned  English  judge 
remarked;  "A  policy  of  insurance  has  at  all  times  been  con- 
sidered in  courts  of  law  as  an  absurd  and  incoherent  instrument ; 
but  it  is  founded  on  usage,  and  must  be  governed  and  construed 
by  usage."  Another  of  the  justices  in  the  same  case,  Lord 
Kenyon,  made  the  following  statement:  "I  remember  it  was 
said,  many  years  ago,  that  if  Lombard  street  (the  insurance 
thoroughfare  of  those  days)  had  not  given  a  construction  to 
policies  of  insurance,  a  declaration  on  a  polic3r  would  have  been 
bad  in  a  general  demurrer;  but  the  uniform  practices  of  mer- 
chants and  underwriters  had  rendered  them  intelligible." 

From  these  two  remarkable  declarations,  it  may  be  inferred, 
not  only  that  the  insurance  contracts  of  that  early  day  must 
have  been  most  unskilfully  drawn,  but  that  the  first  claimant 
in  a  court  of  law,  under  a  policy,  would  have  fared  but  poorly, 
since  he  would  have  had  no  usages  or  "uniform  practices"  of 
underwriters  to  plead  in  support  and  explanation  of  his  policy  ; 
and  we  may  also  infer  that  the  equitable  and  honorable  practices 
of  underwriters,  even  at  that  early  day — practices  which  have 
ever  been  characteristic  of  the  profession — rendered  lawsuits 
to  inforce  just  claims  unnecessary  until  at  some  later  date,  when 
the  first  unreasonable  policy-holder,  possibly  the  first  who  de- 
veloped a  "moral  hazard,"  found  that  the  "uniform  practices" 


NEW    YoKK  STANDARD  I'OUCY 


551 


of  underwriters  had,  at  last,  established  a  standing  in  court  for 
his  contract. 

Since  that  early  time  in  the  history  of  underwriting,  the  form 
of  policy  lias  been  altered  and  added  to  until  we  may  imagine 
the  learned  judge,  in  the  case  mentioned,  would  have  been 
astonished  at  the  voluminous  form  of  the  insurance  contract, 
framed  to  meet  the  adverse  decisions  of  court  after  court,  and 
to  provide  for  one  form  of  rascality  after  another,  until,  at  one 
time,  it  filled  whole  pages  of  restrictions  and  conditions.  Indeed, 
in  a  well-known  insurance  case,  the  judge  remarked ;  "A  modern 
policy  is  a  very  complicated  contract.  Before  executing  almost 
any  other  instrument  of  equal  perplexity,  the  parties  would 
deem  it  necessary  to  take  advice  of  able  counsel." 

In  its  later  form  it  met  with  criticisms  at  the  hands  of 
judges  of  a  very  different  character  from  that  of  the  ancient 
English  justices  whose  opinions  have  been  referred  to,  and  it 
at  last,  became  a  grave  question  whether,  in  view  of  the  pre- 
judice with  which  its  fine  print  and  numerous  conditions  were 
regarded  by  both  judge  and  jury,  the  underwriters  would  not 
secure  more  substantial  justice  in  the  courts  of  law  to  which 
they  were  sometimes  driven  by  dishonest  or  unreasonable  claim- 
ants, if  they  had  shorter  contracts,  printed  in  larger  and  clearer 
type,  relying  more  upon  the  substantial  protection  which  the 
written  and  unwritten  law  extends  to  a  contract  in  which  one 
party  reposes  entirely  in  the  good  faith  of  the  other. 

In  one  case  a  distinguished  judge,  in  speaking  of  the  old  form 
of  policy  before  the  jury,  made  the  following  statement :  "Now 
we  know,  from  common  observation,  that  not  one  in  a  hundred 
of  those  who  procure  policies  gives  any  attention  whatever  to 
the  finely  printed  page  containing  the  conditions  of  a  policy. 
They  cannot  afford  to  expend  the  time  required  to  study  them 
over  and  they  take  it  for  granted  that  they  would  not  be  enlight- 
ened if  they  should."  A  learned  chief  justice  of  Massachusetts 
made  a  similar  criticism.  What  the  effect  of  such  a  declaration 
from  the  court  would  be  upon  a  jury  may  easily  be  imagined  by 
any  one  who  has  had  experience  in  defending  lawsuits  brought 
against  insurance  companies,  and  who  has  observed  the  deter- 
mination, frequently  taken  at  the  very  outset  of  a  case  by  the 
twelve  disinterested  men  in  the  jury  box,  to  disregard  the 


55ft 


POIIMS  OP  I'OUCIKK. 


plainest  provisions  of  a  policy  which  is  the  undisputed  contract 
between  the  parties. 

A  dishonest,  selfish  and  short-sighted  w  illingness  to  do  in- 
justice to  an  honest  company,  in  order  to  secure  for  themselves 
immunity  in  the  future  from  the  consequences  of  their  neglect 
of  proper  business  precautions,  not  un frequently  led  intelligent 
business  men.  when  in  the  jury  box,  to  forget  the  obligations  of 
a  juror's  oath,  and  to  ignore  the  violated  conditions  of  a  plain 
contract  in  favor  of  a  dishonest  claimant,  ostensibly  on  the 
miserable  plea  of  "fine  print."  but,  really,  because  they  feared 
that,  at  some  time  or  other,  they  might  themselves  suffer  from 
their  own  inexcusable  neglect. 

THE  STANDARD  POLICY  OF  NEW  5TORK. 

Having  this  prejudice  on  the  part  of  judge  and  jury,  there- 
fore, in  mind  and,  at  the  same  time,  remembering  that  the  con- 
ditions of  a  policy,  when  not  intended  for  the  information  and 
protection  of  honest  policy-holders,  are  designed  to  defeat  fraud 
on  the  part  of  dishonest  ones;  the  Commission  of  underwriters 
and  lawyers  appointed  to  frame  The  Standard  Policy  of  New 
York  approached  the  serious  task  of  cutting  down  an  important 
and  well  considered  contract  in  order  to  meet  a  popular  and 
unwise  prejudice,  with  the  determination  to  use  extreme  care 
and  to  be  fortified  with  an  intelligent  reason  for  each  and  every 
alteration  and  elimination. 

In  his  wonderful  commentary  on  the  English  law,  Lord 
Blackstone  says :  '  'The  common  law  of  England  has  fared  like 
other  venerable  edifices  of  antiquity  which  rare  and  unexperi- 
enced workmen  have  ventured  to  new-dress  and  refine  with  all 
the  rays  of  modern  improvement.  Hence,  frequently  its  sym- 
metry has  been  destroyed,  its  proportions  distorted,  and  its 
majestic  simplicity  exchanged  for  specious  embellishments  and 
fantastic  novelties."  The  commission  were  in  no  haste  to  prune 
and  improve  a  contract  which  was  the  result  of  ripe  thought 
and  the  outgrowth  of  years  of  experience  on  the  part  of  wise 
men,  and  yield  to  a  popular  but  mistaken  prejudice,  remembering 
that  the  interests  of  honest  policy-holders,  if  they  could  only  be 
brought  to  realize  it,  are  best  subserved  by  explicit  contracts, 


NEW  YORK  STANDARD  POLICY. 


559 


with  conditions  and  restrictions  which  will  entrap  rogues,  who 
arc  the  enemies  not  of  the  insurance  companies  alone  but  of 
society  itself. 

The  task  of  preparing  a  form  of  policy  was  not  an  easy  one. 
It  is  difficult  to  provide  for  the  cases  which  our  experience 
teaches  us  are  sure  to  arise.  How  much  more  difficult  to  provide 
for  those  which  have  not  yet  arisen,  hut  which  we  ma}'  be  sure 
will  present  themselves  ! 

Language  itself  is  imperfect.  "If,"  says  Vattel  in  his  Law  of 
Nations,  "the  ideas  of  men  were  always  distinct  and  perfectly 
determined;  if  for  the  expression  of  those  ideas  they  had  none 
but  proper  words,  no  terms  but  such  as  were  clear,  precise,  and 
susceptible  only  of  one  sense,  there  would  never  be  any  difficulty 
in  discovering  their  meaning  in  the  words  by  which  they  in- 
tended to  express  it ;  nothing  more  could  be  necessary  than  to 
understand  the  language;  but  even  in  this  supposition,  the  art 
of  interpretation  would  still  not  be  useless.  In  all  contracts  it  is 
impossible  to  foresee  and  point  out  all  the  particular  cases  that 
may  arise.  We  decree,  we  ordain,  we  agree  upon  certain 
things,  and  express  them  in  general  terms;  and  although  all  the 
expressions  of  a  general  contract  should  be  perfectly  clear,  plain 
and  determinate,  the  true  interpretation  would  still  consist  in 
making,  in  all  the  particular  cases  that  may  present  themselves, 
a  just  application  of  what  has  been  agreed  in  a  general  manner.'" 

In  this  view,  it  behooves  us  to  keep  in  mind  the  numerous 
rules  of  construction,  and  chiefly  should  we  remember  that  most 
important  one  laid  down  by  the  same  eminent  authority  last 
quoted,  that  "If  he  who  could  and  ought  to  have  explained  him- 
self clearly  and  fully,  has  not  done  it.  it  is  the  worse  for  him; 
he  cannot  be  allowed  to  introduce  subsequent  restrictions  which 
he  has  not  expressed.''  And  also  that  other  significant  rule  laid 
down  by  a  high  court — "conditions  and  provisos  in  policies  of 
insurance  are  to  be  construed  strictly  against  the  underwriters, 
as  they  tend  to  narrow  the  range  and  limit  the  force  of  the 
principal  <  >1  ligation . " 

In  view  of  the  numerous  objections  which  have  been  urged 
against  the  old  form  of  policy,  it  was  deemed  best  to  eliminate 
every  condition  which  could  possibly  be  dispensed  with,  having, 
a  proper  regard  to  the  safety  of  the  company  and  its  honest 


500 


FORMS  < >  F  POLICIES. 


policy-holders;  relying,  in  many  cases,  merely  on  conditions 
which  would  he  implied  by  law,  whether  printed  in  the  contract 
or  not. 

Those  requirements  which  it  would  he  difficult  or  impossible 
for  the  company  to  prove  had  not  been  complied  with,  were 
omitted  altogether.  That,  for  example,  which  states  that  the 
policy  shall  be  void  if  the  building  be  unprovided  with  good  and 
substantial  brick  or  stone  chimneys  has  been  omitted.  It  would 
be  difficult  to  disprove  a  dishonest  claimant's  statement  that  his 
chimneys  were  all  that  had  been  required.  Indeed,  a  learned 
and  ingenious  judge  held,  in  one  case,  that  a  building  which  had 
one  good  and  substantial  brick  or  stone  chimney  could  not  be 
held  to  be  unprovided  with  those  useful  articles,  even  though 
every  other  chimney  in  the  building  had  been  constructed  of 
mud  and  sticks. 

The  clause  requiring  notice  to  and  consent  of  the  company  for 
other  insurance  has  been  framed  to  meet  decisions  of  the  Courts 
in  two  well  known  cases,  to  the  effect  that  a  subsequent  policy 
containing  the  same  clause,  viz.,  requiring  notice  of  existing  in- 
surance, would  be  void  ab  in  it  io  by  reason  of  the  neglect,  willful 
or  otherwise,  of  the  assured  to  give  such  notice,  and.  therefore, 
would  not  be  "other  insurance,"  and  not  sufficient  to  invalidate 
the  first  policy.  We  all  know  that  the  underwriter  objects  to 
over-insurance  only  because  of  the  temptation  it  offers  to  an 
assured  to  burn  his  property  for  gain.  In  other  respects,  where 
it  does  not  lead  to  a  fire,  it  is  an  advantage  to  the  underwriter, 
as  it  tends  to  diminish  his  loss.  It  is  because  of  the  incentive 
to  fraud  which  it  offers  that  it  is  objectionable,  and  it  is  not  the 
less  so  if  the  assured  supposes  the  insurance  to  be  valid  and 
collectible. 

Says  a  learned  writer  on  this  subject:  "The  spirit  of  the 
condition  is,  therefore,  violated,  whether  the  second  policy  is 
void  or  valid,  whenever  the  insured  supposes  it  to  be  good,  and 
this  he  must  always  suppose  or  he  would  not  pay  the  premium 
to  procure  it." 

It  was  reserved,  at  last,  for  a  judge  in  the  state  of  Iowa — all 
honor  to  his  intelligence — to  rebuke  the  impudence  of  this  plea, 
and  to  remind  the  ingenious  attorney  making  it  that  the  law  did 
not  countenance  such  a  monstrous  injustice  as  that  of  permit- 


NEW  YORK  STANDARD  POLICY. 


561 


ting  a  wrong-doer  to  take  advantage  of  his  wrong;  to  remind 
him  that  if  the  policy  was  void  by  reason  of  his  wrong-doing  he 
was  not  the  proper  one  to  plead  its  avoidance,  and  could  have 
no  standing  in  court  for  such  a  purpose;  that,  on  its  face,  the 
policy  was  a  valid  one,  and  that,  until  the  company  issuing  it 
chose  to  plead  its  invalidity,  it  was  a  valid  instrument  in  the  eye 
of  the  law,  and  the  holder  of  it  was  estopped  from  pleading  its 
invalidity. 

To  prevent  any  doubt  on  this  point,  the  clause  as  to  other  in- 
surance was  made  to  read  as  follows:  "If  the  assured  now  has 
or  shall  hereafter  make  or  procure  any  other  contract  of  insur- 
ance, whether  valid  or  not."  etc. 

The  aim  has  been,  in  short,  to  make  a  form  of  policy  as  brief 
as  is  consistent  with  safety,  believing  that  by  a  shorter  form  in 
plain  long  primer  type — the  font  prescribed  by  law  in  one  of  the 
States — substantial  justice  will  be  oftener  secured  before  pre- 
judiced juries  than  with  longer  and  more  explicit  forms. 

We  should  approach  the  task  of  making  a  contract,  in  the 
good  faith  of  which  the  households  and  commerce  of  a  continent 
repose,  with  a  proper  appreciation  of  the  importance  of  the 
undertaking — with  something  more  than  a  sense  of  duty  to  our- 
selves only.  We  know  that  those  who  accept  our  policies  have 
rights  as  well  as  we,  and  they  expect  that  we  will  secure  their 
rights  while  we  protect  our  own.  We  know  that  while  many 
of  them  never  read  our  policies  because  of  the  time  and  trouble 
it  requires,  there  are  not  a  few  who  neglect  this  precaution  be- 
cause they  have  faith  in  our  fair  dealing  and  confidence  in  our 
rectitude.  Let  us  remember  that  he  who  draws  a  contract  for 
his  neighbor  and  himself  should  protect  that  neighbor  not  less 
than  himself.  Finally,  not  only  in  the  form  of  our  contract, 
but  in  the  adjustment  of  losses  under  it  and  in  the  conduct  of 
our  business  generally,  let  us  continue  to  deserve  that  ancient 
and  honorable  reputation  for  fair  dealing  and  "uniform  prac- 
tices" for  which  our  profession,  as  a  whole,  has  ever  been  dis- 
tinguished;  and,  in  the  words  of  the  great  Apostle,  in  his  letter 
to  the  people  of  that  eternal  city  which  gave  to  the  world  the 
Justinian  Code,  one  of  the  great  corner-stones  of  the  English 
law  and  of  our  own.  let  us  "Provide  things  honest  in  the  sight 
of  all  men !" 


562 


FORMS  OP  POLICIES. 


DOES  THE  NEW   YORK  STANDARD  POLICY  LAW  PROHIBIT  THE 
USE  OF  CLAUSES  OR  FORMS  WHICH  HAVE  NOT  BEEN 
FILED  WITH  THE  INSURANCE  DEPARTMENT  ? 

It  has  been  claimed  by  many  that,  under  the  law  of  the  State 
of  New  York,  only  those  forms  that  have  been  filed  with  the 
Superintendent  of  Insurance  can  be  used  in  any  case.  While  I 
differ  from  this  view,  the  companies  generally  would  prefer  to 
take  the  ruling  of  the  Attorney-General  and  the  Superintendent 
of  Insurance,  and  it  would  probably  be  safest  to  do  so.  My  own 
recollection  is  (for  1  was  a  member  of  the  Commission  which 
framed  the  Standard  Policy)  that  the  various  forms  for  endorse- 
ments, etc. ,  were  filed  as  surplusage,  and  I  have  never  regarded 
them  as  required  to  be  filed  by  law.  Even  if  they  had  been,  I 
contend  that  the  phraseology  of  the  law  and  of  the  Standard 
Policy  itself  would  admit  of  other  forms  better  suited  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  any  particular  case,  and  especially  if  in  the 
interest  of  the  property-owner. 

Chapter  513  of  the  Insurance  Law  of  1901  provides  that  "No 
fire  insurance  corporation,  its  officers  or  agents,  shall  make,  issue 
or  deliver  for  use  any  fire  insurance  policy,  or  a  renewal  of  any 
such  policy,  on  property  in  this  State,  other  than  such  as  shall 
conform  in  all  particulars,  as  to  blanks,  sizes  of  type,  context, 
provisions,  agreements  and  conditions  with  such  printed  blank 
form  of  contract  or  policy,  and  no  other  or  different  provision, 
agreement,  condition  or  clause  shall  be  in  any  manner  made  a 
part  of  such  contract  or  policy,  or  endorsed  thereon  or  delivered 
therewith,  except  as  follows: 

First.    Name  of  corporation,  etc. 

Second.  Printed  or  written  forms  of  description  and  specifi- 
cation or  schedules  of  the  property  covered  by  any  particular 
policy,  and  any  other  matter  necessary  to  clearly  express  all 
the  facts  and  conditions  of  insurance  on  any  particular 
risk,  not  inconsistent  with  or  a  waiver  of  any  of  the  conditions 
or  provisions  of  the  Standard  policy  herein  provided  for."' 

The  law  of  1901  is  a  re-enactment  of  the  law  of  1886,  with  the 
exception  of  a  clause  which  provided  for  transferring  from  the 
office  of  the  Secretary  of  State  to  the  office  of  the  Superintendent 
of  Insurance  the  standard  forms,  &c. ,  that  had  been  filed  in  the 


NEW  YORK  STANDARD  POLICY. 


563 


first  named  office,  "together  with  such  provisions,  agreements 
or  conditions  as  may  previous  to  the  thirty-first  day  of  December, 
1901,  he  filed  by  the  New  York  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  in 
the  office  of  the  Superintendent  of  Insurance  and  approved  by 
him,  which  provisions,  agreements  or  conditions  shall  be  void  if 
they  are  inconsistent  with  the  Standard  fire  insurance  policy 
heretofore  filed  in  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  State." 

It  must  be  conceded  that  it  would  be  impossible  at  any  fixed 
date  to  conceive  of  forms  which  would,  thereafter  and  for  all 
time  clearly  expi*ess  all  the  facts  and  conditions  of  insurance  of 
particular  risks,  for  new  risks  and  new  conditions  are  continually 
arising,  and  the  law  evidently  contemplated  that  such  must  b<' 
provided  for,  stipulating  only  that  such  conditions  should  not  be 
inconsistent  with  or  a  waiver  of  the  standard  form.  In  short, 
the  law  contemplated  that  the  necessities  of  commerce,  agri- 
culture and  business  generally  should  be  met  by  clauses  which 
would  clearly  describe  conditions  which  underwriters  might  be 
willing  to  assume,  not  inconsistent  with  the  standard  policy. 

That  the  standard  policy  itself  contemplates  such  conditions 
is  plain  from  its  own  provisions.  In  line  11,  for  example,  of  the 
clause  which  provides  for  acts  or  laches  of  the  assured  which 
would  void  the  policy,  it  is  contemplated  that  the  compan}'  may 
provide  by  agreement  endorsed  on  the  policy  for  exceptions  it 
may  be  willing  to  make  as  to  this  clause.  The  language  is  as 
follows:  "This  entire  policy,  unless  otherwise  provided  by 
agreement  indorsed  hereon  or  added  hereto,  shall  be  void," 
&c.  It  is  plain  that  the  Legislature  and  the  framers  of  policy 
contemplated  enlarging  the  policy  in  the  interest  of  the  property- 
owner  as  occasion  and  justice  might  require. 

Provision  was  also  made  in  lines  56,  57,  58  and  59  as  follows : 

"If.  with  the  consent  of  this  company,  an  interest  under  this 
policy  shall  exist  in  favor  of  a  mortgagee  or  of  any  person  or 
corporation  having  an  interest  in  the  subject  of  insurance  other 
than  the  interest  of  the  insured  as  described  herein,  the  con- 
ditions hereinbefore  contained  shall  apply  in  the  manner  ex- 
pressed, in  such  provisions  and  conditions  of  insurance 
relating  to  such  interest  as  shall  be  written  upon,  attached 
or  appended  hereto"  it  is  clear,  therefore,  that  conditions  other 
than  those  of  ownership  may  be  provided  for  by  conditions 


504 


I  i  »RMS  OF  POLICIES. 


written  upon,  attached  or  appended  to  the  policy.  A  clause 
providing  that  the  loss,  if  any,  shall  be  payable  to  a  party  as 
mortgagee,  "or  his  assigns,"  would  clearly  be  in  line  with  this 
provision  of  the  policy,  and  not  a  waiver  of  its  conditions,  for  the 
conditions  themselves  contemplate  providing  for  specific  in- 
terests of  payees;  and,  moreover,  a  contract  between  an  in- 
surance company  and  a  mortgagee  of  insured  premises  touching 
the  interest  of  the  mortgagee  therein  is  an  independent  and 
collateral  agreement,  according  to  the  late  Mr.  William  Allen 
Butler.  Mr.  Butler  was  the  counsel  of  the  commission  that 
prepared  the  standard  policy  and  so-called  standard  clauses. 
In  a  letter  written  January  loth  1898  he  says: 

'As  the  law  expressly  permits  conditions  as  to  particular  risks 
not  inconsistent  with  or  a  waiver  of  am*  of  the  provisions  or 
conditions  of  the  Standard  policy,  and  the  mortgagee  clause  is 
an  enlargement  thereof  for  the  benefit  of  the  mortgagee,  it 
may  be  written  according  to  the  particular  terms  agreed  upon, 
which  in  general  are  well  expressed  by  the  clauses  formulated 
by  the  framers  of  the  New  York  Standard  Policy  and  filed  with 
the  Insurance  Department  as  customary  clauses  in  general 
use,  not  as  binding  forms.  If  the  New  York  law  had  re- 
quired all  clauses  and  conditions  inserted  in  the  policy  to  be 
formulated,  and  a  mortgagee  clause  had  been  so  formulated,  its 
use  would  be  binding  on  the  insurance  companies  ;  but  it  makes 
no  such  requirement." 

In  the  concluding  paragraph  of  the  letter  of  Attorney-General 
O'Brien  of  Sept.  13, 1887,  replying  to  letter  of  Mr.  E.  R.  Kennedy, 
Chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Laws  and  Legislation  of  the  Xew 
York  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,*  of  August  31,  1887,  is  the 
following : 

''I  am  of  the  opinion  that  fire  insurance  companies  should 
conform  to  the  letter  of  the  statute  and  that  they  issue  none 
other  than  the  standard  clauses,  although  others  ma}-  cover  sub- 
stantially the  same  condition  as  those  incorporated  in  the  stand- 
ard clauses,  unless  there  is  some  particular  feature  about 
the  policy  which  is  in  no  way  inconsistent  with  the  proviso 
ions  of  the  standard  policy,  which  facts  may  be  added  to 
the  regular  form  of  the  standard  policy" 

*Mr.  Kennedy  was,  also,  Chairman  of  the  Commission  which  framed  the 
Standard  Policy. 


NEW  YORK  STANDARD  POLICY. 


5G5 


The  law  did  not  require  the  riling  of  standard  forms  and 
clauses  for  all  conditions  and  hazards  that  might  arise;  that,  for 
example,  of  abnormally  powerful  electric  currents  passing 
through  dynamos  or  other  electrical  apparatus.  No  provision 
could  contemplate  and  provide  for  the  various  hazards  which 
would  arise  from  time  to  time,  and  which,  in  the  interest  of  the 
community  as  well  as  of  the  underwriters,  would  need  to  be 
provided  for  in  the  policies.  Therefore,  the  mere  tiling  of  those 
forms  which,  at  the  date  of  filing,  were  supposed  to  be  necessary 
could  not  be  held  to  preclude  the  use  of  forms  which  might 
afterwards  be  found  necessary  in  order  to  protect  the  companies 
and  the  community  from  dangers  which  would  arise  from  time 
to  time  by  discoveries  in  manufactures,  chemistry,  etc. — new 
explosives,  for  example. 

I  respectfully  submit  that  the  Attorney-General  and  the 
Superintendent  of  Insurance  are  mistaken  in  holding  that  the 
filing  of  particular  forms  or  clauses  precluded  the  companies 
from  using  any  other  matter  necessary  to  clearly  express  all  the 
facts  and  conditions  of  insurance  on  any  particular  risk.  In 
lines  Its,  ;»'.)  and  100  of  the  Standard  Policy  the  following  words 
clearly  contemplate  the  use  of  clauses  which  would  thus  apply, 
to  wit:  "The  extent  of  the  application  of  the  insurance 
under  this  policy  or  of  the  contribution  to  be  mode  by  this 
company  in  cose  of  loss  may  l>e  prodded  for  by  agreement 
or  condition  written  hereon  or  attached  or  appended  her e- 
to." 

And  if  any  doubt  could  remain  as  to  the  right  of  companies 
thus  to  provide  for  contingencies  whose  hazards  they  were  un- 
willing to  assume,  it  would  seem  that  such  doubt  would  be  re- 
moved by  the  concluding  paragraph  of  the  Standard  policy,  as 
follows : 

"This  policy  is  made  and  accepted  subject  to  the  foregoing 
stipulations  and  conditions,  together  with  such  other  provis- 
ions, agreements  or  conditions  as  may  be  endorsed  hereon 
or  added  hereto,  and  no  officer,  agent  or  other  representative 
of  this  company  shall  have  power  to  waive  any  provision  or  con- 
dition of  this  policy  except  such  as  by  the  terms  of  this  policy 
may  be  the  suhject  of  agreement  indorsed  hereon  or  added 
hereto,  and  as  to  such  provisions  and  conditions  no  officer,  agent 


566 


FORMS  OF  POLICIES. 


or  representative  shall  have  such  power  or  he  deemed  or  held  to 
have  waived  such  provisions  or  conditions  unless  such  trainer, 
if  ant/,  stiatt  he  irritten  lijxm  <>r  attached  hereto." 

Thus  the  policy,  by  line  1 1,  by  lines  56,  57,  58  and  59,  lines 
98,  99  and  loo.  and  the  important  paragraph  with  which  it  term- 
inates, clearly  contemplates  specific  conditions  necessary  to  de- 
scribe the  risk  and  the  conditions  which  the  company  assumes, 
or  is  unwilling  to  assume ;  and  the  insertion  of  such  conditions 
cannot  p<  issibly  be  regarded  as  inconsistent  with  or  waiver  of  the 
conditions  of  the  Standard  policy  while  these  provisions  cited 
remain  a  portion  of  it.  How  can  a  clause  or  agreement  endorsed 
on  a  policy  or  attached  thereto  be  "inconsistent"  with  the  "con- 
ditions or  provisions  of  the  Standard  Policy"'  if  it  be  endorsed  in 
the  manner  prescribed  by  the  Standard  Policy  itself,  for  just 
such  purposes  and  "to  express  all  the  facts  and  conditions  of  in- 
surance on  any  particular  risk?" 

To  hold  that  property-owners  engaged  in  commerce  and  manu- 
factures cannot  secure  insurance  on  terms  of  contract  mutually 
satisfactory  to  the  insurance  companies  and  themselves  and,  at 
the  same  time,  not  contrary  to  public  policy  or  prejudicial  to  the 
rights  of  others,  and  that  they  are  limited  to  forms  of  contract 
framed  at  a  date  when  no  human  foresight  could  possibly  have 
contemplated  subsequent  discoveries  and  processes,  would  be  to 
assume  that  the  Legislature  intended  to  make  no  provision  for 
growth  and,  therefore,  was  willing  to  cripple  enterprise  in  all 
lines  of  human  effort;  for  insurance  against  disaster  is  necessary 
for  all  business  enterprise.  That  the  Legislature  in  framing  the 
Standard  conditions  did  not  contemplate  such  a  cast-iron  policy 
is  evidenced  by  the  liberal  and  elastic  paragraphs  of  the  Standard 
Policy  itself  above  quoted. 

FORMS  FOR  POLICIES,  ENDORSEMENTS,  TRANSFERS. 
ASSIGNMENTS,   ETC.,  ETC. 

Note. — For  full  instruc  tions  as  to  the  writing  of  policies,  see  pages  287  to  307. 


The  following  general  forms  will  be  found  convenient  for 
making  transfers,  assignments,  etc. 


POLICY  FORMS. 


567 


I  have  not  given  much  space  to  specific  forms  for  insuring 
buildings  and  their  contents,  as  most  companies  furnish  these 
in  printed  blanks  for  attaching  to  policies. 

Average  clauses,  co-insurance  clauses,  etc.,  vary,  one  State 
with  another,  by  reason  of  legislation  and  adopted  forms  ap- 
proved by  the  Insurance  Department.  New  Jersey  has  a  sepa- 
rate co-insurance  clause,  New  York  another.  I  regard  the 
clause  of  the  National  Board  of  I' nder writers  as  the  best  aver- 
age or  co-insurance  clause,  and  next  to  this  the  standard  clause 
of  New  York  State. 

There  could  be  no  better  evidence  of  the  unwisdom  of  pro- 
hibiting co-insurance,  or  stipulating  that  an  exact  form  shall  be 
followed  by  a  State  (unless,  indeed,  an  ideally  correct  form  could 
be  agreed  upon),  than  in  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  which  pro- 
videsa  clause  which  cannot  be  departed  from.  The  consequence 
is  that  underwriters  who  would  be  quite  willing  to  insert  the 
five  per  cent  waiver  clause  as  to  inventory  and  appraisal  in  the 
case  of  small  losses  (which  forms  a  part  of  the  New  York  clause 
and  which  property-owners  in  New  Jersey  might  well  wish  in- 
serted) cannot  give  their  customers  the  benefit  of  the  clause  be- 
cause of  the  statutory  prohibition. 

The  following  forms  were  prepared  by  the  committee  of  the 
National  Board,  of  which  the  writer  was  chairman.  As  the 
National  Board  has  no  authority  to  require  that  they  shall  be 
used,  their  use  is  optional,  and  I  print  them  here  because  they 
were  carefully  considered,  and  in  the  absence  of  any  form  re- 
quired by  State  legislation  they  would  probably  be  better  for 
the  company  and  the  assured  than  any  framed  less  carefully. 

The  following  is  the  report  of  the  Committee: 
They  have  endeavored  to  keep  in  mind  the  various  decisions  of  the  higher 
courts,  adopting  in  all  eases  phraseology  whose  interpretation  seems  to  be  well 
settled  by  the  courts.  In  order  to  reach  a  correct  opinion,  they  have  secured 
from  the  various  insurance  associations  throughout  the  country,  the  forms 
adopted  by  them,  with  their  explanation  of  preference  for  particular  phrase- 
ology. 

They  have,  as  a  rule,  avoided  wherever  possible  the  phrase  "it  is  under- 
stood and  agreed,"  as  admitting  of  evidence  in  case  of  litigation  to  disprove 
the  statement,  and  have  instead  used  the  phraseology  "it  is  a  condition  of  this 
contract,"  or  "it  is  expressly  stipulated  and  made  a  condition  of  this  contract," 
etc.  In  the  case  of  occupancy,  the  phrase  '  'while  occupied  for"  has  been  taken 
in  preference  to  the  phrase  "privileged  to  be  occupied  for." 


COLD  STORAGE  FORMS. 


The  lightning  clause  recommended  precludes  all  possibility  of  claim  for 
electrical  damage  to  dynamos,  wiring  or  other  electrical  appliances,  in  order 
that  the  ordinary  lightning  clause  attached  to  policies  covering  buildings  con- 
taining dynamos  and  other  electrical  appliances  should  not  subject  the  com- 
panies to  claim  for  a  loss  which  was  not  contemplated. 

Coi.d  Storage  Clauses — The  Committee  found  the  conditions  of  the 
situation  with  regard  to  cold  storage  to  be  manifold  First,  the  companies 
arc  divided  into  two  classes,  those  who  are  willing  to  assume  only  the  direct 
tire  loss  and  arc  unwilling  to  cover  the  indirect  or  consequential  loss  due  to  a 
change  of  temperature  by  interruption  of  process,  some  of  this  class  of  com- 
panies holding  that  they  have  no  right  under  their  charter  to  assume  the  in- 
direct or  consequential  loss,  especially  where  the  interruption  of  process  is  by 
afire  occurring  outside  of  the  premises,  as  where  a  distant  plant  is  burned. 
Second,  those  companies  who  are  willing,  for  an  extra  premium,  to  assume 
the  consequential  loss  or  damage. 

The  warehouse  men — or  at  least  most  of  them — desire  insurance  covering 
this  consequential  damage  in  order  that  they  may,  in  securing  loans  from 
banks  give  the  policies  as  collateral  security,  the  banks  being  unwilling  to 
accept  as  collateral  a  policy  which  excludes  consequential  damage,  which  may 
involve  the  entire  value  of  the  merchandise. 

Again,  the  warehouses  seem  to  be  divided  as  fire  risks  into  no  less  than  five 
classes  or  kinds,  viz. : 

1.  Those  having  the  refrigerating  or  cooling  plant  in  the  building  itself, 
in  which  case  it  would  be  difficult  to  draw  the  line  between  the  actual  fire 
damage  and  a  direct  damage  of  increased  heat  caused  by  combustion  of 
merchandise,  as  compared  with  the  indirect  damage  from  the  rising  of  tempera- 
ture owing  to  the  interruption  of  the  refrigerating  process. 

2.  A  warehouse  having  its  cooling  process  or  plant  outside  of  the  main 
building,  under  control  by  the  owner,  as  where  it  might  be  adjoining  and 
thoroughly  cut  off  by  a  fire  wall. 

3.  A  warehouse — one  of  a  number  or  system — supplied  by  a  central  plant 
located,  perhaps,  at  a  distance  of  blocks  from  some  of  the  warehouses  protected. 

4.  A  warehouse,  one  of  a  system,  supplied  by  duplex  plants,  either  or 
both  of  which  might  be  fireproof,  and  so  reasonably  assured  against  interruption 
of  process  with  duplex  systems  of  pipes. 

5.  A  warehouse  distant  from  the  supplying  plant,  but  with  pipes  connect- 
ing it  passing  through  other  hazards,  some  of  them  special  hazards,  and  liable 
to  be  interrupted  or  cut  off  by  a  tire  in  any  one  of  the  intermediate  buildings. 

It  seemed  clear  to  the  Committee  that  their  duty  was  oidy  twofold: 

(A)  That  of  preparing  a  clause  which  should  especially  except  any  claim 
for  consequent  ial  damage,  although  this  damage  would  probably  be  excepted 
under  the  standard  policy  without  any  special  clause  or  notice. 

(B)  A  clause  assuming  the  consequential  damage,  for  which  a  chargeshould 
be  made;  this  charge  or  rate  to  be  determined  by  the  rating  organization,  like 
the  New  York  Fire  Insurance  Exchange,  Boston  Board  or  others,  which  would 
certainly  name  a  rate  measuring  each  of  the  five  conditions  above  named. 


COLD  STORAGE  FORMS. 


It  is  probable  that  a  company  would  assume  the  additional  hazard  for  an 
additional  premium,  and  therefore  use  the  clause  I!  But  it  is  also  possible 
thai  in  the  case  of  a  warehouse  system  supplied  by  duplicate  fireproof  plants, 
for  example,  the  owner  might  object  to  paying  the  rate  charged  for  the  possi- 
bility of  interruption  and  assume  this  himself ,  in  which  case  he  would  want 
the  policy  without  the  consequential  clause  at  the  rate  fixed  for  it.  It  is  clear 
lie  should  have  this  choice  if  he  can  find  companies  to  insure  him  on  such  a 
basis. 

The  problem  is  a  complex  one  and,  while  possibly  easily  understood,  re- 
quires care  on  the  part  of  the  companies.  Those  who  insure  the  direct  fire 
loss  .md  exclude  the  consequential  or  indirect  damage  are  liable  to  have  trouble 
in  case  any  company  should  assume  both  the  lire  loss  and  the  consequential 
damage  in  the  same  warehouse,  as  perplexing  distribution  questions  would 
arise  in  ease  of  loss. 

The  Committee  felt  that  it  was  necessary  to  enumerate  the  various  buildings 
in  which  fires  would  occasion  a  loss  under  a  policy  covering  the  one  insured, 
inasmuch  as  consequential  damage  in  a  building  resulting  from  the  destruction 
by  a  tire  outside  of  the  building  would  not  be  covered  unless  the  policy  assumed 
liability  for  tires  outside  the  building  containing  the  merchandise  insured,  and 
they  felt  it  would  be  too  indefinite  to  have  the  form  read  "by  loss  resulting 
from  fire  in  the  above  described  building  or  outside  of  said  building."  There- 
fore, the  specific  naming  of  all  locutions  w  hose  fires  would  in  volve  a  loss  claim 
is  deemed  by  the  Committee  nece  ssary  to  insure  that  the  policy  would  cover 
such  outside  fire  and  at  the  same  time  insure  that  the  company  should  have 
notice  of  any  change  in  hazard  by  changing  the  supply  pipes  to  run  through 
other  buildings  than  those  named,  and  thus  subject  the  company  to  additional 
hazards  not  contemplated  when  taking  the  insurance. 

It  is  important,  that  two  sets  of  policies  should  be  written,  so  as  to  prevent 
complications  arising  out  of  non-concurrence  and  questions  of  contribution. 
The  companies  assuming  the  fire  risk  only  should  except,  by  form  "A,"  the 
liability  for  the  indirect  or  consequential  damage.  For  the  same  reason,  the 
companies  assuming  the  indirect  or  consequential  damage  alone  should  except 
the  fire  hazard,  so  that  they  could  not  be  called  upon  to  contribute  for  the  in 
direct  fire  loss.  Only  in  ease  all  of  the  companies  insuring  the  property  assume 
both  fire  hazard  and  indirect  or  consequential  hazard  should  the  two  hazards, 
the  fire  and  the  consequential,  be  written  on  the  same  policy. 

It  is  obvious  that  in  cities  where  a  refrigerating  plant,  whether  single  or 
duplex,  supplies  a  large  number  of  risks  (in  one  instance  in  New  York  84 
different  buildings  are  so  supplied)  a  company  should  know  the  facts  in  order 
that  it  may  not  have  an  excessive  line  by  a  single  fire.  A  company  having 
$10,000  in  each  of  the  twenty  cold  storage  stores  supplied  by  a  burned  plant 
would  be  confronted  with  claims  for  $200,000  by  the  burning  of  such  plant. 

The  question,  therefore,  is  not  merely  one  of  rate,  which  might  involve 
charging  in  addition  to  the  rate  of  the  warehouse  containing  the  property  the 
rates  of  all  other  risks  whose  burning  would  cause  an  indirect  or  consequential 
damage,  but  is  also  one  of  line.  Those  companies  who  assume  the  conse- 
quential damage  will  need  to  be  very  careful  as  to  this  point. 


POLICY  FliKllS. 


At  the  List.  Animal  Meeting  of  the  Board,  held  in  May,  1902,  the  Committee 
was  authorized  to  promulgate  the  forms  which  had  been  submitted  for  the 
consideration  of  the  Board  and  referred  to  the  Committee  witn  power.  The 
following  are  such  clauses  and  forms. 

National  Hoard  Standard  Form  No.  1. 

TELEPHONE  FORM. 

On  machinery,  apparatus,  tools  and  implements,  cables,  wires  and  cords, 
furniture  and  fixtures,  printed  and  blank  books  and  stationery,  material  and 
sup] dies,  t heir  own  or  held  by  them  in  trust,  or  on  commission  or  leased,  for 
which  t lie  assured  may  be  legally  liable,  or  sold  hut  not  delivered,  all  while 
contained  in  or  on  the  telephone  exchange  si  :tt  ions  hereinafter  ii  nire  specifically 
mentioned  and  described,  and  not  to  exceed  in  amount  the  sums  set  opposite 
each  place  or  locality. 

(Here  follows  description  of  the  places  anil  amounts  covered.) 

This  company  shall  not  be  liable  for  any  loss  or  damage  resulting-  from  any 
electrical  injury  or  disturbance,  whether  from  artifical  or  natural  cause,  in  or 
to  any  of  the  property  hereby  insured,  unless  fire  ensues,  and  then  for  the  loss 
resulting  from  fire  only.  Nor  shall  this  company  be  liable  for  any  greater 
proportion  of  any  loss  than  the  amount  hereby  insured  at  each  place  bears 
to. . .  .per  cent,  of  the  actual  cash  value  of  the  property  insured  at  such  place. 

It  is  further  understood  and  agreed  that,  in  case  of  any  loss  or  damage  by 
fire,  the  assured  is  at  liberty  to  make  immediately  all  necessary  repairs,  notice 
of  such  loss  to  be  given  to  this  company  without  delay. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No. . .  .of  Insurance 

Company. 

National  Board  Standard  Form  No.  2. 

AVERAGE  CLAUSE. 

It  is  expressly  stipulated  and  made  a  condition  of  this  contract  that  this 
company  shall  be  liable  for  no  greater  proportion  of  any  loss  than  the  amount 
hereby  insured  bears  to. . .  .per  cent,  of  the  actual  cash  value  of  the  property 
described  herein  at  the  time  when  such  loss  shall  happen,  nor  for  more  than 
the  proportion  which  this  policy  bears  to  the  total  insurance  thereon;  provided, 
however,  that  if  the  aggregate  claim  for  any  loss  shall  not  exceed  five  (5)  per 
cent,  of  such  actual  cash  value,  no  special  inventory  or  appraisement  of  the 
undamaged  property  shall  be  required. 

If  this  policy  be  divided  into  two  or  more  items,  the  foregoing  conditions 
shall  apply  to  each  item  separately;  and  it'  two  or  more  buildings  or  their  con- 
tents be  included  in  a  single  item,  the  application  of  the  provision  as  to  special 
inventory  or  appraisement  shall  be  limited  to  each  building  and  its  contents. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No. . .  .of  Insurance 

Company. 


POLICY  FORMS. 


571 


National  Board  Standard  Kokm  No.  :! 

REDUCED  RATE  AVERAGE  CLAUSE. 

In  consideration  of  the  reduced  rate  at  which  this  policy  is  written,  it  is 
expressly  stipulated  and  made  a  condition  of  this  contract  that  this  company 
shall  be  liable  for  no  greater  proportion  of  any  loss  than  the  amount  hereby 
insured  hears  to.  .  .  .per  cent,  of  the  actual  cash  value  of  t he  property  described 
herein  at  the  time  when  such  loss  shall  happen,  nor  for  more  than  the  pro- 
portion which  this  policy  bears  to  the  total  insurance  thereon;  provided,  how- 
ever, that  if  the  aggregate  claim  tor  any  loss  shall  not  exceed  five  (5)  per  cent, 
of  such  actual  cash  value,  no  special  inventory  or  appraisement  of  the  un- 
damaged property  shall  be  required. 

If  this  policy  be  divided  into  two  or  more  items,  the  foregoing  conditions 
shall  apply  to  each  item  separately;  and  if  two  or  more  buildings  or  their  con- 
tents be  included  in  a  single  item,  the  application  of  the  provisions  as  to  special 
inventory  or  appraisement  shall  be  limited  to  each  bin. ding  and  its  contents. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No. . .  .of  Insurance 

Company. 

National  Board  Standard  Form  No.  4. 

COLD  STORAGE  CLAUSE  "A." 

This  insurance  is  against  only  direct  loss  or  damage  by  fire,  and  does  not 
cover  any  loss  or  damage  caused  by  change  of  temperature  resulting  from  the 
total  or  partial  destruction  or  disablement  by  fire  or  lightning  of  the  cooling  or 
other  apparatus,  connections  or  supply  pipes,  nor  by  the  interruption  of  the 
cooling  or  other  processes  from  any  cause. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No. . .  .of  Insurance 

Company.  (See  pages  568,  009,  &c.) 

National  Board  Standard  Form  No.  5. 

COLD  STORAGE  CLAUSE  "B." 

This  insurance  being  otherwise  against  only  direct  loss  or  damage  by  fire, 

in  consideration  of  8  additional  premium  this  company  also  assumes 

liability  (not  exceeding  the  amount  of  this  policy  remaining  after  the  liability 
of  this  company  for  any  direct  loss  or  damage  has  been  determined,)  for  any 
loss  or  damage  to  the  property  described  while  contained  in  the  above-named 
building,  caused  by  change  of  temperature,  resulting  from  the  total  or  partial 
destruction  or  disablement  of  the  cooling  apparatus,  c  onnections  or  supply 
pipes  by  fire  occurring  in  the  above-described  building,  or  in  any  other  of  the 
following  buildings. 

(Here  name  the  location  of  the  refrigerating  plant  and  any  other  building  through  which  the 
supply  pipes  pass,  and  which,  if  burning,  might  disable  them  ) 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No. . .  .of  Insurance 

Company.         (See  pages  508,  569,  &c.) 


572 


POLICY  FORMS. 


National  Board  Standard  Form  No.  C. 

KENT  CLAUSE. 

$. . .  .On  the  rents  of  the  story  building,  situated  and  known  as 

No  

The  intention  of  this  insurance  is  to  make  good  the  ioss  of  rents,  caused  by 
fire  or  lightning,  actually  sustained  by  the  assured  on  occupied  or  rented 
portions  of  the  premises  which  have  become  untenantable,  for  and  during  such 
time  as  may  be  necessary  to  restore  the  premises  to  the  same  tenantable  con- 
dition as  before  the  fire;  said  time,  in  case  of  disagreement,  to  be  determined 
by  appraisement  in  the  manner  provided  in  the  conditions  of  this  policy;  but 
this  company  shall  not  be  liable  for  a  greater  proportion  of  any  loss  than  the 
sum  hereby  insured  bears  to  the  actual  annual  rental  of  such  occupied  or 
rented  portions  of  the  premises. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No.  . .  .of  Insurance 

Company. 

National  Board  Standard  Form  No.  7. 

LIGHTNING  CLAUSE. 

(EXCLUDING  WAMAfiE  TO  KLKCTRICAL  APPARATUS.) 

Tins  policy  shall  cover  any  direct  loss  or  damage  caused  by  lightning  (mean- 
ing thereby  the  commonly  accepted  use  of  the  term  "lightning"  and  in  no  case 
to  include  loss  or  damage  by  cyclone,  tornado  or  windstorm)  not  exceeding  the 
sum  insured  nor  the  interest  of  the  insured  in  the  property  and  subject  in  all 
other  respects  to  the  terms  and  conditions  of  this  policy;  provided,  however, 
that  if  there  shall  be  any  other  insurance  on  said  property  this  company  shall 
be  liable  only  pro  rata  with  such  other  insurance  for  any  direct  loss  by  light- 
ning, whether  such  other  insurance  be  against  direct  loss  by  lightning  or  not; 
and  provided  further  that,  if  dynamos,  wiring,  lamps,  motors,  switches  or 
other  electrical  appliances  or  devices  are  insured  by  this  policy,  this  company 
shall  not  be  liable  for  any  loss  or  damage  to  such  property  resulting  from  any 
electrical  injury  or  disturbance,  whether  from  artificial  or  natural  causes,  un- 
less fire  ensues,  and  then  for  the  loss  by  fire  only. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No. . .  .of  Insurance 

Company. 

National  Boaku  Standard  Form  No.  8. 

ELECTRICITY  CLAUSE. 

The  use  of  electricity  for  light,  heat  or  power  is  prohibited,  unless  a  certifi- 
cate shall  have  been  issued  by  (here  name  the  representative  of 

Underwriters  having  jurisdiction)  that  the  wiring  and  equipment  are  in  full 
compliance  with  the  requirements  of  the  National  Electric  (Ode. 

No  alteration  shall  be  made  in  the  equipment  after  certificate  is  issued  with- 
out written  approval  from  said   

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No. . .  .of  Insurance 

Company. 


POLICY  FORMS. 


573 


National  Boakd  Standard  Form  Xo.  9. 

LUMBER  CLEAR-SPACE  CLAUSE. 

It  is  a  condition  of  this  contract  that  a  continuous  clear  space  of  feet 

shall  be  maintained  between  the  property  hereby  insured  and  any  wood-work- 
ing establishment  or  dry  kiln,  otherwise  this  policy  shall  be  void;  this  does  not 
prohibit  the  transportation  of  lumber  or  timber  products  across  such  clear  space. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No.  . .  .of  Insurance 

Company. 

National  Boakd  Standard  Form  No.  10. 

MILL  YARD  LI  MBER  CLAUSE. 

It  is  a  condition  of  this  contract  that  a  continuous  clear  space  of  feet 

shall  be  maintained  by  the  assured  between  the  property  hereby  insured  and 
any  wood-working  establishment  or  any  dry  kiln  (except  tramways  upon 
which  lumber  is  not  piled)  and  that  such  space  shall  not  be  used  for  the  piling 
of  lumber  or  timber  products,  but  this  shall  not  be  construed  to  prohibit  load- 
ing or  unloading  within,  or  the  transportation  of  lumber  and  timber  products 
across  such  clear  space;  otherwise  this  policy  shall  be  void. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  Xo. . .  .of  Insurance 

Company. 

National  Board  Standard  Form  No.  11. 

SPRINKLER  CLAUSE 

This  policy  being  written  at  a  rate  based  on  the  protection  of  the  premises 
by  the  sprinkler  system,  it  is  a  condition  of  this  policy  that,  in  so  far  as  the 
sprinkler  system  and  the  water  supply  therefor  are  under  the  control  of  the 
assured,  due  diligence  shall  be  used  by  the  assured  to  maintain  them  in  com- 
plete working  order,  and  that  no  change  shall  be  made  in  the  said  system  or  in 
the  water  supply  therefor  without  the  consent  of  this  company  in  writing; 
otherwise  this  policy  shall  be  void. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No. .  .  .of  Insurance 

Company. 

Copies  of  these  forms  may  be  procured  by  addressing  II.  K.  Miller,  General 
Agent,  32  Nassau  Street,  New  York. 

CO-INSURANCE  OR  AVERAGE  CLAUSE. 

It  has  always  been  a  condition  of  marine  insurance,  as  it 
should  always  have  been  a  condition  of  fire  insurance,  that  the 
principle  of  average  or  co-insurance  should  apply  in  determining 
the  amount  to  be  paid  in  case  of  loss.  It  would  be  as  unjust  to 
insure  the  properties  of  two  owners,  at  the  same  rate,  the  one 


f'O-INSt'R  A  \'<  K  OH  AYERAOE  FORMS. 


insuring  for  50^  and  the  other  for  L00#,  as  to  assess  the  values 
of  their  properties  for  the  purposes  of  municipal  or  State  taxation 
<»n  different  percentages  of  value. 

The  old  French  co-insurance  clause  read  as  follows: 
"If,  at  the  time  of  the  fire,  the  value  of  the  objects  covered  by  the  policy 
is  found  to  exceed  the  sum  total  of  the  insurance,  the  assured  is  considered  as 
having  remained  his  own  insurer  for  that  excess,  and  he  is  to  bear,  in  that 
character,  his  proportion  of  the  loss." 

The  German  clause  was  as  follows: 

"If,  in  case  of  loss,  the  insured  objects  should  exceed  the  sum  insured,  and 
they  should  be  partly  saved,  the  assured  will  be  considered  as  self-insurer  for 
the  excess,  and  is  to  bear  his  share  of  the  loss  pro  rata." 

These  two  clauses  met  the  issue  squarely  and  left  no  room  for 
mistake  as  to  what  was  intended;  but  after  the  slipshod  Ameri- 
can methods  of  nearly  a  century  of  insurance  it  is  doubtful  if 
the  use  of  these  clauses,  which  were  perfectly  proper  and 
straightforward,  would  be  accepted  without  the  criticism  of 
placing  a  portion  of  the  burden  of  insurance  upon  the  policy- 
holder, overlooking  the  fact  that  if  his  rate  is  graded  according 
to  the  amount  that  he  carries,  there  is  no  more  reason  why  he 
should  complain  than  in  the  case  of  goods  purchased  at  retail  as 
compared  with  wholesale  prices. 

The  following  are  the  forms  of  co-insurance  clause  of  New 
York  State. 

New  York  Standard,  Average  Clause. 

This  Company  shall  not  be  liable  for  a  greater  proportion  of  any  loss  or 
damage  to  the  property  described  herein  than  the  sum  hereby  insured  bears 

to  per  centum  (  %)  of  the  actual  cash  value  of  said  property  at  the 

time  such  loss  shall  happen. 

If  the  insurance  under  this  policy  be  divided  into  two  or  more  items  this 
Average  Clause  shall  apply  to  each  item  separately. 

New  York  Standard,  Average  Clause. 

With  Exemption  of  Speciiil  Inve  ntory  or  Appraisement  in  Certain  Cases. 

This  Company  shall  not  be  liable  for  a  greater  proportion  of  any  loss  or 
damage  to  the  property  described  herein  than  the  sum  hereby  insured  bears 

to  per  centum  (  %)  of  the  actual  cash  value  of  said  property  at  the 

time  such  loss  shall  happen. 

In  case  of  claim  for  loss  on  the  property  described  herein  not  exceeding  five 
per  cent.  (5%)  of  the  maximum  amount  named  in  the  policies  written  thereon 
and  in  force  at  the  time  such  loss  shall  happen,  no  special  inventory  or  appraise- 
ment of  the  undamaged  property  shall  be  required. 


CO-INSURANCE,  WAIVER  OF  INVENTORY. 


575 


If  the  insurance  under  tliis  policy  be  divided  into  two  Or  more  items  these 
clauses  shall  apply  to  each  item  separately. 

Waiving  Special  Inventory  and  Appraisal.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  operation  of  the  co-insurance  clause  is  not 
waived  by  this  form.  It  simply  provides  that  in  case  the 
amount  of  loss  under  any  item  of  the  policy  shall  not  exceed  five 
per  cent,  of  the  total  insurance  no  special  inventory  or  appraise- 
ment of  the  undamaged  property  shall  be  required.  This  is  a 
very  different  matter  from  waiving  the  operation  of  the  co- 
insurance clause  in  totO'. 

A  prominent  insurance  association  authorized  the  following 
form : 

"Provided,  however,  that  if  the  aggregate  amount  of  any  loss  shall  not  ex- 
ceed five  per  cent,  of  the  total  cash  value  of  any  building  and  (or)  its  contents 
wherein  such  loss  shall  occur,  the  application  of  the  co  insurance  clause  shall  he 
waived."  (!) 

In  case  of  a  fireproof  building,  insured  for  a  very  .small  per- 
centage of  its  value,  or  in  case  of  a  policy  covering  a  number  of 
buildings,  no  two  of  which  could  burn  together,  insured  only 
for  the  value  of  one  of  them,  such  a  clause  might  have  the  effect 
of  doing  away  with  the  co-insurance  feature  altogether. 

This  objectionable  clause  has  been  copied  at  various  points 
throughout  the  country,  and  the  greatest  care  should  be  observed 
by  agents  to  see  that  such  objectionable  phraseology  is  not  em- 
ployed. It  seems  only  fair  to  relieve  the  assured  in  the  case  of 
a  large  stock  of  merchandise,  damaged  for  only  a  small  per- 
centage of  its  amount,  from  the  labor  of  an  inventory  and 
appraisal  on  the  whole  stock,  but  out  of  the  disposition  on  the 
part  of  underwriters  to  relieve  the  assured  in  such  case  has 
grown  the  phraseology  which  does  away  with  the  principle  of 
ct  i-insurance  altogether. 

Another  important  insurance  association  had  the  following 
clause : 

"  This  clause  shall  be  inoperative  in  the  settlement  of  loss  under  any  item  of 
this  policy  when  the  amount  of  loss  under  such  item  or  the.  total  insurance 
thereon  equals  or  exceeds  the  percentage  above  specified,  or  when  the  loss  is 
less  than  five  per  cent,  of  the  total  insurance  thereon." 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  promulgation  of  the  National  Board 
form  and  the  New  York  State  Standard  form  will  do  away  with 
these  waivers  of  the  entire  clause. 


POLICY  FORMS. 


These  two  clauses,  both  promulgated  by  intelligent  boards  of 
underwriters,  emphasize  the  importance,  already  suggested,  of 
the  careful  preparation  and  scrutiny  of  insurance  forms.  Some 
years  ago  an  ingenious  broker  succeeded  in  placing  insurance 
on  a  stock  of  fire-arms,  cutlery,  &c,  with  the  following  clause: 
"Privileged  to  keep  gunpowder  according  to  law  and  ball  car- 
tridges. "  It  will  be  observed  that  the  ball  cartridges  are  well 
outside  of  the  restrictions  of  municipal  regulation. 

Mr.  J.  T.  Trezevant,  of  Dallas,  Texas,  has  prepared  a  clever 
illustration  of  the  fairness  of  co-insurance  as  follows : 

"To  write  a  blanket  policy  upon  large  manufacturing  plants  wbich  are 
composed  of  divers  risks  without  the  co-insurance  clause  is  the  equivalent  of 
assessing  a  tax  on  your  largest  buildings  here  in  San  Antonio  at  30  per  cent,  of 
their  value,  while  all  other  property  in  the  city  is  assessed  at  60  per  cent. 
This  discrimination,  if  made  by  your  tax  assessor,  would  be  promptly  corrected 
by  the  board  of  equalization;  and  yet  by  a  singular  paradox  legislators  who 
arc  insisting  upon  an  equitable  and  equal  assessment  and  collection  of  the  fire 
tax  have  attempted  in  some  states  to  force  us  to  tax  the  poor  man  at  double 
the  rate  that  we  tax  the  rich  corporation.  To  show  you  how  necessary  it  is  to 
collect  a  tax  based  upon  about  approximately  80  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the 
properties  I  will  use  an  illustration  which  the  insurance  gentlemen  present  will 
understand,  and  which  I  hope  will  be  perfectly  clear  to  the  laymen  present. 

Take  1000  detached  frame  dwellings  worth  §1200  each,  and  insured  at  $1000 
each.  The  premiums  at  1  per  cent,  would  be  $10,000.  Experience  in  this 
South  Texas  field  demonstrates  that  the  loss  would  be  approximately  $6000,  or 
60  per  cent,  of  the  premiums.  Going  further  into  detail,  the  underwriter  who 
is  making  the  rates  finds  that  at  least  00  per  cent,  of  this  total  amount  comes 
from  trilling  losses  that  range  from  §1.00  to  §150;  that  there  will  be  two  or 
three  losses  where  the  damage  will  be  practically  50  per  cent.,  or  §500  each, 
and  two  losses  where  we  will  say  the  losses  are  total,  $1000  each.  We  then 
have  the  figures: 


Now  then  let  us  suppose  that  some  underwriter  new  to  the  business  has 
entered  the  field,  and  has  an  opportunity  to  scoop  this  1000  good  detached 
dwellings.  The  owner  has  found  out  that  most  of  his  losses  are  small,  and  he 
(■(includes  to  take  a  small  amount  of  insurance  and  no  co-insurance.  The  tyro 
in  the  business  takes  $500  insurance  on  each  one  of  these  1000  dwellings  at  the 
same  rate,  1  per  cent.,  which  would  make  his  premiums  $5000.  The  losses  are 
the  same  as  before.  Let  us  see  where  each  one  of  the  underwriters  will  find 
himself.    The  figures  in  the  last  case  would  be  as  follows: 


2  total  losses  of  $1000  each 

2  losses  of  50  per  cent.,  §500  each 

50  losses  in  small  amounts  from  $1  to  $150 


§2000. 
1000. 
3000. 


2  total  losses,  §500 

2  damage  losses  of  $500  each  (but  as  the  policies  are 


§1000. 


AVERAGE  CLAUSE. 


577 


for  only  $.500  each  there  are  two  total  losses  to 
the  company  tinder  these  policies)  1000. 
50  losses  same  as  in  first  example,  being  for  small 

amounts  8000. 

Total  losses  paid  $5000. 

The  result  of  this  brilliant  feat  of  underwriting,  in  which  the  underwriter 
insures  only  one  half  the  value  of  the  property  without  co-insurance,  will  be 
premiums  $5000,  losses  to  the  insurance  company  $5000,  and  he  is  minus  his 
expenses,  which  at  35  percent,  would  amount  to  $1750.  The  company  writing 
without  the  co-insurance  clause,  or  at  half  value,  has  made  a  loss  of  $1750,  or 
about  35  per  cent.,  but  this  loss  does  not  fall  upon  the  company.  Every  com- 
pany recoups  its  losses  by  an  increased  assessment  of  tax  in  some  other  direction, 
and  the  result  is  that  the  neighbors  of  the  man  who  had  these  1000  dwellings 
are  assessed  to  pay  the  $1750  losses  made  in  handling  his  business,  together 
with  a  small  profit  which  is  needed  for  the  company  to  continue  in  business. 
Is  it  fair  to  the  owners  of  property  throughout  the  state,  who  have  been 
mulcted  to  pay  the  loss  on  this  individual  because  he  was  improperly  assessed?'' 

The  following  illustration  of  President  Evans  of  the  Conti- 
nental also  shows  how  unfair  is  a  policy  without  the  co-insurance 
clause  issued  at  the  same  rate  as  one  containing  the  clause. 

A  and  B  each  own  a  half  interest  in  a  building  having  a 
present  structure  value  of  $20,000.  Each  insures  his  half  in- 
terest separately  and  in  different  companies;  each  company 
charges  the  same  percentage  or  "rate"  for  insuring  the  property, 
and  that  "rate"  is  one  per  cent,  or  ten  dollars  for  $1,000  of 
insurance.  A  insures  his  half  in  the  Y  company  for  $10,000 
and  pays  for  his  policy  $100.  B  insures  his  half  in  the  Z  com- 
pany for  $5,(ioo  and  pays  for  his  policy  fifty  dollars.  A  fire 
occurs  and  the  building  is  damaged  $10,000  only.  Company 
Y,  insuring  A,  is  called  on  to  pay  but  fifty  per  cent,  of  the 
amount  of  its  policy,  while  Company  Z  pays  loo  per  cent;  and 
yet  Company  Y  received  twice  as  much  premium  as  did  Com- 
pany Z. 

DISTRIBUTION   FORM  OF  THE  AVEKAtiE  CLAUSE. 

It  is  sometimes  impossible  for  the  owner  of  property  of  a 
movable  character,  changing  its  location  from  day  to  day,  and 
often  from  hour  to  hour  in  each  day,  as  in  the  case,  for  example, 
of  the  product  of  a  paper-mill,  which  in  the  morning  may  be 
in  the  paper  machines  at  one  end  of  the  mill  and  by  evening  in 
the  dryhouse,  to  accept  insurance  covering  specifically.  Under 


57* 


POLICY  FORMS. 


such  circumstances  the  distribution  form  of  the  average  clause 
may  be  used,  which  practically  secures  specific  insurance  in  that 
proportion  which  the  insured  would  fix  at  the  moment  of  a  fire 
if  he  knew  the  value  in  each  location.  In  short,  the  policy 
applies  for  such  proportion  of  its  amount  in  any  one  location 
as  the  value  in  such  location  bears  to  the  value  in  all  locations. 

Of  course,  the  full  co-insurance  clause,  the  insurance  being 
equal  in  amount  to  the  value  of  all  of  the  property,  no  matter 
where  located,  would  take  care  of  the  interest  both  of  the  assured 
and  of  the  company,  but  the  property-owner  is  not  always  will- 
ing to  have  a  full  co-insurance  clause,  and  under  the  mistaken 
legislation  of  some  States  the  use  of  any  average  or  co-insurance 
clause  is  prohibited.  The  full  co-insurance  clause  provides  that 
whatever  fraction  or  percentage  of  the  value  is  destroyed  that 
fraction  of  the  insurance  is  payable.  If  one  half  the  value  is 
insured  one  half  the  loss  is  collectible  of  the  insurance  company. 
If  the  whole  value  is  destroyed  the  whole  insurance  is  collectible. 

Let  us  suppose  a  merchant  having  goods  stored  in  two  differ- 
ent warehouses,  A  and  B,  so  located  relatively  that  they  could 
not  burn  by  one  and  the  same  fire.  In  l'A"  he  has  $6,000  and 
in  "B"  $3,000.  If  he  should  take  out  a  policy  of  $6,000  cover- 
ing in  both,  without  specific  amounts  and  without  the  average 
clause,  it  is  clear  that  the  policy  would  effectually  protect  him, 
since  a  loss  in  either  building  would  be  covered  by  his  insurance, 
and  hence  an  insurance  of  $6,000  would  be  almost  as  effectual 
as  an  insurance  of  $9,000  written  specifically,  the  only  chance 
of  his  losing  more  than  $6,000  being  in  case  both  buildings 
should  happen  to  burn  at  the  same  time.  Any  intelligent 
underwriter  would  decline  to  issue  such  a  policy  except  at 
double  the  rate;  but  if  the  merchant  should  claim  that  he  could 
not  tell  at  any  one  time  just  what  proportion  of  value  would  be 
in  each  warehouse  and  for  that  reason  alone  could  not  insure 
specifically,  and  is  unwilling  to  pay  for  insurance  in  excess  of 
two  thirds  of  the  value,  the  "distribution  form"  of  the  average 
clause  would  adjust  the  matter  so  that  the  policy  would  cover 
in  each  in  proportion  as  its  value  should  bear  to  that  in  both. 
This  would  be  better  than  a  specific  policy  for  his  purpose  and 
equally  as  fair  for  the  underwriter,  since  its  effect  would  be  to 
distribute  the  insurance  at  the  time  of  the  happening  of  a  fire  so 
as  to  cover  or  apply  in  each  warehouse  in  the  proportion  that 


DISTRIBUTION  FORM  OP  AVERAGE  CLAUSE. 


579 


the  value  in  such  warehouse  bears  to  the  value  in  both.  The 
insurance  on  this  plan  is  thus  made  to  follow  the  value,  no 
matter  how  often  it  fluctuates. 

Let  us  suppose  the  values,  then,  are  $6,000  in  "A"  and  $3,000 
in  l'B"  aud  that  a  fire  occurs  doing  a  damage  in  "A"  of  $4,000; 
as  the  insurance  covers  in  this  building  in  the  proportion  that 
its  value  ($6,000)  bears  to  the  value  in  both  ($9,000),  two-thirds 
of  the  insurance,  or  $4,000,  would  attach  in  "A"  and  in  this  case 
be  sufficient  to  pay  the  loss. 

Under  the  full  co-insurance  clause,  by  which  the  policy  pays 
that  proportion  of  the  loss  that  the  whole  insurance  ($0,000)  bears 
to  the  whole  value  of  the  property  ($9,000),  or  two-thirds,  the 
owner  would  only  receive  two-thirds  of  his  loss  of  $4,000,  or 
$2,666.60. 

The  following  diagram  will  serve  to  show  the  difference  be- 
tween the  operation  of  the  two  forms  of  clauses. 


INSURANCE 
$6,000. 


UNDER  DISTRIBUTION  FORM. 

Insurance  applies  $4,000  in  "A"  and  $2,000  in  "B." 


In  B— Loss  of  $1,000. 
Co.  pays  1,000. 
Loss  of  2,000. 
Co.  pays  2,000. 
Loss  of  3,000. 
Co.  pays  2,000. 


In  A— Loss  of  $1,000. 
Co.  pays  1,000. 
Loss  of  2,000. 
Co.  pays  2,000. 
Loss  of  3,000. 
Co.  pays  3,000. 
Loss  of  4,000. 
Co.  pays  4,000. 
Loss  of  5,000. 
Co.  pays  4,000. 
Loss  of  6,000. 
Co.  pays  4,000. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  as  insurance  covers  $4,000  in  A  and 
$2,000  in  B,  the  company  never  pays  more  than  $4,000  in  A  nor 

more  than  $2,000  in  B— no  matter  what  the  loss, 


.VsO 


POLICY  FORMS. 


UNDER  FULL  CO-INSURANCE  FORM. 

Insurance  being  J^rds  of  value  pays  %rds  of  an}'  loss. 

In  A— Loss  of      $1,000.        In  B— Loss  of  $1,000. 

Co.  pays  %     6G6%.  Co.  pays  %  666%. 

Loss  of        2,000.  Loss  of  2,000. 

Co.  pays  %  1,333%.  Co.  pays  %  1,333%. 

Loss  of        3,0()().  Loss  of  3,000. 

Co.  pays  %  2,00(i.  Co.  pays  %  2,000. 

Loss  of  4,000. 
Co  pays  %  2,666% 
Loss  of  5,000. 
Co.  pays  %  3,333%. 
Loss  of  0,000. 
Co.  pays  %  4,000. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  the  distribution  form  of  the 
average  clause  would  be  more  favorable  to  the  assured  than  the 
full  co-insurance  clause. 

If  instead  of  the  full  co-insurance  clause  the  80  fc  co-insurance 
clause  is  used  the  policy  for  $6,000  would  pay  such  proportion 
of  the  loss  $4,000  that  $6,000  bears  to  $7,200  (80$  of  $9,000)  or 
five-sixths  of  it,  i.  e.  $3,333.33. 


GRADED  RATES  FOR  CO-INSURANCE. 


I  have  always  believed  that  it  was  a  mistake  to  insist  upon 
insurance  to  80  fo  of  the  value  of  property,  because  it  antagonizes 
property  owners  and,  therefore,  legislators,  who  object  to  the 
compulsory  rule  and  enact  legislation  prohibiting  the  use  of  the 
clause  altogether.  There  is  no  reason  why  a  rate  cannot  be 
graded  according  to  the  amount  of  insurance  carried. 

For  a  full  explanation  of  the  matter  and  the  computation  of 
the  cost  of  insuring  with  varying  percentages  of  insurance  to 
value  refer  to  "History  and  Analysis  of  the  Universal  Schedule." 
The  percentages  of  losses  are  based  upon  actual  experience 
through  a  series  of  years  covering  millions  of  dollars  of  losses 
and  carefully  tabulated  by  my  own  hand.  I,  therefore,  feel 
able  to  vouch  for  the  correctness  of  the  tabulation.  (See  pages 
709,  710  and  711.) 


DWELLING  FORMS.  581 

PRIVATE  DWELLING  FORM. 

$  on   story  roofed  Building,  while  occupied  as  a 

private  dwelling  with  ad  joining  and  communicating  additions  thereto,  includ- 
ing foundations,  piping,  plumbing,  fixed  heating  and  cooking  apparatus,  and 

all  irremovable  fixtures,  as  a  part  of  the  building,  situate  

(Co-insurance  Clause.) 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No  of  Insurance 

Company. 

Specific  form  for  Frescoing  and  Mural  Decorations, 
etc.,  in  expensive  dwellings.  I  have  already  referred  to  ex- 
pensive dwellings  (see  page  <>0)  as  one  of  the  most  uprofitable 
classes  of  risks  at  current  rates.  The  small  premium  obtainable 
on  a  dwelling  house  policy  makes  the  cost  of  thorough  inspec- 
tion an  expensive  percentage  of  the  amount,  and  the  careless 
underwriter  is  apt  to  write  on  a  dwelling  of  this  class  in  igno- 
rance of  the  large  values  subject  to  damage  by  water  and  smoke 
in  the  shape  of  fresco- work  on  walls  and  ceiling,  expensive  wall 
hangings,  tapestries,  satin,  etc.  For  this  reason  and,  also,  for 
the  general  reason  that  all  insurance  should  be  specific,  it  is  best 
to  write  on  the  following  form  devised  by  President  Evans  of 
the  Continental  Ins.  Co. 

$5,000  On  his  four-story,  brick  building,  while  occupied  as  a  private  dwelling, 
and  located  at  No.  503  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City. 

This  item  does  not  cover  frescoing,  hangings  or  other  wall  coverings, 
tapestry  or  wood  panelings  on  the  walls  or  ceilings,  in  excess  of  ten  per 
cent,  of  the  amount  of  this  policy;  and  it  is  a  part  of  the  consideration 
of  this  policy  and  the  basis  on  which  the  rate  of  premium  is  fixed  that 
no  claim  shall  be  made  hereunder  for  loss  on  frescoing,  hangings,  tapes- 
try or  wood  panelings  on  the  walls  or  ceilings  for  an  amount  exceeding 
such  ten  per  cent,  of  the  total  amount  insured  under  this  policy,  unless 
the  amount  on  such  frescoing,  hangings,  tapestry  or  wood  panelings  be 
specifically  mentioned  herein,  and  then  only  for  such  specific  amount. 

In  case  insurance  is  desired  on  this  damageable  property  in 
excess  of  ten  per  cent,  of  the  amount  of  the  insurance,  it  may  be 
accepted  under  the  following  form  and  at  double  the  rate : 
$3,000  On  frescoing,  hangings,  tapestry  or  other  wall  coverings  or  wood  panel- 
ings on  the  walls  or  ceilings  of  the  above  described  dwelling. 

A  rate  fully  twenty  five  per  cent,  higher  should  be  fixed  by 
the  Local  Board  for  the  full  form  without  specific  amount  on 
fresco-work  and  wall  hangings  and  without  the  ten  per  cent, 
limit. 

Nothing,  it  seems  to  me,  could  be  fairer  than  this  proposition, 


582 


POLICY  FORMS. 


for  it  prevents  ;i  necessarily  high  rate  on  all  dwellings  in  order 
that  companies  may  recoup  themselves  for  the  losses  on  dwell- 
ings which  have  such  valuable  furnishings  the  owners  of 
which  ought  to  pay  for  them.  Under  other  conditions  the 
policy-holders  of  moderate  circumstances  and  simple  tastes  are 
obliged  to  pay  a  round  rate  to  cover  the  losses  of  the  rich.  Not 
infrequently  walls  are  covered  with  satin  of  the  most  delicate 
tints,  put  on  the  walls  in  plaits  and  folds,  and  in  case  of  fire  even 
an  honest  claimant,  who  might  not  have  noticed  before  the  fire 
the  difference  in  color  of  the  satin  within  the  folds  as  compared 
with  the  faded  material  of  the  exposed  surface,  would  claim  and 
think  that  the  damage  had  been  done  by  smoke.  Walls  finished 
in  this  way  are  worth  three  or  four  times  the  rate  of  ordinary 
plain  finish  wall-paper  dwellings.  In  one  case  coming  to  the 
writer's  notice  ten  thousand  dollars  was  paid  for  damage  done  to 
one  room  in  an  expensive  dwelling.  In  another  instance  nine 
thousand  dollars  was  paid  for  damage  to  wall  hangings  in  the 
house  of  a  wealthy  New  Yorker,  caused  by  a  small  fire  in  the 
cellar,  the  smoke  coming  up  the  hot  air  flues  and,  as  it  was 
claimed,  spoiling  the  lustre  of  the  silk  hangings. 

It  is  best  to  decline  to  insure  such  buildings  altogether,  unless 
at  rates  which  will  pay  for  the  hazard  and  with  specific  amounts 
named  in  the  policy  to  define  the  limit  of  claim. 

HOUSEHOLD  AND  KITCHEN  FURNITURE. 

$  on  household  and  kitchen  furniture  and  house  furnishing 

goods,  useful  and  ornamental;  beds,  bedding,  linen,  family  wearing  apparel, 
silver  and  plated  ware;  printed  books  and  music;  scientific  and  musical  instru- 
ments, including  stools  and  covers,  sewing  machines;  (and,  at  not  exceeding 
cost,  on  sculpture,  mirrors,  pictures,  portraits,  paintings  and  engravings,  and 
their  frames,  watches  and  jewelry  in  use,  curiosities  and  brie  a  brae,)  crockery, 
glass  and  china-ware,  fuel,  family  stores,  bicycles,  travelling  and  sporting 
equipments,  articles  of  amusement  and  entertainment,  and  all  articles  generally 
used  in  housekeeping,  the  property  of  the  assured  or  any  member  of  the  family, 
including  guests  and  servants. 

$   on  garden  tools  and  implements,  hose,  lawn  mower  and  awnings,  all 

while  contained  in  the  story  roofed  building  and  adjoining 

and  communicating  additions  while  occupied  as  a  private  dwelling  house  and 

situate  

This  policy  does  not  cover  any  painting,  tapestry,  statuary  or  other  work 
of  art  to  an  amount  exceeding  $500  unless  specifically  insured  and  then  only  to 

the  extent  of  such  specific  amount, 


HOUSEHOLD  FURNITURE  FORMS. 


583 


S  on  paintings,  tapestries,  statuary  and  other  works  of  art,  as  per 

schedule  hereto  annexed,  not  exceeding  the  specific  amount  named  on  any  one. 

CO-INSURANCE  CLAUSE, 

This  Company  shall  not  he  liable  for  a  greater  proportion  of  any  loss  or 
damage  to  the  property  described  herein  than  the  sum  hereby  insured  bears  to 
eighty  per  centum  (80^  )  of  the  actual  cash  value  of  said  property  at  the  time 
such  loss  shall  happen.  In  case  of  claim  for  loss  on  the  property  described 
herein  not  exceeding  live  per  cent.  (  V,  |  of  the  maximum  amount  named  in  the 
policies  written  thereon  and  in  force  at  the  time  such  loss  shall  happen,  no 
special  inventory  or  appraisement  of  the  undamaged  property  shall  be  required. 
If  the  insurance  under  this  policy  be  divided  into  two  or  more  items,  these 
clauses  shall  apply  to  each  item  separately. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No  of  Insurance 

Company. 

The  above  form  has  been  made  explicit  in  order  to  meet  the 
mistaken  views  of  many  property-owners  who  suppose  that  an 
elaborate  form  of  this  kind  is  necessary  to  protect  them.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  suggest  to  the  underwriter,  however,  that,  as  a 
rule,  short  forms  may  be  equally  comprehensive  and  on  some 
accounts  preferable  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  assured.  All  of 
the  items  mentioned  in  the  above  form,  for  example,  would  be 
covered  in  the  following : 

$  On  household  furniture,  wearing  apparel,  printed  books  and  music, 

musical  and  scientific  instruments,  plate  (and,  at  not  exceeding  cost, 
on  pictures  and  their  frames,  sculpture,  curiosities,  watches  and 
jewelry  in  use  and  brie  a  brae),  family  supplies,  articles  for  amuse- 
ment, entertainment  and  sport. 

This  policy  does  not  cover  any  painting,  tapestry  or  other  work  of 
art  to  an  amount  exceeding  $500  unless  specifically  insured  and  then 
only  to  the  extent  of  such  specific  amount. 

$  On  paintings,  tapestries,  statuary  and  other  works  of  art,  as  per 

schedule  hereto  annexed,  not  exceeding  the  specific  amount  named 
on  any  one. 

$  On  garden  tools  and  implements  and  awnings,  all  while  contained 

etc.,  etc.    (Co-insurance  Clause.) 

The  phrases  referring  to  kitchen  and  house  furnishing  goods 
are  unnecessary ;  furniture  is  furniture,  whether  in  the  kitchen 
or  parlor  and  whether  it  is  "useful  or  ornamental";  silver  and 
plated-ware  are  articles  of  furniture ;  piano  stools,  covers,  sew- 
ing machines,  mirrors,  crockery,  glass  and  china-ware  are 
covered  by  the  phrase  "household  furniture,"  and  fuel  and 
family  stores  would  be  covered  by  the  phrase  "family  supplies." 
The  assured  might  well  object  to  having  his  policy  cover  the 


584 


POLICY  FORMS. 


wearing  apparel  and  jewelry  of  his  guests,  since,  unless  he  were 
over-insured,  it  would  amount  to  his  paying  for  such  lost  prop- 
erty out  of  his  own  pocket. 

Paintings,  Tapestries.  Statuary.  Curios.  Works  of  Art.  Etc.  should 
be  insured  by  schedule,  with  the  <•<  .si  <  .f  each,  and  a  clause  inserted 
that  claim  in  case  of  loss  shall  not  exceed  cost,  and  the  usual 
80$  co-insurance  clause.  If  the  limit  of  claim  to  cost  cannot  be 
secured  the  schedule  is  still  preferable.  It  is  much  better  to  in- 
sure such  works  of  uncertain  value  of  this  class  by  schedule 
than  to  insure  them,  as  is  generally  done,  by  the  usual  household 
furniture  form.  In  the  latter  case,  if  a  damage  should  occur  to 
a  few  paintings  and  none  or  very  little  to  the  furniture,  the 
assured  is  tempted,  if  he  be  unscrupulous,  to  claim  an  excesssive 
value  for  these  items,  whereas  if,  in  advance  of  a  fire,  he  has 
knowledge  that  on  every  dollar  of  insurance  specified  he  must 
pay  a  premium  he  is  not  likely  to  overvalue  them,  and  the  com- 
pany will,  in  any  event,  secure  a  premium  on  the  amount  of 
insurance  carried.  Indeed,  with  an  honest  assured  and  an  in- 
telligent appraisal  of  values,  there  is  less  objection  to  a  valued 
policy  on  property  of  this  character  than  so  often  lies  in  the 
case  of  other  property,  and  the  company  may  consent  to  issue 
a  valued  policy  upon  full  explanation  and  knowledge  of  the 
assured  and  the  facts,  having  in  mind  the  great  difficulty  of 
ascertaining  a  fair  valuation  after  a  fire  and  the  tendency  of 
juries  to  favor  the  assured  and  give  him  the  benefit  of  any 
doubt  even  in  cases  of  excessive  value.  It  ought  to  be  much 
easier  to  determine  a  fair  value  before  a  fire  than  after  it. 

There  is  a  further  advantage  in  having  a  schedule,  and  it  is 
in  the  fact  that  it  gives  the  insurance  company  an  opportunity 
to  know  whether  or  not  it  is  insuring  articles  of  exceptionally 
large  values,  as  otherwise  it  might  be  in  ignorance.  The 
assured,  moreover,  as  already  stated,  is  not  likely  to  over- value 
his  paintings  when  making  up  his  schedule  before  a  fire  if 
he  realizes  that  he  will  have  to  pay  premium  on  each  dollar  of 
valuation — an  important  consideration. 

Paintings  of  large  value  should  be  distributed  among  a  num- 
ber of  companies,  so  that  one  does  not  have  an  excessive 
amount.  An  excess  line  might  otherwise  easily  be  assumed  and 
the  company  subjected  to  a  severe  loss  by  a  small  burning  in 


CHURCH  FORMS. 


585 


the  limited  space  of  a  picture  frame.  Excessive  lines  of  this 
character  are  contrary  to  the  principle  of  insurance,  which  is  to 
distribute  the  risk  so  that  a  happening  of  a  single  contingency 
may  not  interfere  with  the  principle  of  average.  A  small  hole 
burned  or  punched  in  a  valuable  painting  might  ruin  it,  and 
there  is  the  same  objection  to  insuring  a  large  amount  on  a 
single  painting  as  in  the  ease  of  insuring  valuable  animals;  see 
page  ■  >  l  5. 

After  the  above  bad  been  set  up,  and  before  going  to  press,  a 
fire  occurred,  on  January  13th,  in  the  dwelling  of  Mr.  George 
Goidd,  in  New  York  City,  which  so  forcibly  illustrates  the  im- 
portance of  the  suggestions  that  I  state  the  facts  here.  The 
damage  to  an  ordinary  building  would  have  been  very  slight ; 
in  fact,  the  loss  was  stated  to  be  less  than  a  thousand  dollars. 
But  after  the  fire,  it  was  discovered  that  Louis  XIV.  tapestries, 
made  in  the  seventeenth  century,  valued  at  $60,000,  and  a  Van 
Dyke  valued  at  $60,000,  with  portraits  said  to  be  worth  $8,000, 
were  destroyed  in  the  hallway  and  on  the  line  of  the  stairs. 

It  is  probable  that  if  Mr.  Gould,  instead  of  being  insured  on 
the  blanket  household  furniture  form,  had  been  obliged  to 
specify  the  amount  on  these  valuable  items  he  might  have 
specified  a  smaller  amount  rather  than  pay  the  extra  premium ; 
or  that  he  would  have  paid  premium  on  the  amount  of  insurance 
required. 

Most  property-owners  would  suppose  that  paintings  hung  in 
the  hallway  and  on  the  line  of  the  staircase  could  be  easily  re- 
moved; but  most  underwriters,  knowing  the  drafts  incident  to 
staircases  for  fire  and  smoke,  would  have  regarded  them  as 
particularly  liable  to  destruction.  It  is  said  no  water  was  thrown 
in  this  fire  but  only  chemical  extinguishers  used. 

Without  the  co-insurance  clause  in  the  case  of  a  fireproof 
dwelling  and  short  insurance,  underwriters  could  easily  make 
a  total  loss  in  a  single  room. 

CHURCH  FORM. 

$  ou  story  roofed  building,  with  spire 

or  tower  and  adjoining  and  communicating  additions,  foundations 
and  irremovable  fixtures,  including  fixed  heating  apparatus  and 
piping,  while  occupied  as  a  place  of  public  worship  and  known  as 


r.si; 


POLICY  FORMS. 


$  on  organs  with  operating  motor,  pianos  and  other  musical 

instruments  while  therein. 

S  on  church  and  other  furniture  and  fixtures,  useful  and 

ornamental,  vestments,  chancel-rail,  fonts,  clock,  bell,  gas  fixtures, 
chandeliers,  (pictures,  paintings,  engravings  with  their  frames,  statu- 
ary, stained  glass  windows,  altar  vessels  and  other  altar  furniture, 
with  frescoes  on  walls  and  ceilings, — value  claim  in  case  of  loss  not 
to  exceed  cost,)  printed  church  and  Sunday  sch  >ol  books,  movable 
heating  apparatus  and  fuel. 

All  while  contained  in  the  above  described  church  building,  with 
adjoining  and  communicating  additions  and  situate  

$  other  concurrent  insurance  permitted. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No  of  Insurance 

Company. 

To  the  Agent. — Churches  have  not  been  profitable  risks  owing  probably  to 
the  frequency  of  fires  caused  by  de/ective  heating  apparatus  and  the  fact  that 
they  are  usually  lightly  insured  and  nearly  always  total  losses,  there  being  no 
partition  walls  to  check  the  progress  of  a  fire  once  started.  Examine  carefully 
the  heating  apparatus  (see  instruction  book  page  441,)  and  report  concerning 
same  being  sure  also  to  state  proportion  of  insurance  on  each  item  to  total  value  of 
same.  Local  Boards  should  rate  churches  and  other  public  buildings  such  as 
schools;  court  houses,  etc.,  with  and  without  the  co-insurance  clause.  In 
absence  of  board  rates  this  company  will  regard  favorably  at  lower  rates  church 
and  public  building  insurance,  the  co-insurance  clause  being  attached  to  our 
policy. 

A  higher  rate  should  be  charged  on  a  church  with  a  spire  or 
steeple,  although  it  can  seldom  be  secured.  Underwriters  fre- 
quently overlook  the  danger  to  church  spires  of  stone,  especially 
when  carved,  from  fires  in  neighboring  buildings.  An  entire 
stone  spire  might  have  to  be  taken  down  because  of  the  com- 
bined effect  upon  it  of  water  and  heat  from  burning  exposures. 

All  spires  should  be  protected  by  lightning  rods  carried  well 
into  moist  ground. 

Stone  columns  in  the  interior  of  churches,  so  frequent  in  those 
of  Gothic  architecture,  might  result  in  the  total  destruction  of  a 
building  supposed  to  be  fireproof.  There  would  be  enough  heat 
in  the  burning  pews  and  floor  boards  to  destroy  stone  piers  and 
columns  vitally  important  to  the  structure.  Agents  should  look 
carefully  to  this  matter.  In  fact,  all  stone  columns  carrying 
superimposed  weights  should  have  an  interior  cast-iron  column 
of  sufficient  strength  to  carry  the  load. 

There  are  probably  few  classes  of  risks  so  generally  short  in- 
sured as  churches  and  schoolhouses,  and  rates  should  be  graded 


LEASE  CLAUSE,  ETC. 


587 


according  to  the  amount  of  insurance  carried,  the  best  plan  be- 
ing, however,  to  have  the  80$  co-insurance  clause  on  all  church 
policies. 

Christmas  Tree  Festivities.  These  add  to  the  hazards 
of  churches.  The  ignition  of  evergreen  trees  by  lighted  wax 
tapers  is  a  danger  always  to  be  guarded  against.  A  safer  plan 
for  lighting  a  Christmas-tree  is  by  electric  bulbs.  Where  a 
Santa-Clans-  personation  is  a  feature  of  the  entertainment  the 
cotton  or  other  fibre  which  is  employed  in  his  make-up  should 
be  first  soaked  in  a  strong  solution  of  alum  water  or  tungstate 
of  soda,  mixed  one  part  of  tungstate  of  soda  to  seven  parts  of 
water.  (See  page  54G.)  Every  year  Christmas  festivities,  in 
some  section  of  the  country  or  other,  are  marred  by  fatalities 
due  to  neglect  of  simple  and  inexpensive  precautions. 

LEASE  CLAUSE. 

S  nil. . .  .lease  of  the  story  roofed  building,  privi- 
leged for  hazardous  occupation,  situate  

Loss,  if  any,  payable  as  per  lease  clause  attached. 

It  is  a  condition  of  this  insurance  that,  in  case  of  such  destruction  by  lire  of 
the  above-named  premises  the  lease  held  by  the  assured  shall  be,  by  its  terms 
and  in  fact,  canceled,  then  this  Company  shall  be  liable  to  pay  the  whole 
amount  hereby  insured,  less  a  deduction  at  the  rate  of  (here  insert  one- 
twelfth^^),  or  other  proper  proportion  of  the  policy,  according  to  its  term  and  the 
value  of  the  lease)  dollars  per  month,  for  such  time  as  shall  have  elapsed  be- 
tween the  date  of  this  insurance  and  the  happening  of  such  fire. 

MERCANTILE  BUILDING  FORM. 

$  on  story  roofed  building,  with  adjoining 

and  communicating  additions,  including  foundations  and  irremovable  fixtures, 

while  occupied  as  '.  

and  situate   

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No  of  Insurance 

Company. 

MERCHANDISE  FORM. 
§   on  Stock  of  Merchandise,  consisting  principally  of  


and  all  other  goods,  wares  and  merchandise  not  more  hazardous  kept 
for  sale  by  assured,  not  specified  in  the  foregoing,  while  contained  in 

 story  roofed  building  and  adjoining  and 

communicating  additions  thereto,  while  occupied  as  

and  situate  


iifS.S 


I'HLH  V  KoKMS. 


$  on  Store  and  Office  Furniture  and  Fixtures  including  Safe,  Signs  and 

Awnings,  while  contained  in  or  on  said  building. 

$  on  

$  on  

§  Other  concurrent  insurance  permitted. 


Restrictions  as  to  lights.  Keeping  and  Vending  of  Coal  Oil.  Gunpowder  and  Salt- 
petre.— The  use,  as  a  light,  of  Refined  ( 'oal  ( )il  or  Petroleum,  of  lawful  fire  test, 
is  permitted.  Merchants  accustomed  to  deal  in  the  articles  are  privileged  to 
keep  for  sale  pounds  of  Gunpowder  in  close  tin  can,  to  be  sold  by  day- 
light only,  and  pounds  of  Saltpetre;  also  barrels  of  refined  Kerosene, 

of  lawful  fire  test,  provided  the  same  be  not  drawn  by  artificial  light  placed 
within  the  distance  of  ten  feet  thereof. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  Xo  of  Insurance 

Company. 

RE-INSURANCE  FORM. 

$  on  a  pro  rata  part  of  its  liability  as  Insurer  under  its  Policy  Xo  

issued  at  its  Agency,  to  and  covering  the  property  of  

 for  $  as  follows,  viz: 


It  is  a  condition  of  this  re-insurance  that  if  the  re-insured  policy  is  cancelled 
or  reduced  in  amount,  this  policy  shall  be  cancelled  or  reduced  in  like  pro- 
portion, and  that  the  re-insured  Company  is  to  retain  at  its  own  risk  (exclusive 
of  any  and  all  re-insurance)  under  the  policy  hereby  re-insured  an  amount  equal 
to  the  proportion  which  the  amount  of  this  policy  bears  to  the  amount  of  the 
particular  policy  hereby  re-insured  at  the  date  this  re-insurance  is  effected. 

It  is  further  understood  and  agreed  that  such  re-insurance  is  a  pro  rata  part 
of  each  and  every  item  insured  by  the  policy  of  the  re-insured  Company,  and 
is  subject  to  the  same  risks,  valuations,  conditions  and  mode  of  settlement  as 
may  be  taken  or  assumed  by  said  re-insured  Company,  it  being  expressly 
agreed,  however,  that  notice  of  any  change  in  the  risk  or  additional  privilege 
granted  shall  be  at  once  given  to  this  Company.  Loss,  if  any,  payable  at  the 
same  time  and  in  the  same  manner  and  pro  rata  with  amount  paid  by  said  re- 
insured Company.  Other  re-insurance  permitted  subject  to  the  aforesaid 
conditions. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No  of  Insurance 

Company. 

N.  Y.  &  New  Jersey  Standard. 

LIGHTNING  CLAUSE. 

This  policy  shall  cover  any  direct  loss  or  damage  caused  by  Lightning, 
(meaning  thereby  the  commonly  accepted  use  of  the  term  Lightning,  and  in 
no  case  to  include  loss  or  damage  by  cyclone,  tornado,  or  wind-storm)  not 
exceeding  the  sum  insured,  nor  the  interest  of  the  insured  in  the  property,  and 
subject  in  all  other  respects  to  the  terms  and  conditions  of  this  policy.  Provided, 


THREE-Fi  il'RTHS  VALUE  CLAUSE. 


;,s;t 


however,  if  there  shall  he  any  other  insurance  on  said  property  this  company 
shall  be  liable  only  pro  rata  with  such  other  insurance  for  any  direct  loss  by 
Lightning,  whether  such  other  insurance  be  against  direct  loss  by  Lightning 
or  not. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No  of  Insurance 

Company. 

THREE-FOURTHS  VALUE  CLAUSE. 

It  is  a  condition  of  this  insurance  that,  in  the  event  of  loss  or  damage  by 
fire  to  the  property  insured  under  this  policy,  this  ( !ompany  shall  not  be  liable 
for  an  amount  greater  than  three-fourths  of  the  actual  cash  value  of  each  item 
of  property  insured  by  this  policy  (not  exceeding  the  amount  insured  on  each 
such  item)  at  the  time  immediately  preceding  such  loss  or  damage;  and  in  the 
event  of  additional  insurance — if  any  is  permitted  hereon  — then  this  Company 
shall  be  liable  for  its  pro  rata  proportion  only  of  three-fourths  such  cash  value 
of  each  item  insured  at  the  time  of  the  fire,  not  exceeding  the  amount  insured 
on  each  such  item. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  pari  of  Policy  No  of  Insurance 

Company. 

THREE-FOURTHS  LOSS  CLAUSE. 

It  is  a  condition  of  this  insurance  that,  in  the  event  of  loss  under  this  policy, 
this  Company  shall  not  he  liable  for  an  amount  greater  than  three-fourths  of 
such  loss  (not  exceeding  the  sum  hereby  insured),  and,  in  the  event  of  additional 
insurance  permitted  hereon,  then  this  Company  shall  not  be  liable  for  an 
amount  greater  than  its  pro  rata  proportion  of  three-fourths  of  such  loss;  in 
both  events  the  other  one-fourth  to  he  borne  by  the  assured. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No  of  Insurance 

Company. 

IRON  SAFE  CLAUSE. 
Warranty  to  Keep  Books  and  Inventories,  and  to  Produce  Them  in  Case  of  Loss. 
Tlie  following  covenant  and  warranty  is  hereby  made  a  part  of  this  polity: 
1st.    The  assured  will  take  a  complete  itemized  inventory  of  stock  on  hand 
at  least  once  in  each  calendar  year,  and  unless  such  inventory  has  been  taken 
within  twelve  calendar  months  prior  to  the  date  of  this  policy,  one  shall  be 
taken  in  detail  within  30  days  of  issuance  of  this  policy,  or  this  policy  shall  be 
null  and  void  from  such  date,  and  upon  demand  of  the  assured  the  unearned 
premium  from  such  date  shall  be  returned. 

2d.  The  assured  will  keep  a  set  of  hooks,  which  shall  clearly  and  plainly 
present  a  complete  record  of  business  transacted,  including  all  purchases,  sales 
and  shipments,  both  for  cash  and  credit,  from  date  of  inventory  as  provided 
for  in  first  section  of  this  clause,  and  during  the  continuance  of  this  policy. 

3d.  The  assured  will  keep  such  books  and  inventory,  and  also  the  last 
preceding  inventory,  if  such  has  been  taken,  securely  locked  in  a  fireproof  safe 
at  night,  and  at  all  times  when  the  building  mentioned  in  this  policy  is  not 


590 


IM  .  I .  H  V    F«  iRMS. 


actually  open  for  business;  or,  failing  in  tliis,  the  assured  will  keep  such  books 
and  inventories  in  sonic  place  not  exposed  to  a  fire  which  would  destroy  the 
aforesaid  building. 

In  the  event  of  failure  to  produce  such  set  of  books  and  inventories  for  the 
inspection  of  this  Company,  this  policy  shall  become  null  and  void,  and  such 
failure?  shall  constitute  a  perpetual  bar  to  any  recovery  thereon. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No  of  Insurance 

Company. 

LOSS  PAYABLE  CLAUSE. 

Loss,  if  any,  under  this  policy  shall  be  payable  to  Mortgagee, 

as  his  interest  may  appear,  but  only  as  such  loss  shall  be  ascertained  and  agreed 
upon  by  the  insured  and  this  Company,  and  this  clause  is  subject  in  all  respects 
to  the  stipulations,  provisions  and  conditions  contained  in  this  Policy. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No  of  Insurance 

Company. 

PERMIT  To  SELL  KEROSENE  OIL. 

Permission  granted  to  keep  for  sale  not  exceeding  barrels  of 

Kerosene  or  Illuminating  Oil,  which  shall  be  of  not  less  than  the  United  States 
standard  of  110°.  Not  to  be  handled  or  sold  by  artificial  light  within  the  dis- 
tance of  fifteen  (15)  feet. 

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No   of   Insurance 

Com  pany. 

TRANSFER  FOR  CHANGE  OF  LOCATION. 

 190 

Permission  is  hereby  given  to  remove  the  property  insured  under  

 items  of  this  policy  to  

anil  for  not  exceeding  days  from  date  hereof  this  Policy  shall  attach 

in  both  locations  in  proportion  as  the  value  in  each  bears  to  the  value  in  all, 

and  after  such   days  in  new  location  only,  and  not  as  heretofore. 

Rate  increased  to.  . .      additional  Premium  $  Rate  reduced  to   £ 

Return  Premium  $  

Attached  to  and  made  a  part  of  Policy  No   of  Insurance 

Company. 

To  the  Agent. — In  making  transfer  refer  to  "first,"  "second."  "third"  or  "all" 
items,  as  case  may  be,  attacli  slip  to  regular  endorsement  report  and  to  avoid 
correspondence  be  sure  and  limit,  by  wording  the  endorsement,  the  occupation 
of  the  buildings  containing  the  property  in  the  new  location,  giving  particulars 
concerning  new  location,  exposure,  occupancy,  etc.  As  a  rule  policies  cover- 
ing in  a  number  of  buildings  (farm  risks)  should  not  be  transferred  but  rewritten. 

COMMISSION  CLAUSE. 

§  To  cover  merchandise,  their  own,  or  held  by  them  in  trust,  or  on 

commission,  or  sold,  but  not  delivered  (do  not  use  the  -word  "removed  ") 


SUNDRY  CLAUSES. 


591 


OTHER  INSURANCE. 

$  other  insurance,  concurrent  herewith,  permitted. 

Note. — Limit  the  amount  of  additional  insurance,  in  every  case — and  all  policies  should  be 
concurrent  with  the  policy  of  this  Company. 

GUNPOWDER  <)X  SALE. 

"Privileged  to  keep  on  hand  for  sale  in  said  building,  not  to  exceed  twenty- 
five  pounds  of  gunpowder,  the  same  to  he  kept  in  closed  metal  or  earthen  can- 
isters, to  be  handled  by  daylight  only." 

Note. — The  amount  of  gunpowder  prescribed  by  law  should  never  be  exceeded. 

CHANGE  OF  OWNERSHIP. 

This  Company  hereby  agrees  to  recognize  as  sole  owner 

of  the  above-named  property.    Loss,  if  any,  payable  to  him. 

Note. — This  may,  also,  be  done  by  assignment  on  back  Of  policy.    See  printed  form. 

ASSIGNMENT  OF  POLICY. 

(See  the  printed  form  on  the  hack  of  the  policy  itself.) 

In  reporting  an  assignment  to  the  Company  on  the  small 
blank  provided  for  that  purpose,  it  is  not  necessary  to  copy  the 
whole  printed  form,  but  merely  to  state  that  policy  has  been 
assigned  to  the  assignee,  giving  the  name  and  interest  of  the 
latter.  In  all  cases,  the  interest  of  the  assignee  should  be 
stated  in  the  report. 

ASSIGNMENT  AFTER  A  LOSS. 

Do  not  consent  to  any  assignment,  or  other  change  in  a  policy, 
after  a  loss.  When  a  fire  occurs,  the  policy  should  be  per- 
mitted to  remain  exactly  as  it  was  before  the  loss. 

BUILDINGS  ON  LEASED  GROUND. 

It  is  understood  that  the  above-named  building  stands  on  leased  ground,  the 

lease  having  years  to  run,  (always  insert  the  number  of  years),  from 

 190.  .  (insert  date  of  commencement.)    (See  Page  59.) 

ASSIGNMENT  OF  MORTGAGE  INTEREST. 

The  interest  of  as  mortgagee  in  this  policy,  having  been  assigned 

to   . .  consent  thereto  is  hereby  given,  and  loss,  if  any,  payable  to  him 

as  such  assignee  mortgagee. 

FORM  OF  PERMIT  TO  KEEP  FIREWORKS. 

In  consideration  of  $  additional  premium  (charge  50  cents  per  §100  of 

insurance  for  every  month,  or  fraction  of  a  month)  permission  is  granted  to  keep 

fireworks,  for  one,  mouth  ending. . , , ,  , , ,  ,  19. . , 


592 


Policy  FORMS. 


PERMIT  TO  HUN  MACHINERY  EXTRA  HOURS. 

In  consideration  of!}!  additional  premium,  permission  is  granted  to 

run  the  machinery  extra  hours,  not  later  than  o'clock  P.  M.,  to  even  up 

work. 

Where  the  machinery  is  run  later  than  ten  o'clock  the  time 
must  be  charged  for,  at  the  same  rate  as  day  work,  although 
worth  more  on  account  of  the  danger  from  the  carelessness  of 
tired  and  sleepy  employees. 

Where  manufactories  (other  than  those  in  w  hich  night  work 
is  an  incident  of  the  process,  such,  for  example,  as  rolling  mills, 
blast  furnaces,  etc.)  are  run  all  night,  double  rates  should  be 
charged. 

Certificate  to  be  taken  for  a  Policy  lost  or  destroyed,  where  no 
premium  has  been  paid . 

Albany,  N.  Y\.  January  10th,  1903. 

"This  is  to  certify  that  policy  No  renewal  No  of  the  

Insurance  Company  of  issued  to  me  at  its  agency  at  Albany, 

N.  V.,  on  the  stock  of  merchandise  contained  in  the  brick,  metal  roof  building- 
situate  ,  cannot  be  found,  and  said  policy  and  renewal  arc- 
hereby  declared  to  be  null  and  void,  the  said  Company  being  hereby  released 
from  all  liability  thereunder;  and  I  further  agree  that,  in  case  said  policy  and 
renewal  should,  at  any  time,  be  foiind  they  shall  be  forwarded  to  said  Insurance 
Company,  at  its  office  in  the  ci ty  of  New  York,  without  any  delay." 

Certificate  of  Discharge  for  a  Policy  lost  or  destroyed,  to  be  taken, 
in  all  cases,  where  it  is  necessary  to  cancel  a  policy  and  to  pay 
an  y  ret  urn  prem  i  um. 

Albamy,  N.  Y.,  January  10,  1903. 

"This  is  to  certify  that  policy  No  renewal  No  of  the  

Insurance  Company  of  issued  to  me  at  its  agency  at  Albany, 

N.  Y\,  on  the  brick,  metal  roof  building  situate  cannot 

be  found,  and,  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  Ten  and  jYb  dollars ($10. 50)  return 
premium  to  me  paid,  the  receipt  of  which  is  hereby  acknowledged,  the  said 
policy  and  renewal  are  hereby  canceled  in  full,  the  said  ( 'ompany  bcinir  released 
from  all  liability  thereunder;  and  it  is  further  agreed,  that,  in  case  said  policy 
and  renewal  should  be,  at  any  time,  found,  they  shall  be,  at  once,  forwarded 
to  the  office  of  the  Company. 

AWARD  OF  APPRAISERS. 

We,  the  undersigned,  appointed  to  appraise  and  estimate  the  actual  damage 
to  each  article  named  in  the  schedule  hereunto  annexed,  marked  A,  which  was 

damaged  or  destroyed  by  fire  on  the  day  of  190. ., 

do  hereby  certify  that  we  have  truly  and  conscientiously  performed  the  duty 


POLICY  FORMS. 


593 


assigned  us,  and  have  awarded  as  the  actual  cash  value  of  and  damage  to  each 
article  the  amount  as  therein  set  forth. 
Witness, 

 i>-  8.] 

PRINTED  SLIPS  AND  FORMS. 

Where  a  printed  form  is  used,  it  should  he  signed  hy  the 
agent  and  numbered  to  correspond  with  the  policy,  as  follows : 

"Slip  No  attached  to  policy  No  of  the 

 Insurance  Compan y." 

 Agent. 


STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS  FOR  BUILDING. 


Beams.  Girders.  Columns  or  Pillars.  Etc. 

To  determine  the  strength  of  materials  for  building  is  an  im- 
portant matter  in  construction,  and  while  the  ascertainment  of 
rules  involves  considerable  engineering  knowledge,  the  appli- 
cation of  those  rules  requires  no  more  fitness  for  the  task  than 
every  fairly  educated  mechanic  possesses,  with  such  text-books 
at  his  hand  for  reference  as  Trautwine  or  Haswell's  Engineer's 
Hand-Book.  Ganot's  Physics,  Molesworth's  Engineering  For- 
mulae, etc.,  etc.  Probably  Traut wine's  Engineering  Pocket  - 
Book  would  supply  him  with  all  the  tables  and  explanations  he 
would  need.  I  shall  not,  for  want  of  space,  go  much  into  detail 
as  to  computing  strains  or  stresses,  so-called,  but  content  myself 
(and  possibly  my  readers)  with  brief  explanations  of  methods, 
definitions  of  terms  and  a  few  concise  tables. 

The  ''ultimate  stress"  or  breakage  or  yielding  point  of  a  beam 
depends  upon  its  area  (usually  expressed  in  square  inches),  its 
depth  in  inches,  and  its  length  between  bearings  or  supports, 
(for  convenience,  also  computed  in  inches)  and  also  upon  the 
material  of  which  it  is  composed,  viz.,  cast-iron,  steel,  wrought 
iron,  oak,  white  pine,  yellow  pine,  spruce,  hemlock,  etc.,  and  on 
conditions,  as  of  seasoning  in  wood,  well  seasoned  wood  being 
stronger  than  green. 

The  "ultimate"  stress  of  a  material  is  that  which  is  just  short 
of  enough  to  break,  crush  or  destroy  it,  and  some  smaller  stress 
or  load  must  be  employed  for  safety  by  a  fraction  known  as  the 
"factor  of  safety." 

By  the  "length"  of  a  bod}-  is  meant  its  dimension  in  the  line 
of  the  stress,  and  by  the  "area"  the  area  in  square  inches  of  the 
cross  section  strained,  at  right  angles  to  the  "length." 

A  stress  is  usually  stated  in  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  the 
number  Qf  pounds  per  square  inch  which  short  blocks  of  a  given 


STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 


595 


material,  iron  or  wood,  will  withstand  is  known  as  its  "constant'' 
or  "coefficient"  or  "modulus,"  which  when  ascertained  enables 
one  to  compute  the  "ultimate'''  stress,  or  breaking  point,  of  any 
longer  beam  or  pillar  by  ratio  computation.  The  constant  or 
coefficient  of  any  material  is,  therefore,  such  number  of  pounds 
per  square  inch  of  short  blocks,  say  G  inches  long,  as  is  constantly 
used  for  computing  its  strength.  The  "stress"  is  usually  ex- 
pressed in  pounds,  the  "stretch"  and  the  "length"  in  inches,  and 
the  "area"  in  square  inches.  These  are  units  adopted  in  all 
computations. 

Stresses  or  strains  are  of  various  kinds,  viz.,  the  compressive 
strain,  or  that  of  resistance  of  a  column  or  pillar  from  the  base 
of  its  support  to  a  superimposed  weight;  the  tensile  strain,  or 
the  operation  of  a  force  tending  to  tear  or  pull  the  particles  of 
the  tested  beam  apart,  as  when  a  piece  of  iron  or  wood  suspended 
from  a  secure  point  has  to  support  a  weight  at  its  other  end ; 
whereas  the  compressive  strain  or  stress  tends  to  push  the  parti- 
cles of  a  body  closer  together,  as  where  a  superimposed  weight 
presses  a  pillar  against  an  immovable  base;  the  / ra i inverse  or 
cross  strain,  as  in  the  case  of  a  load  on  a  beam,  tending  to  bend 
it ;  the  torsional  strain,  or  twisting  strain,  as  where  two  forces, 
called,  in  engineering  parlance,  "contrary  couples"  of  forces 
acting  on  parallel  lines  but  against  each  other,  act  upon  it  in 
different  directions,  as  in  the  case  of  a  ship's  screw  shaft,  the 
steam  acting  in  one  direction  and  the  resistance  of  the  water  in 
the  opposite  direction;  and  the  shearing  strain,  as  when  acted 
upon  by  a  force  or  weight  tending  to  slide  its  particles  over  each 
other,  as  when  a  piece  of  wood,  for  example,  supported  at  each 
end  upon  immovable  supports,  is  acted  upon  by  a  weight  so 
great  as  to  push  that  portion  between  the  two  supports  out  of 
place,  shearing  it  off,  so  to  speak,  by  a  transverse  stress.  It  is 
of  the  same  nature  as  the  operation  of  a  punch  and  die  strain. 

A  beam  or  girder  subjected  to  a  stress  shows  a  "deflection" 
and  the  limit  of  "elasticity"  is  that  point  at  which  it  is  liable  to 
break  and  where  the  deflections  are  observed  to  increase  per- 
ceptibly faster  than  the  load.  Hence  the  rule  that  the  actual 
load  must  not  only  never  exceed  the  elastic  limit  but  should  not 
exceed  more  than  one-third  or,  at  the  most,  one-half  of  it,  under 
any  circumstances.  There  are  rules  for  computing  deflection 
of  beams,  which  may  be  found  in  Trautwine,  Kidder,  Moles- 


596 


STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 


worth.  Haswell  or  other  engineering  hooks.  Trautwine  and 
Haswell  are  the  ones  usually  preferred. 

When  a  load  or  stress  is  removed  the  tendency  of  the  beam  is 
to  recover  its  original  shape,  but  there  is  apt  to  be  a  permanent 
bend,  or  what  is  known  as  the  permanent  "set."  This,  in  fact, 
takes  place  in  all  cases  of  stress,  even  under  moderate  loads. 

The  elastic  ratio,  so-called,  of  material  is  ascertained  by  divid- 
ing the  elastic  limit  by  the  ultimate  strain,  and  is  usually  ex- 
pressed in  a  decimal  fraction. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  weights  of  the  beam  or  of  the 
materials  themselves  must  be  added  to  get  the  "neat"  or  "safe 
load" — usually  adding  one-half  the  weight  of  a  beam,  for  ex- 
ample, the  distributed  weight  of  a  beam  being,  like  that  of  its 
distributed  load,  about  one-half  of  its  concentrated  weight. 
The  weight  of  materials  may  be  such  as,  carried  to  a  great 
height,  wovdd  destroy  themselves.  Brickwork  weighs  112 
pounds  per  cubic  foot,  and  as  it  would  crush  under  thirty  tons 
per  square  foot,  a  vertical  column  of  it  600  feet  high  would  crush 
under  its  own  weight.  (We  may  find  some  comfort  as  to  sky- 
scraping  buildings  in  this  fact.) 

The  strength  of  material  also  depends  upon  conditions  (such 
as  dryness  or  degree  of  "seasoning"  of  wood — seasoned  wood 
being  stronger  than  green)  and  shape;  a  square  post  being 
stronger  than  a  cylindrical  one — in  the  case  of  wood,  because  of 
the  greater  area  of  cross  section,  while  in  the  case  of  cast-iron, 
the  cylindrical  column  is  stronger,  (with  the  same  amount  of 
metal)  because  there  is  less  likelihood  of  defective  castings, 
"floating  cores,"  &c,  in  round  eastings  than  in  square. 

There  is  a  great  difference  between  the  stress  of  a  force  or 
weight  acting  slowly  and  constantly  ;is  compared  with  one  act- 
ing suddenly.  A  suddenly  applied  load  would  strain  at  least 
twice  as  much  as  the  same  weight  at  rest;  and  for  this  reason 
troops  in  crossing  bridges  are  always  required  to  "break  step," 
and  floors  for  dancing  need  to  be  stronger  than  for  dormitories. 
Moreover,  all  materials  constantly  subjected  to  the  same  stresses 
become  in  time  "tired,"  and  at  the  end  of  a  long  series  of  stresses 
will  yield  to  a  smaller  load  than  that  which  originally  they  c<  >uld 
carry  safely.  Such  facts  have  to  be  provided  for.  Wrought 
iron,  for  example,  which  carries  as  a  "constant"  53,000  pounds 


NEW  YORK  BUILDING  LAW. 


597 


per  square  inch  for  800  applications,  broke  at  35,000  pounds  after 
ten  million  applications. 

Iron  caps  for  wooden  pillars  are  admirable,  but,  as  elsewhere 
stated,  the  weight  should  be  carried  by  a  pintle  going  through 
the  girder  or  beam  to  the  iron  plate  of  pillar  of  the  story  above 
(see  page  125),  so  that  there  shall  not  be  shrinkable  timber 
beams  in  the  line  of  supports.  As  already  stated,  wood  shrinks 
by  the  contraction  of  its  cells  and,  therefore,  horizontally,  rather 
than  vertically,  and  the  shrinkage  of  four  1 2 -inch  beams  would 
amount  to  the  shrinkage  of  48  inches  of  horizontal  wood. 

The  following  are  the  provisions  of  the  New  York  Building 
Law  as  to  weights  of  materials,  computations  of  strength, 
factors  of  safety  and  working  stresses : 

Strength  of  existing  floors  to  be  calculated. 

In  all  warehouses,  storehouses,  factories,  workshops,  and  stores  where  heavy 
materials  are  kept  or  stored,  or  machinery  introduced,  the  weight  that  each 
floor  will  safely  sustain  upon  each  superficial  foot  thereof,  or  upon  each  vary- 
ing part  of  such  floor,  shall  be  estimated  by  the  owner  or  occupant,  or  by  a 
competent  person  employed  by  the  owner  or  occupant. 

Such  estimate  shall  be  reduced  to  writing,  on  printed  forms  furnished  by 
the  Department  of  Buildings,  stating  the  material,  size,  distance  apart  and 
span  of  beams  and  girders,  post  or  columns  to  support  floors,  and  its  correctness 
shall  be  sworn  to  by  the  person  making  the  same, 

And  it  shall  thereupon  be  filed  in  the  office  of  the  Department  of  Buildings. 

But  if  the  commissioners  of  buildings  shall  have  cause  to  doubt  the  correct- 
ness of  said  estimate,  they  are  empowered  to  revise  and  correct  the  same,  and 
for  the  purpose  of  such  revision  the  officers  and  employes  of  the  Department 
of  Buildings  may  enter  any  building  and  remove  so  much  of  any  floor  or  other 
portion  thereof  as  may  be  required  to  make  necessary  measurements  and  ex- 
amination. 

When  the  correct  estimate  of  the  weight  that  the  floors  in  any  such  build- 
ings will  safely  sustain  has  been  ascertained,  as  herein  provided,  the  Depart- 
ment of  Buildings  shall  approve  the  same, 

And  thereupon  the  owner  or  occupant  of  said  building  or  of  any  portion 
thereof,  shall  post  a  copy  of  such  approved  estimate  in  a  conspicuous  place  on 
each  story,  or  varying  parts  of  each  story,  of  the  building  to  which  it  relates. 

Before  any  building  hereafter  erected  is  occupied  and  used,  in  whole  or  in 
part,  for  any  of  the  purposes  aforesaid,  and  before  any  building,  erected  prior 
to  the  passage  of  this  Code,  but  not  at  such  time  occupied  for  any  of  the  afore- 
said purposes,  is  occupied  or  used,  in  whole  or  in  part,  for  any  of  said  purposes, 
the  weight  that  each  floor  will  safely  sustain  upon  each  superficial  foot  thereof, 
shall  be  ascertained  and  posted  in  a  conspicuous  place  on  each  story  or  varying 
parts  of  each  story  of  the  building  to  which  it  relates. 

No  person  shall  place,  or  cause  or  permit  to  be  placed  on  any  floor  of  any 
building  any  greater  load  than  the  safe  load  thereof,  as  correctly  estimated  anil 
ascertained  as  herein  provided. 

Expense  for  examining  into  strength  of  floors. 

Any  expense  necessarilv  incurred  in  removing  any  floor  or  other  portion  of 


508 


SAFE  LOADS.    \\  EIGHTS,  ETC. 


any  building  for  the  purpose  of  making  any  examination  herein  provided  for 
shall  be  paid  by  the  Comptroller  of  The  City  of  New  York,  upon  the  requi- 
sition of  the  Board  of  Buildings,  out  of  the  fund  paid  over  to  said  board  under 
the  provisions  of  seetion  one  hundred  and  fifty-eight  of  this  Code.  Such  ex- 
penses shall  be  a  charge  against  the  person  or  persons  by  whom  or  on  whose 
behalf  said  estimate  was  made,  provided  such  examination  proves  the  floor  of 
insufllcient  strcngt  li  to  carry  u  it  h  salel  y  the  loads  found  upon  t  hem  when  such 
examination  was  made;  and  shall  he  collected  in  an  action  to  he  hrought  by  the 
Corporation  Counsel  against  said  person  or  persons,  and  the  sum  so  collected 
shall  be  paid  over  to  the  said  Comptroller  to  be  deposited  in  said  fund  in 
reimbursement  of  the  amount  paid  as  aforesaid. 

Floor  calculations  filed  with  application  to  build. 

W  hen  the  architect  of  record  for  any  building  has  filed  with  his  application 
to  build  the  data  required  to  determine  the  st  ren Lrt h  of  tloors.  on  one  of  t he 
blank  forms  provided  for  that  purpose,  such  examination  shall  not  be  required 
provided  that  the  purposes  and  uses  of  the  building  have  not  been  changed. 

Safe  load  for  masonry  work. 

The  safe-bearing  load  to  apply  to  brickwork  shall  be  taken  at — 
Eight  tons  per  superficial  fool  when  lime  mortar  is  used; 
Eleven  and  one  half  tons  per  superficial  foot  when  lime  and  cement  mortar 
mixed  is  used; 

Fifteen  tons  per  superficial  foot  when  cement  mortar  is  used. 

Rubble-stone  work. 

The  safe-bearing  load  to  apply  to  rubble-stone  work  shall  be  taken  at — 
Ten  tons  per  superficial  foot  when  Portland  cement  is  used; 
When  cement  other  than  Portland  is  used,  eight  tons  per  superficial  foot; 
When  lime  and  cement  mortar  mixed  is  used,  seven  tons  per  superficial 
foot; 

And  when  lime  mortar  is  used,  five  tons  per  superficial  foot 

Concrete. 

The  safe-bearing  load  to  apply  to  concrete — 

When  Portland  cement  is  used  shall  be  taken  at  fifteen  tons  per  superficial 
foot; 

And  •when  cement  other  than  Portland  is  used,  eight  tons  per  superficial 
foot. 

Weights  of  certain  materials. 

In  computing  the  weight  of  walls. 

A  cubic  foot  of  brickwork  shall  be  deemed  to  weigh  one  hundred  and 
fifteen  pounds. 

Sandstone,  white  marble,  granite  and  other  kinds  of  building  stone  shall  be 
deemed  to  weigh  one  hundred  and  seventy  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

Computations  for  strength  of  materials. 

The  dimensions  of  each  piece  or  combination  of  materials  required  shall  be 
ascertained  by  computation,  according  to  the  rules  prescribed  by  this  Code. 


STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 


599 


Factors  of  safety. 

AYliere  the  unit  stress  for  any  material  is  not  prescribed  in  this  Code  the 
relation  of  allowable  unit  stress  to  ultimate  strength  shall  be — 

As  one  to  four  for  metals,  subjected  to  tension  or  transverse  stress; 
As  one  to  six  for  timber, 

And  as  one  to  ten  for  natural  or  artificial  stones  and  brick  or  stone  masonry. 
But  wherever  working  stresses  are  prescribed  in  this  Code,  varying  the 
factors  of  safety  herein  above  given,  the  said  working  stresses  shall  be  used. 

Strength  of  columns. 

In  columns  or  compression  members  with  Hat  ends  of  cast  iron,  steel, 
wrought  iron  or  wood,  the  stress  per  square  inch  shall  not  exceed  that  given 
in  the  following  tables: 

Working  stresses  per  square  inch  of 
When  the  length  divided  by  least,  radius  of  ,  section 


gyration  equals 


120. 
110. 
100. 

90. 

80. 

70. 

60. 

50. 

40. 

30. 

20. 

10. 


Wrought 

Cast  iron. 

Steel. 

iron. 

8,240 

4,400 

8,820 

5,200 

9.400 

6,000 

9,980 

6,800 

10,560 

7,600 

9,200 

11,140 

8,400 

9,500 

11,720 

9,200 

9,800 

12,300 

10,000 

10,100 

12,880 

10,800 

10,400 

13,460 

11,600 

10,700 

14,040 

12,400 

11,000 

14,620 

13,200 

And  in  like  proportion  for  intermediate  ratios. 

Working  stress  per  square  inch  of 
When  the  length  divided  by  (he  least  ,  ■  section 


diameter  equals  White  pine, 

Long  leaf  Norway  pine, 

yellow  pine.  spruce.  Oak. 

30   460  350  390 

25    550  425  475 

20   640  500  560 

15   730  575  645 

12   784  620  696 

10   820  650  730 

And  in  like  proportion  for  intermediate  ratios.  Five-eighths  the  values 
given  for  white  pine  shall  also  apply  to  chestnut  and  hemlock  posts. 

For  locust  posts  use  one  and  one-half  the  value  given  for  white  pine. 

Columns  and  compression  members  shall  not  be  used  having  an  unsupported 
length  of  greater  ratios  than  given  in  the  tables. 

Columns  eccentrically  loaded. 

Any  column  eccentrically  loaded  shall  have  the  stresses  caused  by  such 
eccentricity  computed,  and  the  combined  stresses  resulting  from  such  eccen- 
tricity at  any  part  of  the  column,  added  to  all  other  stresses  at  that  part  shall, 
in  no  case,  exceed  the  working  stresses  stated  in  this  Code. 

The  eccentric  load  of  a  column  shall  be  considered  to  be  distributed  equally 
over  the  entire  area  of  that  column  at  the  next  point  below  at  which  the  column 
is  securely  braced  laterally  in  the  direction  of  the  eccentricity. 


GOO 


SAFE  LOAD  COMPUTATIONS. 


EXAMPLES. 

What  will  be  the  safe  load  for  a  yellow-pine  post  10"  x  10" — 10  feet  in 
length? 
Length  in  ins. 
120 

~ —-— ~ ~      12,  for  which  the  working  stress  per  square  inch  of  section 

 10  in  t lie  above  table  is  784 

least  diameter. 

The  sectional  area  of  a  10"  x  10"  post  is  100  square  inches. 
Sectional  area.     Working  stress. 
Therefore       100     "x       781      =    78,400  lbs.,  or  39.2  tons,  safe  load. 

What  will  be  the  safe  load  for  a  yellow-pine  post  8"  x  10" — 10  feet  in 
length? 
Length  in  ins. 
^20 

*      15,  for  which  the  working  stress  per  square  inch  of  section 
8  in  the  above  table  is  730. 

least  diameter. 

The  sectional  an  a  of  an  8"  x  10"  post  is  80  square  inches. 
Sectional  area.    Working  stress. 
Therefore       80       x       730        -    58,400  lbs.,  or  29.2  tons,  safe  load. 

What  will  be  the  safe  load  for  a  round  yellow-pine  column  10"  dia. — 10  feet 
in  length? 
Length  in  ins. 
120 

m^^—mm^—  =  12.  for  w  hich  the  working  stress  per  square  inch  of  section 
10  in  the  above  table  is  784. 

least  diameter. 

The  sectional  area  of  a  10"  round  column  is  78.54  square  inches. 
Sectional  area.    Working  stress. 
Therefore    78.54       x       784  01.575  lbs.,  or  30.79  tons,  safe  load. 

"Working  stresses. 

The  safe  carrying  capacity  of  the  various  materials  of  construction  (except 
in  the  ease  of  columns)  shall  be  determined  by  the  following  working  stresses 
in  pounds  per  square  inch  of  sectional  area. 

Compression  (Direct). 


Rolled  steel   16,000 

Cast  steel   16,000 

Wrought  iron   12,000 

Cast  iron  (in  short  blocks)   16,000 

Steel  pins  and  rivets  (bearing)   20,000 

Wrought  iron  pins  and  rivets  (bearing)   15,000 

With  Across 

Grain.  Grain. 

Oak                                                                                 900  800 

Yellow  pine                                                                           1,000  600 

White  pine                                                                          800  400 

Spruce                                                                             800  400 

Locust                                                                           1,200  1,000 


WORKING  STRESSES.  601 

Hemlock  :  '   500  500 

Chestnut   500  1,000 

Concrete  (Portland)  cement,  1;  sand,  2;  stone,  4   230 

Concrete  (Portland)  cement,  1 ;  sand,  2;  stone,  5   208 

Concrete,  Rosendale,  or  equal,  cement,  1;  sand,  2;  stone,  4   125 

Concrete,  Rosendale,  or  equal,  cement,  l;sand,  2;  stone,  5   Ill 

Rubble  stonework  in  Portland  cement  mortar   140 

"             "       "  Hosendale  cement  mortar   Ill 

"             "       "  lime  and  cement  mortar   97 

"            "       "  lime  mortar   70 

Brickwork  in  Portland  cement  mortar;  cement  1 — sand  3   250 

"  Kosendale,  or  equal,  cement  mortar;  cement  1 — sand  3.  . .  .  'Jos 

"  lime  and  cement  mortar;  cement  1 — lime  1 — sand  ti   160 

"        "  lime  mortar;  lime  1 — sand  4   Ill 

Granites  (according  to  test)  1,000  to  2,400 

Greenwich  Stone  1,200 

Gneiss  (New  York  City)  1,300 

Limestones  (according  to  test)  700  to  2,300 

Marbles  (according  to  test)  600  to  1,200 

Sandstones  (according  to  test)  400  to  1,000 

Bluestom — North  River  2,000 

Brick  (Haverstraw,  flatwise)   300 

Slate  1,000 

Tension  (Direct). 

Rolled  Steel  16,000 

Cast       "•   16,000 

Wrought  Iron  12,000 

Cast  "   3  000 

Yellow  Pine   1,200 

White     •'    800 

Spruce   800 

Oak  1,000 

Hemlock  "   600 

Shear. 

Steel  Web  Plates   9,000 

"    Shop  Rivets  and  Pins  10,000 

"   Field     "    8,000 

"    Bolts   7,000 

Wrought  Iron  Web  Plates   6,000 

"    Shop  Rivets  and  Pins   7,500 

*«        "   Field     "    6  000 

"        "       "   Bolts  •.  5,500 

Cast  Iron   3,000 

With  Across 

Fibre  Fibre. 

Yellow  pine                                                                          70  500 

White     "                                                                          40  250 

Spruce                                                                             50  320 

Oak                                                                                100  600 

Locust                                                                             100  720 

Hemlock                                                                               40  275 

Chestnut   150 

Safe  Extreme  Fibre  Stress  (Bending). 

Rolled  Steel  Beams  16,000 

"      "     Pins,  Rivets  and  Bolts  20,000 


602  STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 

Riveted  "     Beams  (Net  Flange  Section)  14,000 

Rolled  Wrought  Iron  Beams  12,000 

"    Pins.  Rivets  and  Bolts  15,000 

Riveted     "         "    Beams  (Net  Flange  Section)  12,000 

Cast  Iron  Compression  Side  16,000 

"    Tension  Side  3,000 

Yellow  pine  .  1,200 

White     "    800 

Spruce   800 

Oak  :   1,000 

Locust   1,200 

Hemlock   600 

Chestnut   800 

Granite   180 

Greenwich  Stone   150 

Gneiss  (New  York  City)   150 

Limestone   150 

Slate   400 

Marble   120 

Sandstone   100 

Bluestone,  North  River   300 

Safe  Extreme  Fibre  Stress  (Bending). 

Concrete  (Portland)  Cement  1 — Sand  2 — Stone  4   30 

"1       "2      "    5   20 

"       (Rosendale,  or  equal)  Cement  1 — Sand  2 — Stone  4   16 

"     "  "      1       "2       "     5   10 

Brick  (Common)   50 

Brickwork  (in  Cement)   30 


The  following  tables,  computed  according  to  the  formulas  of 
the  New  York  City  Building  Law,  as  published  in  the  Code, 
will  be  found  convenient  for  estimating  safe  floor  loads : 

Safe  loads,  in  tons  of  2.000  pounds,  on  Cast-iron  Rectangular 

Columns. 


Size  in 
Inches. 

Thickness 
of  shell  in 

Length  in  Feet. 

Inches. 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

u 

128 

127 

125 

124 

122 

8  x  10 

1 

165 

163 

161 

159 

158 

1% 

200 

197 

195 

192 

190 

K 

144 

142 

141 

139 

138 

8  x  12 

l 

186 

184 

182 

180 

178 

226 

223 

220 

217 

215 

u 

146 

145 

144 

142 

141 

10  x  10 

1 

189 

188 

186 

184 

182 

IX 

230 

228 

225 

223 

221 

l'A 

267 

265 

262 

259 

257 

162 

161 

159 

158 

157 

10  x  12 

1 

211 
256 

209 
254 

207 
252 

205 
249 

203 
247 

1^ 

299 

296 

294 

291 

288 

SAFE  LOADS  FOR  CAST-IKON  COLUMNS. 


603 


Safe  loads,  in  tons  of  2.000  pounds,  on  Hollow  Cylindrical  Cast-iron 

Columns. 


Diameter 

in 
Inches. 


Thickness 
of  shell  in 
Inches. 


JL 
1 


IK 


IK. 


'  '4 
i'/2 


13// 


Length  in  Feet. 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

uU 

59 

oo 

57 

76 

75 

73 

71 

OA 
'.III 

OO 

00 

75 

74 

71 

70 

70 

94 

92 

91 

89 

88 

112 

110 

ins 

106 

104 

87 

86 

85 

83 

82 

112 

110 

108 

107 

105 

134 

132 

130 

128 

126 

100 

99 

98 

97 

95 

129 

128 

126 

125 

123 

156 

154 

152 

150 

148 

181 

178 

176 

174 

171 

147 

145 

144 

142 

141 

178 

176 

174 

172 

170 

207 

205 

203 

200 

198 

234 

232 

229 

227 

223 

165 

163 

162 

160 

158 

201 

199 

197 

195 

193 

234 

232 

229 

227 

224 

264 

262 

259 

256 

253 

183 

182 

179 

178 

176 

223 

221 

219 

217 

215 

261 

258 

266 

253 

251 

296 

294 

291 

288 

285 

330 

327 

324 

321 

317 

(104 


SAFE  LOADS  FOR  WOODEN  BEAMS. 


Safe  (uniformly  distributed)  floor  loads,  in  pounds,  for  each  superficial 
foot.    Wooden  beams,  spaced  16  inches  on  centres. 


Wood. 

Size  of 

Span 

in  feet. 

Brums. 

14 

15 

16 

17 

3  x  10 

158 

109 

80 

70 

62 

55 

39 

27 

3  x  12 

227 

158 

116 

101 

89 

78 

57 

39 

3x14 

309 

91 4 

157 

137 

121 

107 

54 

HEMLOCK. 

4  x  10 

210 

146 

107 

93 

82 

73 

53 

36 

4  x  12 

302 

210 

154 

134 

118 

105 

7li 

52 

4x14 

412 

286 

210 

183 

101 

112 

103 

71 

3  x  10 

203 

141 

103 

90 

79 

70 

51 

35 

3  x  12 

292 

203 

149 

130 

114 

101 

73 

51 

3  x  14 

397 

276 

203 

176 

155 

137 

99 

69 

SPRUCE. 

4  x  10 

270 

188 

138 

120 

105 

93 

68 

47 

4  x  12 

389 

270 

198 

173 

152 

135 

97 

68 

4  x  14 

529 

368 

270 

235 

207 

183 

132 

92 

3  x  10 

203 

141 

103 

90 

79 

70 

51 

35 

3  x  12 

292 

203 

149 

130 

114 

101 

73 

51 

WHITE 

3  x  14 

397 

276 

203 

170 

155 

137 

99 

69 

PINE. 

4  x  10 

270 

188 

138 

120 

105 

93 

68 

47 

4  x  12 

389 

270 

198 

173 

152 

135 

97 

68 

4  x  14 

529 

368 

270 

235 

207 

183 

132 

92 

3  x  10 

316 

218 

160 

140 

124 

110 

78 

54 

3  x  12 

454 

316 

232 

202 

178 

156 

114 

78 

YELLOW 

3  x  14 

618 

428 

314 

274 

242 

214 

154 

108 

PINE. 

4  x  10 

420 

292 

214 

186 

164 

146 

106 

72 

4x12 

604 

420 

308 

268 

236 

210 

152 

104 

4  x  14 

824 

572 

420 

366 

322 

284 

206 

142 

>,totk. — For  Locust  post  use  one  and  a  half  the  value  for  White  pine — N. 
Y.  Bdg.  Law. 

Flitch  plate  girders  or  spliced  or  double  girders  bolted  together  may  be 
as  strong  for  carrying  purposes  as  single  sticks  but  they  will  not  so  well  resist 
fire  as  the  latter. 


SAFE  LOADS  FOR  FLOORS. 


605 


N.  B,  The  following  formula  from  llie  New  York  Building  Law  was  arrived  at  as  the  result 
of  Governmental  testa  unci  i-  endorsed  by  the  best  engineering  authorities.  It  ha*  also  Iktu 
adopted  by  the  building  laws  of  several  other  cities.  The  tests  will  be  found  higher  than  for- 
merly employed  for  wooden  columns,  and  the  rule  will  enable  anyone  to  compute  quickly  safe 
loads  lor  wooden  beams. 

To  calculate  safe  distributed  load  on  wooden  floor  beams. 

The  safe  carrying  capacity  of  wooden  beams  for  uniformly  distributed 
loads  shall  be  determined  by  multiplying  the  area  in  square  inches  by  its 
depth  in  inches  ami  dividing  this  product  by  the  span  of  the  beam  in  feet. 
This  result  is  to  be  multiplied  by- — 

Tn  for  hemlock, 

90  for  spruce  and  white  pine. 
120  for  oak.  and  by 
140  for  yellow  pine. 

EXAMPLES. 

What  would  be  the  uniformly  distributed  safe  load  in  pounds,  according  to 
the  above,  for  a  spruce  beam  3"  x  10" — 20'  span? 

Area,       Depth.  Co-efti-    Safe  distrib- 

3"  x  10"  x  10  Result,     cient.      uted  load. 

 1        1~    x    90    =     1,350  His. 

20' 
span. 

What  would  be  the  uniformly  distributed  sale  load  in  pounds,  according  to 
the  above,  for  a  ycllow-pine  beam  4  x  12" — 22'  span? 

Area.       Depth.  Co-effi-    Safe  distrib 

4"  x  12"  x  12"  Result,     cient.      uted  load. 

 1  fl—  °"  0  x  140    =    3,668  lbs. 

99' 


span. 


Safe  load,  tons  of  2.000  pounds,  on  Yellow  Pine  Columns. 


Shape  of 
Column. 

1  Hameter  in 
Indies. 

8 

Length  in  Feet, 
9        10        11  12 

13 

8 

19.T 

19.0 

18.4 

17  7 

17.0 

16.3 

9 

25.7 

24.9 

24.2 

23.4 

22  7 

21.9 

10 

32.5 

31.6 

30.H 

29  9 

29.1 

28.2 

Round. 

11 

40.1 

39.1 

38.2 

37  2 

36.3 

35.4 

12 

48.4 

47.4 

46.4 

45.4 

44.3 

43  3 

13 

57.5 

56.4 

55.3 

54.2 

53.1 

52.0 

14 

67.5 

66.3 

65.1 

63.9 

62.7 

61.5 

8x8 

25.1 

24.2 

23.4 

22  5 

21.6 

20.8 

9  x  9 

32.7 

31.8 

30.8 

29  8 

28.8 

27.9 

10  X  10 

41.4 

40.3 

39.2 

38.1 

37.0 

35.0 

Square. 

11  x  11 

51.0 

49.8 

48.6 

47.4 

46.2 

45.1 

12  x  12 

61.6 

60.3 

59.0 

57.7 

56.5 

55.2 

13  x  13 

73.3 

71.9 

70  5 

69.1 

67.7 

66.3 

14  x  14 

85.9 

84.4 

82.9 

81.4 

79.9 

78.3 

606 


SAFE  LOADS  FOR  FLOORS. 


The  safe  loading  of  floors  is  a  most  important  matter,  from 
the  fire  viewpoint  as  well  as  from  the  structural  viewpoint. 
The  tendency  of  the  average  occupant  of  a  building  is  to  load 
the  various  floors  of  it  according  to  his  needs  for  storage,  with- 
out reference  to  what  weights  the  floors  are  calculated  to  carry. 
In  the  case  of  dwellings,  for  example,  farmers  often  store  grain 
in  them,  and  often  on  the  upper  floors,  which  have  the  lightest 
floor  beams.  We  have  had  numerous  fires  from  the  injury  to 
flues  caused  by  the  sagging  of  floor  timbers,  deflection  of  beams, 
etc.,  disturbing  the  flues  even  where  the  beams  have  not  reached 
the  breaking  point. 

Seed  warehouses  have  given  way  under  the  weight  of  quant- 
ities of  seed  in  bags  tiered  up  to  a  point  beyond  the  capacity  of 
the  beams  to  carry  them.  And  this  class  of  risks  has  been  very 
unprofitable. 

Agents  should  pay  especial  reference  to  such  matters.  The 
average  man  does  not  give  any  thought  to  the  matter. 

The  writer  once  found  whiskey  stored  in  a  dwelling,  altered 
over  for  a  store,  and  tiered  up  to  a  point  which  required  im- 
mediate shoring  from  below,  but  which  would  not  have  been 
done  except  for  the  suggestion  as  to  the  strength  of  the  floor. 

It  is  the  tendency  in  cities  to  meet  the  demand  for  new  stores 
or  warehouses  by  altering  buildings  in  the  dwelling  section  with- 
out strengthening  the  floor  beams  or  increasing  the  thickness  of 
enclosing  walls,  and  such  risks  may  safely  be  regarded  as  liable 
to  be  overloaded  and,  therefore,  dangerous. 

The  majority  of  buildings  outside  of  territories  covered  by 
building  laws  are  constructed  of  2  x  10  floor  beams,  which  are 
practically  only  2-inch  plank  on  edge.  No  floor,  even  for  a 
dwelling,  should  have  beams  smaller  than  3  x  10,  spaced  16 
inches  on  centres  and  cross-bridged  every  five  feet. 

In  calculating  factors  of  safety  a  margin  should  be  allowed 
for  the  weight  of  water  thrown  by  the  fire  department  to  ex- 
tinguish fire — an  important  matter  in  the  case  of  merchandise 
of  an  absorbent  character  like  fibre.    (See  page  90.) 


FIRE  TEMPERATURES.  607 

Fire  Temperatures. 

Red   977  degrees. 

Cherry...,  1470 

Orange  2000  " 

White  2370 

Dazzling  2730 

Cast-iron    fuses  at  »  2000 

Glass  "   2377 

Steel  "   2550  " 

Wrought  iron"   2900 

Fire-brick       "   4000 

Wood  chars  at   350  " 

Wood  burns  at   550  " 

Steam  is  resolved  into  its  natural  gases, 
Oxygen  and  Hydrogen  at  1470 


DANGER  OF  RUST  IN  IRON  MEMBERS. 

At  a  convention  held  some  3rears  ago  in  New  York,  at  which 
were  present  a  greater  number  of  experts  in  iron  than  probably 
ever  met  before  or  since  in  one  room,  there  was  not  one  who 
contended  that  cast-iron  would  rust  beyond  the  harmless  in- 
crustation of  the  thickness  of  a  knife  blade,  whereas  there  was 
not  one  who  did  not  believe  wrought  iron  would  rust  to  the  point 
of  danger;  and  there  was  not  one  who  claimed  to  know  whether 
steel  would  or  not,  each  admitting  that  steel  had  not  been 
sufficiently  tested  as  to  rust  to  warrant  a  reliable  opinion.  If  it 
could  be  relied  upon  as  rust  proof,  it  would  be  superior  to  all 
<  >ther  material  for  fireproof  buildings  because  of  its  great  strength 
in  proportion  to  weight.  The  use  of  steel  in  construction  is  grow- 
ing, because  it  is  cheaper  than  wrought  iron,  as  lighter  weights 
are  used  for  the  same  strength,  but  while  in  some  respects 
superior  to  wrought  iron,  some  of  the  prevailing  impressions 
with  regard  to  it  are  erroneous.  Defects  not  possible  of  detec- 
tion by  tests  are  liable  to  exist  in  its  structure.  Among  the  first 
steel  beams  brought  to  the  city  of  New  York  there  were  in- 
stances in  which  they  were  actually  broken  in  two  by  falling 
from  the  level  of  trucks  to  the  pavement,  probably  due  to  their 
having  been  rolled  when  too  cold,  as  steel  when  rolled  below  a 
certain  temperature  becomes  brittle.  Better  beams  are  now 
made. 


008  RUST  IN  IKON  MEMBERS. 

I  have  already  stated  that  experience  with  steel  to  he  im- 
hedded  in  the  enclosing  walls  and  fireproof ing  of  htiildings  has 
heen  so  hrief  that  no  one  can  tell  whether  or  not  it  would  resist 
rust.  Recent  experiments  would  indicate  that  it  is  almost  cer- 
tain to  rust  to  the  point  of  destruction  where  the  fireproof  cover- 
ing of  concrete  or  plaster  should  crack  and  admit  air.  It  is 
claimed  that  "neat"  Portland  Cement  is  a  preventive  of  rust, 
and  by  some  that  concrete  would  also  be  a  safe  covering  mixed 
in  the  proportions  given,  Portland  Cement,  sharp  clean  sand 
and  hard  broken  stone,  (p.  81 — one,  two  and  five,)  the  steel  be- 
ing pickled  with  acid,  then  dipped  in  hot  milk  of  lime,  and  when 
cold  the  lime  removed  with  a  wire  brush — all  of  which  careful 
preparation,  it  is  needless  to  say,  could  not  he  counted  upon  in 
actual  every-day  practice.  Where  a  vacant  space  with  air 
should  occur  in  the  concrete,  a  defective  cinder  or  a  crack, 
especially  if  the  coincidence  should  be  near  a  leaking  water, 
steam  or  sewer  pipe,  the  most  serious  results  might  follow. 

While  doubt  exists  as  to  the  exemption  of  steel  from  rust, 
however,  there  is  no  doubt  whatever  entertained  by  experts  as 
to  the  rusting  of  wrought  iron  to  the  point  of  destruction.  Cast- 
iron  alone,  as  already  stated,  seems  immune  from  the  danger  of 
rust. 

Numerous  newspaper  paragraphs  appear,  at  intervals,  which 
claim  that  metal  stripped  of  its  covering  of  cement  has  been 
found  exempt  front  rust,  with  the  paint  intact,  &c,  and  the 
fact  is  cited  as  evidence  that  cement  is  a  preservative  of  iron 
and  that  the  danger  of  rust  is  over-estimated.  Painting,  by  the 
way,  as  already  stated,  should  be  done  with  the  hest  quality  of 
linseed  oil  and  without  the  use  of  turpentine,  benzine  or  dryers. 
It  should  be  thoroughly  applied  in  three  coats,  with  about  a 
gallon  to  400  square  feet,  but  the  iron  should  first  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  of  rust  and  dirt,  by  pickling  or  other  process.  Paint  is 
rarely  properly  applied,  however,  and  even  when  of  the  best 
quality,  is  a  preservative  of  the  metal,  as  already  stated,  only 
so  long  as  the  oil  in  it  lasts.* 

Those  who  claim  to  have  evidence  of  the  exemption  of  iron 
from  rust  rely,  I  think  it  will  be  found,  upon  iron  which  has 

*It  should  not  be  applied  in  damp  weather  but  only  when  the  metal  surface 
is  perfectly  dry. 


EXPANSION  OF  IRON. 


i  ill!  i 


been  under  exceptionally  favorable  conditions,  free  from  damp- 
ness, the  action  of  gases,  etc.,  overlooking  the  fact  that  a  leak- 
ing water  pipe  or  steam  pipe,  or  the  escape  of  gases  from  boiler 
furnaces,  will  attack  iron  and  gradually  but  surely  consume  it. 
A  notable  instance  of  this  is  the  case  of  the  plate  girder  of  the 
Washington  Bridge  over  the  Boston  &  Albany  Railroad,  in 
Boston,  where  a  quarter  inch  plate  girder  was  recently  found  to 
be  entirely  consumed  in  places  from  the  operation  of  gases  from 
the  locomotives  passing  below. 

It  is  quite  common  to  have  advocates  of  wrought  iron  cite 
railroad  bridges  and  the  elevated  railroad  structures  of  New 
York  as  proof  of  their  claims,  but  if  they  will  take  the  trouble 
to  examine  these  structures  they  will  discover  that,  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  they  are  exposed  to  view,  so  that  they  can  be 
painted  frequently,  the  evidences  of  rust  are  unmistakable, 
especially  about  the  rivets;  and  one  can  well  imagine  what 
would  be  the  result  in  the  case  of  riveted  iron  members  in  the 
skeleton  structure  of  a  building  where  such  ironwork  is  entirely 
concealed  from  view,  periodical  inspections  being  impossible. 

Rust  is  especially  liable  in  the  cellars  and  basements  of  build- 
ings. The  wrought  iron  friction  brakes  of  freight  elevators  in 
the  cellars  of  stores,  for  example,  are  frequently  found  so  con- 
sumed with  rust  as  to  be  easily  rubbed  to  pieces  in  the  hand. 

Steel  rivets  are  dangerous  and  they  should  never  be  used, 
unless  of  a  very  superior  quality,  so  soft  that  hammering  will 
not  crystallize  the  material  and  yet  with  sufficient  tensile  strength 
to  insure  perfect  holding  qualities.  This  is  difficult  to  secure. 
Their  use  in  columns  for  buildings  is  objectionable,  as  they  rust 
badly  under  certain  conditions.  The  beam  bearing  bracket  shelf 
on  cast-iron  columns  should  be  cast  in  one  piece  with  the  column, 
and  the  beams  should  be  bolted  to  the  columns  to  secure  rigidity. 

EXPANSION  OF  IRON. 

It  is  generally  supposed  and  frequently  stated  that  there  is  a 
great  difference  between  the  expansion  of  iron  and  masonry  by 
heat.  This  is  not  the  case.  For  example,  the  length  of  a  bar 
which  at  32  degrees  is  represented  by  1.  at  212  degrees  would 
be  represented  as  follows: 


610 


EXPANSION  OP  IRON. 


Cast  Iron  

Wrought  Iron 

Cement  

Granite  

Marble  

KandstoTie  

Brick  

Fire-brick  


1.0011 
l.(i()12 
1.0014 
1.0007 
1.0011 
1.0017 


1.0005M 
1.0005 


In  the  fireproof  building  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph 
Company  in  New  York,  some  years  ago,  a  heavy  brick  pier, 
seven  or  eight  feet  in  diameter,  adjoined  the  wall  of  the  boiler 
furnaces.  The  difference  in  expansion  in  the  brickwork  next 
to  this  furnace  wall  as  compared  with  that  of  the  remaining 
brickwork  of  the  pier  was  so  great  as  to  produce  a  crushing  of 
the  material  from  top  to  bottom  of  the  pier,  for  a  depth  of 
several  inches,  and  it  was  found  necessary  to  change  the  furnace 
wall  and  leave  an  air  space  between  it  and  the  pier. 


Where  iron  beams  and  girders  are  inserted  in  walls  without 
sufficient  space  left  for  their  expansion  under  heat  they  are 
almost  certain  to  overthrow  the  bearing  walls  by  their  expansion 
thrust.  A  large  warehouse  in  Vienna  in  which  such  provision 
had  been  contemplated  by  the  architect  was  totally  destroyed, 
with  its  contents,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  an  officious  subord- 
inate, discovering  the  space  in  the  wall  purposely  left  at  the  end 
of  each  beam,  deliberately  poured  liquid  cement  therein,  which, 
having  set,  effectually  thwarted  the  well  meant  intention  of  the 
architect,  and  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  the  building. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  iron  responds  so  readily  to  tem- 
perature that  in  surveying  land,  the  expansion  of  a  surveyor's 
one  hundred  foot  iron  chain  will,  in  measuring  the  distance  of  a 
mile,  result  in  a  variation  of  five  feet  between  winter  temperature 
and  summer  temperature,  causing  an  error  of  one  acre  in  every 
533.  Of  course  atmospheric  rises  of  temperature  would  not 
affect  the  protected  structural  iron  in  a  building. 

The  expansion  thrust  of  iron  beams  may  be  computed  upon 
the  following  factor  of  expansion :  rolled  iron  of  a  length  of  1502 
feet  will  expand  one-eighth  of  an  inch  for  every  degree  of  tem- 


PROYISION  FOR  EXPANSION. 


EXPANSION  OF  IRON. 


611 


perature.  The  heat  of  a  burning  building,  as  already  stated,  is 
enormous — sufficient  to  fuse  most  known  materials;  it  may 
safely  be  estimated  to  be  at  least  1000  degrees;  therefore,  a  length 
of  rolled  iron  of  1562  feet  at  1000  degrees  of  temperature  would 
expand  about  1  "25  inches,  and  a  50-foot  length  of  iron  girder 
would  expand  between  four  and  five  inches,  showing  that  there 
should  be  a  play  at  each  end  of  at  least  two  inches  if  the  iron  is 
not  fireproofed.  Inasmuch  as  in  iron  construction  the  iron 
beams  and  girders  are  usually  anchored  to  the  walls  to  steady 
them,  the  space  should  be  left  and  the  tie  to  the  anchor  should 
be  by  a  movable  hinge  joint,  which  would  be  of  equal 
strength  with  an  inflexible  anchor  for  all  tying  purposes  but 
would  yield  under  the  thrust  pressure  like  an  elbow  and  allow 
play  of  the  beam,  or  stiff  anchors  should  have  elongated  holes 
to  allow  expansion  when  beams  are  of  great  length.  Girders 
are  seldom  over  25  feet  long,  but  if  bolted  together,  as  is  fre- 
quently the  case,  they  may  be  120  feet  or  more  long,  and  a  line 
of  columns  from  cellar  to  roof  of  a  building  may  easily  have  one 
continuous  iron  structure  of  two  hundred  or  more  feet.  It 
should  be  remembered,  however,  that  this  danger  from  the  ex- 
pansion of  iron  may  be  almost  wholl3r  counteracted  by  protect- 
ing it  from  exposure  to  fire  through  the  use  of  non-conducting 
material.  It  is  more  important  to  protect  girders  than  beams, 
and  columns  than  either. 

The  mistaken  pride  with  which  the  owners  of  some  buildings 
point  to  exposed  iron  beams  in  ceilings  as  evidence  that  the 
floors  are  "fireproof,"  actually  justifying  the  supposition  that 
they  are  left  exposed  for  such  display,  would  be  ludicrous  if  it 
were  not  serious.  In  buildings  occupied  for  offices  or  dwellings, 
where  there  is  not  sufficient  combustible  material  to  endanger 
the  beams,  it  is  not  so  objectionable;  but  in  warehouses  and 
stores,  filled  with  merchandise,  such  construction  is  dangerous; 
and  if  one  of  the  upper  floors  should  give  way  it  would  come 
hammering  down  to  carry  with  it  all  below  and  thoroughly 
wreck  the  structure. 

In  this  connection  it  is  well  again  to  say  that  combustible 
merchandise  should  never  be  stored  one  hundred  feet  above  the 
street  grade  even  in  a  fireproof  building,  since  the  average  fire 
department  cannot  reach  it  at  that  height. 

The  destruction  by  fire  of  two  fireproof  cotton  mills  in  Eng- 
land, one  at  Stockport  on  November  5th,  1902,  and  one  near 


612 


CONDUCTIVITY  OF  IRON. 


Manchester  on  November  ISth,  illustrates  the  importance  of 
fireproofmg  iron  columns  and  the  soffits  or  undersides  of  iron 
girders  and  beams. 

A  remarkable  feature  of  tin;  Stockport  fire  was  the  death  and 
wounding  of  a  number  of  operatives,  who  failed  to  escape,  not- 
withstanding that  there  was  a  staircase  at  each  end  of  the 
structure.  It  has  generally  been  supposed  that  fireproof  floors 
with  a  staircase  at  each  end  of  a  building  insured  safety  for 
inmates,  but  in  this  ease  the  supposition  proves  incorrect.  It 
may  be  that  the  treads  of  these  staircases  were  of  stone  and 
yielded,  as  I  have  elsewhere  stated  they  would  yield,  to  the 
combined  action  of  fire  and  water,  but  at  this  writing  I  have  not 
the  particulars.  I  cannot  believe  the  staircases  were  properly 
constructed  and  enclosed. 

The  great  fire  in  Montreal  destroying  the  Board  of  Trade 
building  and  large  warehouses  showed  the  superiority  of  terra- 
cotta protection  for  iron  columns  over  wire  lathing  and  plaster 
as  fireproofmg  material,  and  also  demonstrated  the  superiority 
of  cast-iron  as  compared  with  steel  construction,  although  the 
fire  showed  that  both  should  be  protected  by  a  covering  of  fire- 
proof material.  Cinder  concrete  used  in  the  floor  arches  was 
also  found  destroyed,  (see  page  502.) 

CONDUCTIVITY. 

While  the  difference  in  expansion  between  masonry  and  iron 
incorporated  with  it  is  less  per  running  foot  than  is  generally 
supposed  and  while  the  difference  in  expansion  between  a  cubic 
foot  of  iron  and  that  of  a  cubic  foot  of  masonry  would  hardly  be 
noticeable,  especially  if  the  iron  were  covered  on  all  four  sides, 
yet  in  stretches  of  50  feet  or  more,  as  in  the  case  of  iron  I-beams 
and  girders,  the  cumulative  effect  of  expansion  in  uncovered 
iron  might  be  a  serious  matter — quite  sufficient,  with  the  rises 
of  temperature  due  to  a  burning  building,  to  push  out  the  bear- 
ing walls  and  wreck  the  building.  Especially  is  this  true  of 
temperatures  higher  than  500  degrees.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
suggest  that  metal  differs  from  masonry  in  the  important  re- 
spect that  heat  does  not  travel  throughout  the  entire  length  of 
the  latter,  while  it  does  in  the  case  of  metal. 

In  other  words,  while  the  difference  between  the  expansion 
of  a  lineal  foot  of  iron  as  compared  with  a  lineal  foot  of  masonry, 


CAST-IRON  COLUMNS. 


613 


marble,  brick,  etc.,  is  very  slight,  the  difference  in  conductivity 
is  very  great.  The  conducting  power  of  silver,  for  example, 
being  represented  by  1.  copper  would  be  .845,  cast-iron  .259, 
gold  .981,  marble  . 024  and  brick  .01 — an  important  fact  to  be 
considered  in  tbe  construction  of  buildings.  Brickwork  raised 
to  a  white  beat  would  not  raise  the  temperature  of  other  mas<  >nry 
iu  tbe  same  wall  a  few  feet  away,  but  one  end  of  an  iron  I-beam 
could  not  be  raised  to  a  white  heat  without  raising  the  tem- 
perature of  the  beam  for  its  entire  length. 

CAST-IRON  VERTICAL  SUPPORTS. 

Tbe  vertical  supports,  columns,  pillars,  etc.,  as  already  stated, 
should  be  of  cast-iron,  cylindrical  in  form,  of  liberal  thickness, 
especially  in  the  lower  stories,  thoroughly  tested  as  to  sand  boles, 
thin  places  from  "floating  cores,"  etc.  Cast-iron  columns 
should  be  round,  and  not  square.  In  the  former  shape  there  is 
less  likelihood  of  defects  in  casting,  sand  boles,  etc.,  which  pre- 
vent uniform  sound  thickness  of  shell.  The  columns  should  be 
planed  to  smooth  bearings,  so  that  the  entire  system  from  the 
foundation  to  the  roof,  may  be  securely  bolted  together  and  form 
a  continuous  line  with  joints  for  expansion  and  without  any  in- 
equalities of  bearings.  Under  no  circumstances  should  wedges 
or  "shims"*  be  allowed.  This  most  important  matter  is  often 
neglected.  The  flanges  and  corbel  brackets  for  supporting 
beams  should  be  cast  in  one  piece  with  the  column  and  not 
depend  upon  rivets  or  bolts.  Rivets,  aside  from  the  danger  of 
shearing  strains,  are  almost  certain  to  rust  to  the  point  of 
danger.  The  beams  should  be  bolted  to  lugs  on  the  columns, 
however,  as  a  tie  between  the  side  walls,  holding  the  entire 
structure  firmly  and  consistently  together  as  one  rigid  whole  and 
yet  with  play  for  expansion. 

All  iron  work,  columns  and  pillars,  beams  and  girders,  should 
be  fireproof ed,  i.  e.,  covered  with  at  least  four  inches  of  incom- 
bustible material,  terra  cotta  or  brick.  At  the  floor,  and  for  a 
height  of  four  feet  in  mercantile  buildings,  a  metal  guard  should 
be  provided  to  prevent  the  column  from  being  stripped  by 
collisions  with  rolling  trucks  for  moving  merchandise.  It  ought 
to  be  unnecessary  to  suggest  thai  wooden  lagging  should,  under 

*"Shims"  are  pieces  of  slate  or  iron  inserted  to  secure  a  Irue  vertical  where 
the  two  surfaces  have  not  been  properly  leveled  or  planed. 


614 


FIRE  PROOFING  IRON  COLUMNS. 


no  circumstances,  be  used  to  protect  the  iron,  were  it  not  for  the 
fact  that  in  one  of  the  largest  and  most  costly  dry-goods  stores 
in  New  York,  the  fireproof  covering  of  the  iron  columns,  which 
had  been  seriously  damaged  by  trucks,  was  being  systematically 
removed  in  order  to  substitute  wooden  lagging,  when  the  fault 
was,  fortunately,  detected  by  an  inspector  of  underwriters. 
Thick  hardwood  cleats  showing  the  plaster  behind  might  answer 
as  fenders  or  guards.  Four  inches  of  good  brickwork  is  a  good 
covering,  but  porous  terra  cotta  or  even  wire  lath  and  plaster 
may  prove  effective.  Where  wire  lath  and  plaster  is  used  the 
column  should  first  be  wrapped  with  a  quarter-inch  thickness  of 
asbestos  hound  with  wire.  This  would  prove  reliable  and  in- 
expensive. 

It  is  a  fact,  showing  how  common  is  the  neglect  to  cover  iron 
with  non-conducting  material,  that  in  the  New  York  State 
Capitol,  in  the  library,  is  a  large  plate  girder  entirely  exposed. 
This  girder  supports  the  ceiling  beams,  and  there  is  enough 
combustible  material  in  the  oak  bookcases,  furniture  and  floor- 
ing to  wreck  this  portion  of  the  building  in  case  of  their  combus- 
tion by  expansion  of  the  beams.  The  ceiling  of  the  Senate 
chamber  is  of  heavy  hard  wood  attached  to  the  soffits  of  the 
iron  beams,  which  would,  if  ignited,  probably  warp  and  expand 
the  beams  to  a  dangerous  point.  The  New  York  Building  Law 
was  enacted  in  this  building. 

A  notable  instance  showing  the  necessity  of  protecting  iron- 
work with  incombustible  material,  and  the  danger  of  expansion 
in  long  lines  of  iron  girders  or  beams,  was  that  of  the  destruction 
of  a  fireproof  spinning  mill  at  Burnley,  England,  recently. 
This  mill  was  210  feet  long  by  120  feet  wide.  Six  cast-iron 
girders  of  the  Hodgkinson  type,  each  20  feet  long,  spanned  the 
120  feet  width,  being  bolted  to  cast-iron  columns  and  carrying, 
in  turn,  cross  girders  of  wrought  iron.  The  expansion  of  these 
120-foot  girders  (they  were  unprotected)  resulted  in  the  disrup- 
tion of  the  floor  and  the  destruction  of  the  mill.  The  cast-iron 
columns,  being  unprotected,  collapsed  under  fire  and  wrater. 
The  floors  were  10'  6"  bays.  As  already  stated,  beams  should 
not  be  spaced  over  five  feet  on  centres.  Wider  spacing  results 
in  weak  arches,  liable  to  be  buckled  out  by  heat  or  punched 
through  by  the  falling  of  safes  or  of  other  heavy  articles  from 
upper  floors. 


COMPARATIVE  TESTS.  (ilo 

The  probability  is  thai  if  the  20-foot  girders  in  this  building 
had  been  arranged  with  provision  for  expansion,  and  all  the 
ironwork  had  been  thoroughly  protected  with  fireproof  material, 
little  damage  would  have  been  done.  The  effect  would  have 
been  more  rapid  if  the  floors  had  been  loaded  with  combustible 
merchandise.  There  was  little  wood  to  burn  in  the  contents  of 
the  spinning  mill,  and  yet  the  destruction  was  thorough.  Such 
buildings  with  uncovered  iron  work  are  more  dangerous  than 
those  of  heavy  wood  construction,  in  which  the  timbers  are 
twelve  inches  in  diameter.  A  properly  constructed  building 
with  protected  iron,  however,  is,  of  course,  superior  to  any  other 
form  of  building.  Experienced  firemen  are  afraid  to  enter 
buildings  supported  by  iron  columns  unless  they  are  thoroughly 
fireproof ed,  as  they  are  liable  to  snap  without  warning  under 
the  influence  of  fire  and  water,  whereas  wooden  posts  burn 
slowly  and  give  notice  of  collapse.  They  will  stand  a  severe 
fire  without  being  charred  for  more  than  two  inches  of  their 
surface. 

COMPARATIVE  TESTS  OF  FIREPROOF  MATERIAL. 

Tests  of  fireproof  material,  iron  beams,  pillars,  floor  arches, 
etc.,  to  be  of  any  value  must  be  conducted  under  circumstances 
which  insure  uniform  conditions ;  otherwise  comparisons  are  un- 
reliable. It  is  quite  customary  to  refer  to  results  of  fires  in 
different  buildings,  having  differing  forms  of  construction,  as 
supporting  theories  of  relative  merit ;  but  ordinary  conflagrations 
cannot  be  relied  upon,  for  the  reason  that  in  two  buildings,  side 
by  side,  the  conditions  may  be  widely  different,  Eddies  and 
currents  of  air,  changes  of  prevailing  wind,  etc.,  may  secure 
exemption  from  damage.  It  happened  in  the  large  confla- 
grations of  Chicago,  Troy,  Boston,  etc.,  that  the  most  phe- 
nomenal escapes  were  observed.  In  some  instances  frame  build- 
ings, surrounded  by  brick  structures  which  were  totally  des- 
troyed, escaped  with  no  further  damage  than  the  blistering  of 
paint. 

Even  where  tests  are  carefully  arranged,  especially  weight 
tests,  obvious  precautions  are  sometimes  overlooked.  It  will  be 
observed,  for  instance,  where  bricks  are  piled  on  a  surface  of 
floor  arch  and  iron  beams  to  secure  a  certain  weight  per  square 
foot,  the  pile  of  bricks  may  be  so  disposed  as  to  have  a  hearing 
on  both  of  the  iron  beams  and  the  full  weight  may  not  come 


616       UNDERWRITERS  AND  FIREPROOF  CONSTRUCTION. 


upon  the  fireproof  arch  between  them.  The  lateral  bond  of  ;i 
pile  of  bricks  a  few  courses  higher  than  the  floor  to  he  tested, 
may  have  all  the  effect  of  a  relieving  arch  and  materially  re- 
duce the  strah is.  In  furnaces  constructed  to  secure  high  tem- 
peratures, also,  draffs  and  currents  of  air  should  he  provided 
for  with  great  care  and  under  the  direction  of  the  most  com- 
petent and  intelligent  experts. 

Under  no  circumstances  should  the  iron  frame  work  of  a 
skeleton  building  be  incorporated  in  thin  enclosing  walls.  No 
wall  that  has  not  a  cross  section  sufficient  to  support  itself  with- 
out the  iron  work,  should  he  allowed,  aside  from  the  importance 
of  having  it  thick  enough  to  prevent  the  passage  of  heat  from 
1  an  adjoining  building.  ( !urtain  walls  for  enclosing  walls,  sup- 
ported by  the  longitudinal  members  of  skeleton  construction 
are  objectionable;  they  are  liable  to  be  buckled  out  by  the 
expansion  of  the  framework.  The  great  trouble  with  modern 
fireproof  structures,  even  under  the  New  York  Building  Law, 
is  that  while  the  separating  fireproof  floors  tend  to  prevent  the 
passage  of  flame  from  one  story  to  another,  the  enclosing  walls 
are  often  insufficient  to  prevent  heat  from  igniting  the  contents 
of  an  adjoining  building,  so  that  what  is  gained  by  preventing 
the  spread  of  fire  vertically  is  lost  laterally. 

THE  INTEREST  OF  UNDERWRITERS  IN  FIREPROOF 
CONSTRUCTION. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  well  to  state,  in  view  of  the  general 
misapprehension  which  prevails  with  regard  to  the  interest  of 
the  fire  underwriter  in  the  improvement  of  construction,  that  it 
makes  no  difference  to  him  whether  a  building  be  fireproof  or 
not ;  his  rate  of  premium  and  the  amount  which  he  insures  are 
both  based  upon  the  characteristics  of  each  building  insured. 
He  would  make  just  as  much  money  on  $100  of  premium  secured 
at  a  proper  rate  of  5$  (or  $50  per  $1,000)  for  $2,000  insurance 
on  a  wooden  saw-mill,  as  on  $100  of  premium  secured  for 
$100,000  insurance  on  a  fireproof  building  the  rate  of  which 
is  10  cents  per  $100  or  $1  per  $1,000. 

The  suggestions  of  underwriters  as  to  safe  construction,  so 
frequently  made,  are  evidence  rather  of  their  sense  of  their  duty 
to  the  community,  as  good  citizens,  than  of  a  desire  to  secure 
profit  through  immunity  from  fire.    Indeed,  they  often  make 


TABLES  OF  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


617 


more  money  on  high  rated  risks  of  poorly  constructed,  wooden 
buildings  than  on  the  lower  rates  of  those  of  the  best  construction. 

TABLES  OF  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

The  following  tables  of  weights  and  measures,  including  the 
decimal  Metric  System  of  France,  may  be  found  useful : 


AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT. 


drachms. 

ozs. 

lbs. 

qrs.  cwts. 

1= 

:.0625 

=  .0039 

=  .0001 39  =  .000035 

16  = 

1 

=  .0625 

=  .00223  =  .000558 

256  = 

16 

=  1 

=  .0357  =.00893 

7168  = 

448 

=  28 

=  1  =.25 

28672  = 

1792 

=  112 

=  4  =1 

573440  = 

35*41) 

=  2240 

=  80  =20 

ton. 

:. 00000174 
.000028 
:.  000447 
=  .0125 
=  .05 
=  1 


French 
grammes 

=  1.77184 

=  28.3495 

=  453.59 

=  12,700 

=  50,802 

=  1,016,040 


TROY  WEIGHT. 


;rains.  dwts. 


ozs. 


lb. 


French 
grammes. 

1=  .04167=  .00208  =  .0001736=  .0648 
.004167  =  1.555 
=  .0833      =  31.1035 
=  1  =373.242 


24=1 
480=20 


=  .05  = 


5760=240  =12 

175  lbs.  troy  =  144  lbs.  avoirdupois. 

lbs.  avoirdupois  X   .82286=lbs.  troy. 

lbs.  troy       ..    X  1-2153  =lbs.  avoirdupois. 

LONG  MEASURE, 


nches. 

feet. 

yards. 

fath. 

poles. 

furl. 

mile. 

French 
metres. 

1  = 

.083 

=  .02778 

=  .0139 

=  .005 

=  .000126 

=  .0000158 

=  .0254 

12  = 

1 

=  .333 

=  .1667 

=  .0606 

=  .00151 

=  .0001894 

=  .3048 

36  = 

3 

1 

=  5 

=  .182 

=  .00454 

=  .000568 

=  .9144 

72  = 

6 

2 

=  1 

=  .364 

=  .0091 

=  .001136 

=  1.8287 

198  = 

164 

=  5J 

=  2J 

=  1 

=  .025 

=  .003125 

=  5.0291 

7920  = 

660" 

=  220 

=  110 

-=  40 

=  1 

=  125 

=  201.16 

63360  = 

5280 

=  1760 

=  880 

=  320 

=  8 

=  1 

=  1609.315 

A  "cable"  =  120  fathoms  =  720  feet. 


SURVEYING  MEASURE  (Lineal). 


inches. 

links. 

feet. 

yards. 

chains. 

mile. 

h  rench 
metres. 

1  = 

.126  = 

.0833 

=  .0278= 

.00126= 

.0000158= 

.0254 

7.92  = 

1  = 

.66 

=  .22  = 

.01  = 

.000125  = 

.2012 

12= 

1.515  = 

1 

=  .333  = 

.01515  = 

.000189  = 

.3048 

36= 

4.545  = 

3 

=     1  = 

.04545  = 

.000568  = 

.9144 

792= 

100  = 

66 

=    22  = 

1  = 

.0125  = 

20.116 

63360  = 

8000  = 

5280 

=  1760  = 

80  = 

1  = 

1609.315 

1  knot  or  geographical  mile  =  6082.66  feet=1854  metres= 
1.152  statute  mile 
1  Admiralty  knot =1.1515  mile =6080  feet. 


618 


TABLES  OF  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


inches. 


feet. 


SQUARE  MEASURE, 
yards.     perches.  roods. 


1  =  .00694  = 
144=        1  = 
1296=        9  = 
39204=  272^= 
1568160=  10890  = 
6272640=  43560  : 


.000T7' 
.111 
1 

304 
1210 
4840 


J!  255     .0(101)111164  .000000151) 

=  .  0(  )367    =.()()()(  19 1  s  =  .000023 
=  .0331     = .000826    = .0002062 
=    1        =.025  =.00625 
=  40        =1  =.25 
=  160        =4  =1 


1  chain  wide. . .  =8  acres  per  mile. 
10  square  chains  =  1  acre. 
1  hectare      . .  .=2.471143  acres. 

(  =27878400  sq.  feet. 
1  square  mile  -j  =3097600  sq.  yards. 
(  =640  acres. 
Acres  X  .0015625=sq.  miles. 
Sq.  yds.  X  . 000000323 =sq.  miles. 


ins. 

1 

1728=  1 
46656  =  27 


CUBIC  MEASURE 
yard. 


feet. 
0005788  = 


cubic  metre, 
or  stere. 
.00000214  =  000016386 
.03704      =  028315 
1  =.764513 


square 
metres. 
=  .000645 

.0929 
=.8361 
=25.292 
=1011.7 
=4046.7 


ALE  AND  BEER  MEASURE. 

pints. 

2  =  1  quart. 

8  =  4  =     1  gallon. 

72  =  36  =     9  =    1  firkin. 

144  =  72  =    18  =    2  =  1  kilderkin. 

288  =  144  =    36  =    4  =  2  =  1  barrel. 

432  =  216  =    54  =    6  =  3  =  1\=  1  hogshead. 

576  =  288  =    72  =    8  =  4  =  2  =  11  =  1  puncheon. 

864  =  432  =  108  =  12  =  6  =  3  =  2    =  1£=  1  butt. 


MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY. 


pints. 

gall. 

peck,  bushel  quarter 

wey. 

last. 

cub.  ft. 

litres. 

1  = 

.125= 

.0625=. 01562=. 00195= 

.00039  = 

000195 

=  .02  = 

.5676 

8= 

1  = 

.5     =.125    =.0156  = 

.00312= 

.00156 

=  .1604  = 

4  541 

16= 

2= 

1  =.25  =.03125= 

.00625  = 

.00312 

=  .3208= 

9.082 

64= 

8= 

4=1     =.125  = 

.025  = 

.0125 

=1.283  = 

36.32816 

512= 

64= 

32  =   8     =1  = 

.2  = 

.1 

=10.264= 

290.625 

2560= 

32o  = 

160  =  40     =  5  = 

i  = 

.5 

=  51.319= 

1453.126 

5120  = 

640= 

320  =  80     =10  = 

2  = 

1 

=  102.64= 

2906.25 

1  gallon  in  wine,  ale,  or  dry  measure 

=277  J-  cubic  inches  =  .16  cubic  foot 

=  10  lbs.  of  distilled  water 
Cubic  feet  X  6. 2355= gallons. 
Cubic  ins.  X  .003607  =  gallons. 
1  bushel    =2218.19  cubic  iuches  =  1.28  cubic  foot. 
Cubic  feet  X  .78=bushels. 
Cubic  ins.  X  .00045=bushels. 


FRENCH  METRIC  SYSTEM. 


G19 


WINE  MEASURE. 

pints 

2  =       1  quart. 
8  =       4  =     1  gallon. 
330  =    168  =    42  =  1  tierce. 
504  =    252  =    63  =  11=  1  hogshead. 
672  =    336  =    84  =  2"=  1$=  1  puncheon. 
1008  =    504  =  126  =  3  =  2  =  1£=  1  pipe. 
2016  =  1008  =  252  =  6  =  4  =  3  =  2  =  1  tun. 


FRENCH  METRIC  SYSTEM. 


LONG  MEASURE. 


Metres. 

Inches. 

Feet. 

Yards. 

Miles. 

.001 

.03937 

.00328 

.00109 

.01 

.3937 

.0328 

.0109 

.1 

3.937 

.328 

.1093 

.00006 

.1 

39.37079 

3.2809 

1.09363 

.00062 

10 

32.809 

10.936 

.0062 

100 

328 

109.36 

.06214 

1,000 

3280.9 

1093.6 

.62138 

10,000 

6.21382 

*1  metre  =  1.093633056  yard. 


SQUARE  MEASURE. 


Square 

Square 

Square 

Square 

Acres. 

Metres. 

Inches. 

feet. 

yards. 

.1 

155 

1.076 

.119 

1 

1550 

10.764 

1.19 

.00025 

10 

15501 

107.64 

11.96 

.0025 

100 

1076.4 

119.6 

.0247 

1,000 

1,196 

.2471 

10,000 

11,960 

2,4711 

•(•Or  1  square  metre  =  1.196033292  square  yard. 


SOLID  MEASURE. 


Cubic  metre. 

Cubic  inches. 

Cubic  feet. 

Cubic  yards. 

.001 

61.028 

Centistere   

.01 

610.28 

.353 

.1 

6,102.8 

3.5317 

.1308 

Stere,  or  cubic  metre. 

1 

61,028 

35.317 

1.308 

Decastere   

10 

13.08 

100 

130.802 

G20 


FRENCH  METRIC  SYSTEM. 


WEIGHTS. 


Avoir- 

Avoir- 

Cwts. 

Tons. 

(Tains 

Grammes. 

dupois 

dupois 

Troy. 

ounces. 

lbs. 



M  il  1  i  "Tiuninc 

.001 

_ 



.015 

!oi 

.154 

.1 

1.543 

Gramme  

1 

.035 

.0022 

15.432349 

Decagramme  

Kl 

.35 

.022 

100 

3.527 

.22046 

Kilogramme  

1,000 

35.2739 

2.2046 

.019 

.00098 

Myriagramme  

111,111  III 

22.04 

.1968 

.(Kills  | 

Quintal  

100,000 

220.46 

1.9684 

.0984 

1,000000 

2204.62 

19.6*4 

.984206 

]>KY  AND  FLUID  MEASURE. 


Litres. 

Inches. 

Feet. 

Gallons. 

Bushels. 

Millilitre   

.001 

.061 

.00022 

Centilitre  

.01 

.61 

— 

.0022 

.1 

6.1 

.022 

.0027 

1 

61.02 

.0353 

22 

.0275 

10 

610.28 

.353 

2.2 

.276 

100 

3.53 

22 

2.751 

Kilolitref  

1,000 

35.317 

220 

27.512 

10,000 

353.17 

2200.967 

27.5121 

*Lit re  =  .22009668  gallon  =  a  cubic  decimetre, 
•f- Kilolitre  —  a  cubic  metre. 


standard 
Universal  Schedule 

FOR  RATING 

MERCANTILE  RISKS 

EDITION  JANUARY,  1  902. 
FOR  INDEX  SEE  BACK  OF  BOOK. 

N.  B.—  This  schedule  must  be  taken  as  a  whole  to  get  proper  results ; 
charges  and  deductions  are  numerous  and  not  over-large  in  any  case,  the 
idea  being  to  make  equitable  rates,  so  that  every  property  owner  will  pay 
for  the  defects  of  his  risk,  and  get  the  full  benefit  of  all  its  good  points. 


UNIVERSAL  SCHEDULE  COMMITTEE. 

F.  C.  MOORE,  Continental  Ins.  Co., 
J  AS.  A.  SILVEY,  German  American  Ins.  Co  , 
GEO.  W.  BABB,  Jr.,  Northern  Assurance  Co., 
E.  G.  RICHARDS,  National  Insurance  Co.,  of  Hartford. 


CO-OPERATING  COMMITTEES. 


.New  England  Insurance  Exchange* 

H.  R.  TURNER,  Niagara  Insurance  Co., 
J.  M.  FORBUSH,  German  American  Ins.  Co., 
HENRY  N.  BAKER,  American  Ins.  Co.,  Boston, 

G.  E.  KENDALL,  New  Hampshire  Firf  Ins.  Co., 
W.  R.  GRAY,  Jno.  C.  Paige  Agency.  Boston, 

U.  C.  CROSBY.  Phenix  Ins.  Co.,  of  Brooklyn, 
C.  M.  GODDARD,  Sec.  New  England  Ins.  Exchange 

Underwriters'  Association  New  York  State. 

0.  W  PALMER,  Franklin  Ins.  Co.,  Philadelphia, 
J.  M.  CAROTHERS.  Phcenix  Ins.  Co.,  Hartford, 
EDWARD  CLUFF,  London  Assurance  Corporation, 

H.  B.  SMITH,  Home  Ins.  Co.  ,  New  York, 

C.  L.  HEDGE,  Fireman's  Fund,  California, 

E.  M.  McCHESNEY,  Westchester  F.  Ins.  Co.,  N.Y. 

Underwriters'  Association  of  Middle  Department, 

E.  O.  WEEKS.  Aetna  Ins.  Co.,  Hartford, 
J.  B.  KREMER.  Liverpool  and  London  and  Globe  Ins.  Co., 
JNO.  J.  BABCOCK,  Springfield  Fire  and  Marine  Ins.  Co.. 
ALFRED  ROWELL,  Imperial  Fire  Ins.  Co.,  Philadelphia, 
S.  S.  CHILD,  Orient  Ins.  Co.,  Hartford. 

Southeastern  Tariff  Association. 

CLARENCE  F.  LOW,  Liverpool  and  London  and  Globe  Ins  Co. 
L.  R.  WARREN,  Phcenix  Assurance  Co.,  London, 
CHAS.  C.  FLEMING,  German  American  Ins.  Co., 
GEO.  W.  DEWEY,  Niagara  and  Caledonian  Ins.  Cos., 
S.  Y.  TUPPER,  Sec.  South  Eastern  Tariff  Assn. 

National  Board  of  Eire  Underwriters. 

E.  F.  BEDDALL,  Royal  Ins.  Co., 
C  C.  LITTLE,  Phenix  Ins.  Co.,  of  Brooklyn, 
WEST  POLLOCK,  Niagara  Ins.  Co., 
F.  W.  ARNOLD,  Equitable  F.  and  M.  Ins.  Co.,  Prov., 
CHAS.  E.  CHASE,  Hartford  Fire  Ins.  Co., 

New  York  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

H.  E.  BOWERS,  Guardian  Fire  &  L.  Assce.  Co., 
M.  S.  DRIGGS,  Williamsburgh  City  Fire  Ins.  Co., 
E.  LITCHFIELD.  Lancashire  Ins.  Co., 
W.  S.  BANTA,  General  Agent,  New  York, 
W.  H.  CROLIUS,  American  Ins.  Co.,  New  York. 


623 


EXPLANATORY. 

The  plan  or  scheme  on  which  the  Committee  have  framed 
the  following  schedule  has  been  to  secure  a  rate  on  which 
the  fire  cost  of  the  past  five  years  per  $100  of  insurance, 
would  result  in  such  percentage  of  the  premium  as  with  an 
allowance  for  proper  expenses  and,  also,  for  accumulation 
for  periodical  and  inevitable  sweeping  fires  or  conflagrations, 
would  leave  margin  for  a  moderate  profit  not  exceeding 
five  per  cent.  The  insuring  public  cannot  object  to  rates 
based  upon  so  moderate  a  profit. 

In  localities  where  the  fire  loss  exceeds  $5  per  $1,000,  re- 
sulting from  abnormal  local  causes  or  moral  hazard,  the  cost 
of  which  can  only  be  assumed  from  results  and  measured 
accordingly,  they  have  provided  (at  No.  30)  for  an  addition 
to  the  rates,  for  each  one  dollar  of  loss  in  excess  of  five,  of 
20$  of  the  key-rate,  which  will  amount  to  ten  cents  on  each 
$100  of  insurance,  and  approximately  maintain  the  equi- 
librium between  fire-cost  and  rate  of  premium. 

The  Committee  have  not  only  carefully  considered  the 
actual  experience  of  the  last  five-year  period  in  fire-cost  per 
one  hundred  dollars  of  insurance,  but  they  have  also  secur- 
ed, by  conference,  concurrent  expert  opinion  as  to  charges. 

In  fixing  the  charges  for  variations  from  standard  con- 
struction, they  have  graded  them  according  to  their  relative 
importance  with  reference  to  the  integrity  of  the  entire 
building,  those  for  defects  in  the  more  important  portions 
of  the  building  from  fire-resisting  standpoints- — staircases, 
elevator  shafts,  floors,  &c,  for  example — being  larger  per- 
centages of  the  rate  of  a  standard  structure. 

The  rates  have  been  graded  to  admit  of  liberal  concess- 
ions for  effective  fire  appliances;  in  the  case  of  casks  and 
pails,  for  example,  a  percentage  has  been  allowed  which  will 
secure  their  general  introduction.  Experience  justifies  this. 
In  mills,  a  class  of  risks  where  they  are  generally  provided, 
over  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  of  fires  have  been 
extinguished  by  their  use,  due  of  course,  to  the  fact  that 
the  most  ignorant  employee  knows  how  to  apply  them. 
No  fire  ever  started  which  could  not,  at  one  stage,  have 
been  extinguished  by  a  cupful  of  water. 


624 


While  the  requirements  for  standard  construction  in  the 

schedule  may  be  regarded  as  exceptionally  high,  and  while 
there  are  few  buildings  which  comply  with  them,  it  will  be 
conceded  that  there  ought  to  be  more,  and  the  compilers 
believe  that  the  best  way  to  secure  their  erection  is  to  recog- 
nize, in  advance,  the  merits  of  ideal  construction.  They 
realize,  however,  that  if,  in  order  to  secure  this,  they  should 
frame  an  elaborate  schedule  to  be  applied  by  charges  for 
deficiencies,  to  all  risks  (the  great  majority  of  which  are  un- 
provided with  such  exceptional  and  unusual  features  of 
construction  as  wire  lathing,  heavy  floor  beams,  fire  stops 
in  partitions,  etc.,  etc.,  and  are  outside  the  protection  of 
such  fire-extinguishing  appliances  as  water-towers,  extra 
large  fire  departments,  automatic  fire-alarms,  etc.,  etc.)  they 
would  cause  unnecessary  labor  in  nine  risks  out  of  ten. 
They  have,  therefore,  arranged  the  schedule  by  providing 
for  exceptional  features  by  means  of  deductions,  and  the 
main  body  of  the  schedule  is  so  framed  as  to  be  applicable 
to  the  majority  of  risks  and  towns.  In  fact  they  have  not, 
in  all  cases,  charged  for  deficiencies  from  specifications 
of  a  standard  building,  especially  in  such  requirements  as 
chamfering  the  ends  of  floor  beams,  fire  stops  in  partitions, 
etc.,  which  an  inspector  would  find  it  difficult  to  investigate. 
There  is  good  reason,  nevertheless,  for  including  these 
specifications  in  the  standard,  which  is  intended  to  be  edu- 
cational, in  order  that  it  may  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  a 
property-owner  contemplating  the  erection  of  a  building,  as 
an  explanation  of  proper  construction. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  will  be  found,  in  some  instances, 
an  apparent  duplication  of  charges  or  deductions,  which  is 
not,  however,  without  reason.  For  example,  city  fire  de- 
partments and  water-works  are  first  considered  in  the  City 
Schedule,  because  all  risks  partake  in  the  general  benefit  of 
their  power  to  prevent  sweeping  conflagrations;  while,  after- 
wards, in  the  Building  Schedule,  a  deduction  is  made  for 
proximity  of  each  risk  to  one  or  more  hydrants,  with  a  fur- 
ther deduction  if  the  street  water-pipe  be  fed  by  mains  at 
each  end,  which  would  double  its  capacity  to  supply  engines. 
This  arrangement  with  the  provision  as  to  accessibility  of 
street  to  fire  engines,  etc.,  insures  indirectly  that  only  those 
risks  shall  get  the  full  benefit  of  the  fire  department  in  rate 
which  come  thoroughly  under  its  protection. 

The  compilers  of  the  schedule  believe  that  only  two  or 


G25 


three  applications  of  it  will  be  necessary  to  disabuse  the 
mind  of  any  first  impressions  as  to  its  being  either  intricate 
or  unnecessarily  elaborate,  and  they  hope  that  a  careful  ex- 
amination of  its  provisions  will  convince  any  underwriter 
that,  although  he  will  have  to  know  a  great  deal  about  a 
risk  before  he  can  apply  it,  yet,  unless  he  possesses  such 
knowledge  of  the  risk  on  every  point  for  which  there  is  a 
charge  or  a  deduction,  he  will  not  know  enough  about  the 
risk  to  insure  it.  If,  therefore,  for  the  purpose  of  insuring 
it  he  must  be  possessed  of  the  information  needed  to  apply 
the  charges,  the  application  of  the  schedule  cannot  be  other 
than  a  help  to  him,  if  only  as  a  check  upon  memory  and 
judgment  as  to  the  relative  and  consistent  value  of  all  fea- 
tures of  construction  or  extinction,  some  of  which  would 
certainly  be  overlooked  by  any  other  process ;  in  fact,  no 
mere  mental  process  would  correctly  sum  up  all  the  good 
and  bad  features  of  a  risk  so  as  to  accurately  measure  them 
in  the  rate,  no  matter  how  thorough  and  competent  might 
be  the  examining  expert. 

The  committee  have  taken  pains  to  secure  the  advice  and 
suggestions  of  hundreds  of  expert  underwriters  throughout 
the  country,  and  they  believe  the  schedule  to  be  correct. 
If,  however,  in  any  locality,  it  is  thought  to  produce  results 
which  are  too  low,  in  the  opinion  of  local  underwriters,  they 
suggest  that  it  will  be  better  to  make  any  additions  which 
may  be  deemed  necessary  by  percentage  additions  after  the 
rate  of  each  risk  has  been  obtained  by  the  schedule,  rather 
than  by  making  any  changes  in  the  specific  items  of  the 
schedule  itself.  Whatever  in  the  judgment  of  its  critics, 
may  be  its  faults,  its  compilers  claim  that  it  is  at  least  con- 
sistent, and  that  the  charges  and  deductions  are  relatively 
correct — a  most  important  matter.  If  mere  off-hand  opin- 
ion, no  matter  how  expert,  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  test  of 
its  accuracy,  then  even  those  who  rely  upon  such  a  test  will 
surely  not  reject,  as  a  basis  for  opinion,  a  result  arrived  at 
by  a  process  designed  to  be  thorough,  systematic  and  analy- 
tically harmonious.  The  Committee,  therefore,  urge  that 
all  risks  be  rated  by  it,  and  that  afterward  any  percentage 
additions  be  made  to  the  result  which  may  be  thought 
necessary  to  adjust  the  rates  to  local  conditions,  after  which 
they  can  be  printed  in  tariff  form  for  the  use  and  convenience 
of  local  agents. 

The  committee  further  suggest  that,  in  case  reductions 


62G 


are  found  to  be  necessary  to  meet  the  competition  of  com- 
panies disposed  to  cut  rates,  it  will  be  better  to  adhere  to 
the  printed  tariff  obtained  in  this  manner,  and  meet  the  cuts 
by  percentage  deductions  therefrom  rather  than  to  throw 
prices  open  ;  in  this  respect  following  the  example  of  mer- 
chants, who  adhere  to  a  "price-list"  but  sometimes  vary  the 
discounts,  finding  it  much  easier  afterwards  to  reduce  the 
discount,  and  so  indirectly  raise  the  rate,  than  to  alter  the 
printed  figures  of  the  price-list.  As  a  rule,  policy-holders 
refer  to  their  policies  to  ascertain  previous  rates  when  re- 
newing them,  and  can  be  more  easily  convinced  that  the 
discount  of  a  previous  year  has  been  found  to  be  too  large 
than  that  a  rate  written  in  the  policy  has  been  too  low. 

The  history  of  the  insurance  business  proves  that  where 
rates  are  once  thrown  open,  it  is  difficult  afterwards  to  raise 
them  and  that  they  generally,  if  not  invariably,  readjust 
themselves  upon  some  lower  level  than  that  from  which 
they  fell. 

ORDER  OF  TREATMENT. 

It  is  believed  that  no  experienced  underwriter  would 
question  the  propriety  of  the  order  of  treatment  in 
which  the  various  considerations  are  arranged  for 
computing  the  rate. 

First.    The  key-rate  of  the  city  is  computed. 

Second.  To  this  are  added  the  charges  for  the 
deviations  from  standard  construction  of  the  particular 
building  to  be  rated. 

Third.  Features  of  exceptional  construction  of 
rare  occurrence,  as  already  explained,  are  treated  as  de- 
ductions, saving  the  time — a  serious  matter — which 
would  be  required  to  consider  them  if  treated  by  charges 
made  for  their  absence;  and  saving,  also,  the  loss  to  the 
companies  in  case  charges  should  be  overlooked,  as  thej 
frequently  would  be. 

Fourth.  Deductions  for  fire  appliances.  At  this 
point  the  rate  of  the  building  and  the  rate  of  its  stocks  of 
merchandise  proceed  on  different  lines.  Fire-extinguish- 
ing appliances  in  some  cases  are  of  greater  benefit  to 
buildings  than  to  stocks.  Certain  features  of  construc- 
tion, like  No.  178,  for  example  (self- releasing  floor  beams), 
are  of  advantage  to  the  building,  but  of  none  whatever 


627 

to  the  stock,  which  would  be  totally  destroyed  at  the 
point  where  the  floor  beam  or  girder  should  break.  Some 
considerations,  moreover,  like  skids  for  raising  merchan- 
dise above  the  floor,  apply  to  stocks  but  not  to  buildings. 

The  deductions  for  sprinklers.  This  last  deduction 
follows  all  the  rest,  for  two  reasons:  First,  the  owner  of 
property  does  not  decide  to  put  in  sprinklers,  in  any 
case,  until  he  is  in  position  to  tell  what  his  net  rate  is 
and  what  he  will  save  by  so  expensive  a  precaution;  and, 
second,  the  underwriter  cannot  properly  estimate  the 
value  to  him  in  rate  of  automatic  sprinklers  unless  the 
percentage  of  allowance  is  based  upon  the  net  rate  after 
all  other  fire-extinguishing  appliances  have  been 
estimated  and  allowed  for. 

Fifth.  Exposure  should  be  treated  differently  also, 
for  buildings  and  stocks. 

Sixth.  Co-insurance.  The  deduction  for  co-insur- 
ance naturally  comes  last  of  all,  for  the  double  reason 
that  on  the  final  rate  of  a  building,  measuring  its  proba- 
bilities of  salvage,  depends  the  value  or  necessity  of 
co-insurance,  both  from  the  underwriter's  point  of  view 
and  the  property-owner's  point  of  view.  All  rates  are 
promulgated  at  the  net  figure  for  Sofo  co-insurance.  If, 
at  any  time,  mistaken  legislation  in  any  state  should 
prevent  the  introduction  of  the  80$  co-insurance  clause 
and  the  allowance  for  it,  the  situation  will  be  easily 
met,  since  the  rate  will  then  be  put  back  to  that  at  No. 
131,  and  it  will  be  plain  to  the  legislator,  as  well  as  to 
the  owner,  that  the  whole  question  is  purely  one  of  rate 
and  the  legislation  will  only  deprive  the  assured  of  a 
reduction  in  rate  to  which  he  would  be  entitled  by  the 
amount  of  insurance  carried  by  him  because  he  is  pro- 
hibited from  inserting  the  clause  in  his  policy,  as  was 
the  case  not  long  since  in  the  state  of  Maine.  There 
would  be  a  great  advantage  in  not  having  to  raise  the 
rates  to  meet  the  new  condition,  it  being  only  necessary 
to  take  the  rate  already  computed  by  the  schedule  for 
insurance  without  co-insurance. 

Seventh.  Faults  of  Management.  These,  as  here- 
after explained,  follow  all  other  charges,  so  that  they 
can  be  deducted  bodily  in  gross  without  computations 
in  case  they  are  corrected,  as  they  generally  would  be. 


028 


EXPLANATIONS  TO  PROPERTY  OWNERS. 

The  committee  believes  that  it  would  be  wise  to  let 
the  property  owner  see  how  his  rate  is  computed  in  every 
case,  in  order  that  any  corrections  may  be  made  at  once, 
as  most  of  them  would  be.  We  believe  that  it  would  be 
as  injudicious,  not  to  say  unfair,  to  a  property  owner  to 
refuse  to  let  him  see  how  his  rate  is  computed  as  it 
would  be  unfair  and  suspicious  for  a  tradesman  to  refuse 
to  let  his  customer  see  merchandise  weighed  or  measured. 
If  anything  would  tend  to  make  the  property  owners  of 
the  city  satisfied  with  their  rates,  or,  at  any  rate,  deprive 
them  of  grounds  of  objection,  it  would  be  a  system  of 
rating  which  discriminates  as  to  faults  and  merits  and 
has  the  advantage  of  being  thorough. 

SOME  ADVANTAGES  OF  RATING  BY  SCHEDULE. 

ist.  It  secures  accurate  rating,  by  carefully  taking 
into  account  each  feature  of  construction  and  each  feature 
of  fire  prevention  and  extinction. 

2d.  It  secures  consistent  and,  therefore,  equit- 
able rating,  by  rating  risks  of  the  same  character  in  the 
same  town  alike,  and  risks  of  the  same  character  in  different 
towns  on  the  same  basis. 

3d.    As  a  consequence  of  these  two,  it  prevents 

OPPOSITION     ON     THE     PART     OF      POLICY-HOLDERS  AND 

legislators,  which,  as  a  rule,  grows  out  of  apprehensions 
of  injustice  and  invidious  discrimination  either  as  to  risks 
or  localities,  sometimes  too  well  founded,  and  which  cannot 
be  allayed,  except  by  intelligent  explanation.  With  a  print- 
ed schedule  which  puts  every  man's  risk  and  every  city  on 
a  like  basis,  and  which  can  be  handed  to  the  property- 
owner,  enabling  him  to  examine  for  himself  why  the  rate  of 
his  risk  is  higher  than  that  of  his  neighbor,  there  can  be  no 
ground  for  prejudice  or  jealousy. 

4th.  It  encourages  proper  construction  of  build- 
ings, by  intelligently  charging  for  deficiencies  from  standards 
?nd  by  recognizing  exceptionally  good  construction  by  de- 
ductions. The  architect,  builder  and  property-owner,  in- 
formed at  the  outset  as  to  what  can  be  saved  by  proper 


629 


construction,  will  be  led  to  avoid  many  of  the  faults  now 
prevailing,  which  have  grown,  not  unnaturally,  out  of  the 
present  system  of  conducting  the  insurance  business.  In- 
telligent and  explicit  answers  to  inquiries  of  this  nature  are 
due  to  every  inquiring  property-owner,  and  can  be  best 
provided  for  by  a  proper  rating  schedule.  With  such  a 
schedule,  dealers  in  building  materials  and  fire- resisting 
and  extinguishing  appliances  will  become  advocates  and 
exponents  of  it,  using  it  to  induce  owners  to  construct  new 
buildings  in  accordance  with  correct  methods,  thus  lessen- 
ing the  danger  of  sweeping  conflagrations  in  cities,  since  a 
single  building,  properly  constructed  in  a  large  city,  may 
prove  the  barrier  which  will  enable  the  fire  department  to 
control  a  fire,  as  was  the  case  in  the  great  Boston  fire  of  1889. 

5th.  It  is  calculated  to  prevent  anti-compact 
laws  prohibiting  agreements  as  to  rates  It  would  require 
slight  argument  with  an  intelligent  legislator  to  convince 
him  that  a  proper  schedule  for  correctly  measuring  fire 
hazard  is  directly  in  the  interest  of  all  property-owners  and 
in  line  with  public  policy,  and  that  it  can  only  be  secured 
by  conference  of  companies  for  combining  their  experience 
and  by  their  co-operation  to  secure  its  enforcement.  It  may 
be  possible  to  convince  him  that  security  to  the  policy- 
holder depends  not  alone  upon  capital,  but  upon  intelligent 
management,  correct  methods  and  adequate  rates.  An  idiot 
or  a  spendthrift  can  dissipate  capital,  no  matter  how  large, 
whereas  intelligent  management,  correct  methods  and  ade- 
quate rates  are  always  indispensable  with  capital  as  security. 

6th.  It  will  discourage  the  payment  of  excessive 
brokerages  and  commissions,  discriminating  as  to  so- 
called  "preferred"  classes  of  risks.  By  rating  all  classes — 
buildings  and  stocks — on  a  basis  which  will  make  all  alike 
desirable,  there  will  be  no  reason  for  discriminating  com- 
missions. If  the  schedule  is  correctly  made,  there  will  be 
as  much  profit  for  the  underwriter  in  the  poorer  classes,  at 
the  higher  rates  of  premium,  as  in  the  better  classes,  at  the 
lower  rates  of  premium. 

7th.  It  will  insure  more  thorough  inspection, 
which  implies  correction  of  faults  and  prevention  of  fires. 
Enforcing  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  inspector  of  each 
departure  from  correct  standards,  it  will  be  a  check  not 
only  upon  his  thoroughness,  but  upon  his  judgment  and 
memory.    It  will  tend  to  educate  inexperienced  inspectors 


630 


for  their  work.  It  will  do  away  with  "sidewalk,  inspections" 
and  necessitate  that  each  building  shall  be  examined  from 
cellar  to  garret.  No  underwriter  can  be  sufficiently  inform- 
ed as  to  the  details  of  a  risk,  unless  he  knows  enough  of  it 
to  rate  it  by  this  schedule. 

8th.  It  will  prevent  excessive  deductions  for 
fire  departments.  At  present,  the  purchase  of  a  new 
steam  fire-engine  is  regarded  by  property-owners  and  by 
some  insurance  agents  as  a  reason  for  at  once  cutting 
rates  in  two.  With  a  proper  schedule  in  the  hands 
of  local  underwriters  no  such  mistake  need  be  made.  The 
schedule  will  also  assist  in  securing  reforms  in  fire  depart- 
ments by  making  proper  charges  for  faults,  disbanding  of 
force,  failure  of  waterworks,  etc.,  etc.,  which  when  now 
made  in  specific  cases  are  regarded  as  threats  and  antago- 
nize property-owners.  With  a  standard  schedule,  to  which 
their  attention  can  be  called,  showing  that  the  demand  is  no 
new  thing  or  invidious  exaction,  but  an  obvious  and  neces- 
sary adherence  to  the  basis  on  which  the  rates  of  the  town 
have  been  made,  such  antagonism  and  hard  feeling  will  be 
avoided. 

9th.  It  will  tend  to  prevent  competition  and  the 
cutting  of  rates.  A  merchant  when  informed  as  to  the 
system  by  which  his  rate  is  ascertained  as  the  result  of  con- 
currence of  judgment  and  actual  experience,  and  on  a  basis 
of  adequacy  will  not  be  so  ready  to  accept  the  policy  of  a 
Company  which  makes  its  price  by  "rule  of  thumb"  and  can 
give  no  intelligent  explanation  of  its  ability  to  carry  the  risk 
at  the  lower  rate.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  rates  are  not  made 
by  schedule,  the  most  intelligent  underwriter  can  give  no 
better  reason  for  requiring  the  higher  rate  than  can  his 
competitor  for  accepting  a  lower  one ;  in  either  case  it  is  a 
matter  of  expert  opinion,  with  the  property  owner's  inclina- 
tions in  favor  of  the  lower-priced  man,  since  property  owners, 
as  a  rule,  regard  their  own  risks  as  free  from  fault. 
ESSENTIAL  FEATURES  OF  ACCURATE  RATING. 

A  schedule  to  be  correct  must  recognize  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing principles : 

First. — Standards  of  construction  and  standards  of 
environment  or  condition  as  to  fire  departments,  water- 
works, topography,  etc. 

Second. — Fire  Departments  and  extinguishing  appliances 


631 


must  receive  three-fold  treatment  and  be  divided  so  as  to 
apply 

a.  For  the  minimum  credit,  to  all  risks  benefited 
as  regards  conflagration  hazard  or  danger  from  sweep- 
ing fires. 

b.  For  the  maximum  credit,  for  full  protection, 
only  to  those  risks  entitled  to  it  by  reason  of  prox- 
imity to  hydrant  service,  fire-engine  houses,  size  of 
street  mains,  accessibility  of  streets,  etc. 

c.  To  buildings  separately  from  stocks. 
Third. — Exposures  must  receive  separate  treatment  as 

to  buildings  and  stocks. 

Fourth. — Stock  rates  must  differ  from  building  rates 
according  to  construction  and  fire  department. 

A  Standard  City  is  one  having  gravity  waterworks,  with 
head  sufficient  at  all  hours,  to  throw  over  five-story  build- 
ings. The  main  supply  pipe  to  be  in  duplicate  unless  inter- 
mediate storage  reservoir  be  provided.  Water  pipes  and 
mains  to  be  not  less  than  six  inches  in  diameter  in  dwelling 
section,  and  not  less  than  eight  inches  (as  a  minimum)  in 
mercantile  section  (they  ought  to  be  ten  and  twelve  inches); 
a  paid  fire  department,  12  men  to  each  steamer;  not  less 
than  two  steam  fire-engines  to  each  square  mile  of  compact 
portion,  or  one  to  each  10,000  population  up  to  500,000 
population ;  hook  and  ladder  trucks,  one  to  every  four 
steamers  ;  fire-alarm  telegraph  ;  efficient  police  ;  paved,  mac- 
adamized, or  other  hard  streets,  the  majority  of  which — say 
60  <fc — are  70  feet  or  more  in  width  ;  a  good  building  law, 
well  enforced ;  no  outlying  exposures,  such  as  lumber 
districts,  etc.,  to  cause  sweeping  fires;  no  unjust  municipal 
and  State  taxation  and  a  previous  five-year,  fire  record  of 
not  exceeding  $5  annual  fire  loss  to  each  $1,000  of  insurance. 

A  Standard  Building  is  one  having  walls  of  brick  or 
stone  (brick  preferred),  not  less  than  twelve  inches  thick  at 
top  story  (16  inches  if  stone),  extending  through  and  36 
inches  above  roof  in  parapet  and  coped,  and  increasing  four 
inches  in  thickness  for  each  story  below  to  the  ground — the 
increased  thickness  of  each  story  to  be  utilized  for  beam 
ledges.  Ground  floor  area  not  over  2,500  square  feet  (say, 
25  by  100) ;  height  not  over  four  stories,  or  50  feet;  floors 
of  two  inch  plank,  (three  inches  better)  covered  by  |  or 


632 


one-inch  flooring,  crossing  diagonally,  with  waterproof  paper 

or  approved  fire  resisting  material  between  (if  tin  or  sheet- 
iron  between,  see  deductions)  ;  wooden  beams,  girders,  and 
wooden  story  posts  or  pillars  twelve  inches  thick,  or  protect- 
ed iron  columns  ;  elevators,  stairways,  etc.,  cut  off  by  brick 
walls  or  by  plaster  on  metallic  studs  and  lathing,  communica- 
tions at  each  floor  protected  with  approved  tin-covered 
doors  and  fire-proof  sills  ;  windows  and  doors  on  exposed 
sides  protected  by  approved  tin-covered  doors  and  shutters; 
walls  of  flues  not  less  than  eight  inches  in  thickness,  to  be 
lined  with  fire-brick,  well-burned  clay  or  cast-iron,  and 
throat  capacity  not  less  than  96  square  inches  if  steam- 
boilers  are  used  ;  all  floor  timbers  to  be  trimmed  at  least 
four  inches  from  outside  of  flue  ;  heated  by  steam  ;  lighted 
by  gas  ;  cornices  of  incombustible  material ;  roof  of  metal  or 
tile ;  if  partitions  are  hollow  or  walls  are  furred  off  there 
must  be  fire-stops  at  each  floor. 

Basis  Rate. — The  basis  rate  of  a  Standard  Build- 
ing in  a  Standard  City  25  cts. 

To  ascertain  the  basis  rate  of  a  Standard  Building  in  any 
city  Or  town  differing  from  the  above  standard,  add  to  the 
basis  rate  of  25  cents  for  a  Standard  Building  in  a  Standard 
City,  the  following  charges  for  deficiencies  of  the  city  from 
such  standard. 

Note.— The  Standard  Building  is  intended  to  be  educational  in  order  that 
any  one  contemplating  the  erection  of  a  building  may  be  advised  how  to  build 
as  well  as  how  to  escape  charges  in  rates  of  insurance.  For  this  reason,  re- 
quirements of  safe  construction  are  mentioned  which  are  not  charged  for  after- 
ward if  omitted,  because,  after  a  building  is  erected,  the  Inspector  cannot 
ascertain  whether  they  have  been  complied  with  or  not.  A  sensible  owner 
may,  if  advised,  comply  with  them  even  though  no  penalty  bo  imposed. 


ANALYSIS  OF  CITY  SCHEDULE  TO  ASCER- 
TAIN THE  KEY-RATE. 

1.  NON-FIRE  DEPT.  TOWNS— If  town  is  deficient  in 
having  no  water-works  (n),  fire-engines  (12),  fire-alarm 
telegraph  (14),  police  system  (1 5),  fire  department  organiza- 
ti  jn  (16),  fire  marshal  or  fire  coroner(22),  nor  other  appliances 

than  buckets  and  cisterns,  add   32  cts. 

Note. — This  clause  is  intended  to  group  the  charges  of  towns  lmvine  no 
fire-department  or  water-works,  to  save  time  in  making  up  the  "  key-rate," 
and  covers  !<ems  2  to  22  botli  inclusive. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  elaborate  upon  the  explanation 
of  this  clause  ;  it  greatly  facilitates  computing  the  key- 
rate  of  towns  which  are  entirely  without  fire  appliances. 

2.  WATER-WORKS— If  gravity  system  but  not  stand- 
ard pressure  or  direct  pressure,  being  simply  sufficient  to 

keep  mains  full  for  supply  of  engines,  charge   2  cts. 

Note.— This  deficiency  will  entail  charge  for  No.  12,  if  no  steamers 
to  Btipply  needed  pressure,  and  will,  also,  not  entitle  the  city  to  reduction 
for  auxiliary  steamers,  No.  33,  which  will  practically  increase  charge.  The 
advantages  of  water-works  are  brought  home  to  each  risk  by  hydrant  de- 
ductions, Nos.  155,  190,  &c. 

A  gravity  system  of  water-works  is  of  importance  for 
two  reasons  : 

1st.  The  pressure  is  always  available  night  and  day 
for  supplying  the  necessary  force,  which  cannot  be  said 
of  the  so-called  direct  pressure  systems,  such  as  the 
Holly  system  and  others,  which  may  not  have  steam  up 
for  the  pumping  engines,  or  which  have  been  known  to 
break  down  when  most  needed. 

2d.  Exerting  a  uniform  pressure  on  the  pipe  system, 
there  is  less  danger  of  rupture  of  mains  than  in  the  case 
of  direct  systems,  which  exert  suddenly  an  abnormal 
pressure  for  an  occasion. 

The  schedule  is,  therefore,  based  on  a  standard  of 
gravity  water-works  with  sufficient  head,  and  any  varia- 
tion from  this  requirement  entails  a  charge,  not  meas- 
ured simply  by  the  two  cents  in  the  key-rate  above,  but, 
as  suggested  in  the  above  note,  subjecting  the  city  to 
the  charge  for  absence  of  steamers,  at  No.  12,  and  de- 
priving the  city  of  the  reduction  for  auxiliary  steamers, 
No.  33. 

Indirectly  the  advantages  of  a  gravity  system  are 
recognized  by  hydrant  deductions  later  on,  155,  190,  &c, 
and  the  deduction  for  gravity  pressure  on  both  buildings 


14 


CITY  SCHEDULE!. 


and  stocks,  pages  47  and  50.  These  properly  recog- 
nize the  advantages  of  a  gravity  system. 

3  If  not  gravity,  standard  pressure,  but  instead  thereof 
a  direct  pressure  system,  duplicate  pumps  operated  by 
water  power,  add   3  cts. 

For  reasons  already  stated,  a  direct  pressure  system 
is  not  equal  to  the  gravity,  and  should  be  charged  for. 
Water  power  pumps  are  preferable  to  steam  pumps  as 
iteam  might  not  be  up  at  time  of  fire. 

The  succeeding  paragraphs,  Nos  4,  5  and  6  recognize 
the  difference  between  duplicate  pumps  and  single 
pumps,  and  pumps  operated  by  steam  power,  both  single 
and  duplicate  machinery. 

4.  If  pumps  not  in  duplicate,  charge  instead  of  No.  3  . . .      5  cts. 

5.  If  direct  pressure  system,  pumps  operated  by  steam- 
power,  but  with  the  pumping  machinery  in  duplicate,  charge     4  cts. 

6.  If  direct  pressure  system,  pumps  operated  by  steam- 
power,  pumps  not  duplicate,  charge   7  cts. 

The  duplication  should  extend  to  all  essential  features  of  the  plant, 
boilers,  etc. 

7.  If  direct  pressure,  but  without  stand-pipe  or  reservoir 
with  capacity  of  ten  hours'  supply,  at  full  pressure — 75  lbs. 
at  hydrant,  (unless  pumping  machinery  is  in  duplicate,  in 
which  case  add  2  cts.),  charge  in  addition  to  Nos.  3,  4,  5  or  6.      5  cts. 

A  stand-pipe  or  elevated  reservoir  even  of  ten  hours' 
supply  is  of  advantage,  but  particularly  in  cases  where 
the  pumping  machinery  is  not  in  duplicate,  as  is 
recognized  in  this  paragraph. 

8.  If  pumping  station  is  endangered  by,  or  occupied  in 
part  for,  electric-light  station,  special  hazard,  or  for  other 
purpose,  add  not  less  than   10  cts. 

The  fault  of  utilizing  the  machinery  and  building  of  a 
pumping  station  for  an  electric-light  station  or  other 
hazard,  whose  destruction  would  endanger  the  pumping 
station,  in  itself  not  likely  to  burn,  seems  to  be  over- 
looked with  a  frequency  that  is  incomprehensible. 

Fire-proof  Pumping  Station.  It  would  seem  un- 
necessary to  state  that  the  building  on  whose  existence 
the  safety  of  a  city  depends  should  be  safe  from  fire  and 
separated  from  dangerous  manufacturing  or  other  haz- 
ards and  especially  from  Electric  Lighting  Stations.  It 
will  be  observed  that  charge  is  made  (item  No.  8)  for  an 
electric-light  station  or  other  special  hazard  in  the 
pump-house  or  exposing  it.  It  is  a  grave  question  if 
this  charge  ought  not  to  be  higher,  even  to  the  extent  of 
making  the  "  key-rate  "  of  a  city  having  a  direct  pressure 
system,  so  jeopardized,  higher  than  that  of  a  town  with' 


CITY  SCHEDULE. 


635 


out  any  water-works  at  all,  in  view,  first,  of  the  fact  that 
individual  risks  in  such  a  town  get  credit  afterwards  for 
proximity  to  hydrants  to  the  extent  possibly  of  15$ 
(see  Nos.  155,  156)  and,  second,  of  the  fact  that  a  com- 
pany's conflagration  line  in  the  direct  pressure  town 
would  have  been  increased  by  reason  of  the  pressure, 
but  all  benefit  of  the  system  lost  if  a  fire  destroying  the 
pump-house  should  happen  to  be  coincident  with  the 
raging  of  a  conflagration  in  the  city. 

g.  If  not  duplicate  Supply  Main  from  reservoir  or  pump- 
ing station,  add   2  cts. 

(If  intermediate  storage  reservoir  or  stand-pipe  with  10  hours  supply  to 
be  relied  upon  in  case  of  breakage,  no  charge.) 

This  charge  probably  does  not  need  suggestion  as  to 
its  propriety. 

10.  If  water-pipes  in  mercantile  portion  be  less  than  8 
inches,  as  a  minimum,  or  if  hydrants  be  less  than  6-inch 
barrels,  charge  according  to  deficiency,  but  not  less  than.  .      3  cts. 

This  matter  will  be  found  to  be  more  fully  explained 

in  the  article  on  Water  Supply. 

11.  If  the  only  water  supply  is  from  public  and  private 
wells  and  cisterns,  or  natural  streams,  canals  or  ponds  near 
enough  to  compact  portion  to  be  available  with  engine  suc- 
tion, charge,  according  to  supply,  not  less  than   10  cts. 

This  clause  is  self-explanatory,  but  it  may  be  well  to 

state  here,  what  will  probably  be  observed,  viz.,  that  it 

does  not  measure  the  entire  difference  between  a  town 

without  any  water  supply  other  than  private  wells  and 

cisterns  and  a  town  with  a  poor  water  supply  ;  an  un- 

supplied  town  would  have  higher  rates  by  not  securing 

the  deductions  later  on  for  proximity  to  hydrants,  etc., 

Nos.  155,  156,  etc.,  page  45. 

WATER-WORKS  IN  THE  UNIVERSAL 
SCHEDULE. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  schedule  recognizes  effi- 
ciency and  reliability  of  water-works  in  the  following 
order  : 

1.  Gravity  system,  with  an  "effective  head  "and  "  vol- 
ume "  at  the  hydrants.  For  recognition  in  schedule  rating, 
the  reservoir  should  contain  at  all  times  at  least  five  days' 
supply  for  domestic  and  fire  service  which  should  be  main- 
tained and  is  more  reliable  if  supplied  by  hydraulic  pumps 
in  duplicate,  from  a  river  or  other  inexhaustible  supply, 


636 
i6 


CITY  SCHEDULE. 


not  liable  to  drought.  If  the  pumps,  whether  steam  or 
hydraulic,  are  arranged  to  secure  also  direct  pressure  on 
the  pipes  in  emergency,  as  already  explained,  both  kinds 
of  service  may  be  secured. 

2.  Hydraulic  Pumps,  in  duplicate,  with  storage  reser- 
voir or  tank  stand-pipe  of  ten  hours'  supply  for  domestic 
and  fire  service. 

3.  Steam  Pumps,  in  duplicate,  with  a  tank  stand-pipe 
or  storage  reservoir  of  ten  hours'  supply  for  domestic 
and  fire  service. 

4.  Direct  pressure  from  Hydraulic  Pumps,  in  dupli- 
cate, without  tank  stand-pipe  or  storage  reservoir. 

5.  Direct  pressure  from  Steam  Pumps,  in  duplicate, 
without  tank  stand-pipe  or  reservoir. 

A  reservoir  system  is  preferable  to  all  others,  and  in- 
sures uniform  pressure  in  pipes,  involving  less  danger  of 
breakage.  While  a  large  reservoir  is  desirable  for  storage 
purposes,  however,  it  is  not  indispensable  for  fire  pur- 
poses. A  reservoir  sufficient  to  hold  a  supply  for  both 
domestic  and  fire  service  of  ten  hours  would  probably  be 
ample  for  extinguishing  any  fire.  One  million  gallons 
storage  will  supply  eleven,  standard,  250  gallon  fire 
streams  for  six  hours,  and  for  the  ordinary  city  up  to 
15,000  inhabitants,  a  million  gallons  could  be  considered 
an  ample  storage  reserve  for  fire  purposes. 

CAPACITY  OF  CISTERNS  OR  STAND-PIPES  IN   U.  S.  GALLONS. 

For  each  12  inches  of  depth. 

The  following  table  will  enable  any  one  to  estimate  the  capacity 
of  tank  stand-pipes  or  cisterns  of  cylindrical  form  in  U.  S.  gallons 
for  each  12  inches  of  depth  : 


4  feet  diameter, 

94 

1 1 

feet  diameter,  . 

711 

5  " 

II 

•  147 

12 

<(  « 

.  846 

6  " 

«( 

2Il| 

13 

(1  1C 

993 

7  " 

II 

.  288 

14 

((  (1 

8  " 

<l 

•  376 

15 

It  <( 

1,322 

9  " 

II 

.  476 

20 

II  II 

2.350 

10  « 

<< 

•  537* 

25 

ft  << 

3,672 

For  example,  a 

cistern  2 

5  feet 

in  diameter  would  con- 

tain  3,672 

gallons 

for  every 

foot  of  depth  ;  and  if 

10  feet 

deep,  36,720  gallons,  or  918  bbls. 


CITY  SCHEDULE. 


637 
17 


A  simple  rule  may  be  stated  as  follows  :  To  find  the 
contents  in  U.  S.  standard  gallons  for  each  foot  of  depth  of  a 
cylindrical  cistern  with  a  circular  base,  multiply  the  square 
of  the  diameter  {in  feet)  by  5/6  ;  the  product  will  be  the  con- 
tents in  gallons.  * 

For  example,  a  cistern  20  feet  in  diameter  and  10  feet 
deep  would  contain  20X20X5^6X10.-23,500  gallons  (see 
table  on  page  16). 

12.  STEAM    FIRE-ENGINES— If  none,  add   7  cts. 

"  "  If  one,  add   4  cts. 

No  charge  for  absence  of  steam  fire-engines,  if  direct  pressure  system  or 
gravity  water-works  with  head  sufficient,  to  throw  a  1  %  inch  stream  through 
200  feet  of  hose  over  highest  building  and  sufficient  good  hose  for  at  least 
six  streams.  This  would  require  au  effective  head  at  hydrants  of  100  feet, 
or  say  a  pressure  of  75  lbs. 

This  charge  is  intended  to  measure  the  absence  of 
steam  fire  engines  only  in  the  key-rate  and  its  effect 
upon  all  risks  in  the  town.  The  standard  requirement 
is  two  steamers  per  square  mile  and  this  is  a  deficiency 
charge. 

13.  HOSE — If  less  than  1,000  feet  of  serviceable  hose 
per  steamer  (there  should  be  2,000  feet)  or  less  than  20  feet 
per  hydrant,  if  direct  pressure  (but  not  less  in  any  case  than 
a  total  of  2,000  feet),  charge  according  to  circumstances, 

size  of  town,  character  of  buildings,  etc.,  but  not  less  than..      3  cts. 

(No  charge,  of  course,  if  charge  has  been  made  for  absence  of  steamers, 
of  direct  pressure,  etc.) 

14.  FIRE-ALARM    TELEGRAPH— If  none,  add   5  cts. 

(Underground  wires  preferable.) 

Note. — If  fire-alarm  system  is  by  key  boxes  (objectionable),  the  keys  to 
be  deposited  in  some  public  place  accessible  to  citizens  as  well  as  police- 
men and  firemen.  Neighboring  drug  stores,  for  example,  are  good  deposi- 
tories, because  accessible  at  most  hours  of  the  day  and  night.  The  Central 
Station  should  not  be  in  a  dangerous  building. 

The  keyless  boxes  are  preferable  to  make  sure  that 
an  alarm  will  be  sent  in  promptly  and  to  save  the  delay 
of  searching  for  the  key.  The  fears  that  alarms  will  be 
sent  in  by  mischievous  persons  prove  unfounded  in 
actual  practice.  Underground  wires,  of  course,  prevent 
interruption  of  service  by  storms  or  falling  buildings. 

15.  POLICE  ORGANIZATION.— If  none,  add   2  cts. 

Self-explanatory. 


*The  cubic  contents  in  feet  of  a  cylinder  like  a  cistern  are  obtained  by  multiplying 
the  area  of  the  circle  by  the  depth  in  feet.  Inasmuch  as  the  area  of  a  circle  is  ob- 
tained by  multiplying  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  .7854,  and  inasmuch  as  a  cubic 
foot  of  water  contains  7.48  gallonB,  it  is  only  necessary  to  multiply  the  square  of  the 
diameter  by  the  product  of  7,48  X  ,7854=5%,  to  obtain  the  result  m  gallons,  wituout 
the  longer  computation. 


638 
i8 


CITY  SCHEDULE. 


16.  FIRE     DEPARTMENT      ORGANIZATION—  If 

none,  charge   6  cts. 

(If  charge  is  made  for  16,  omit  17,  18,  19,  20  and  21.) 

17.  If  less  than  12  paid  men  to  each  steamer,  or  four 
men  to  each  hose  cart  where  direct  pressure  or  gravity 
system  is  relied  upon,  add   2  cts. 

18.  If  only  engineer  and  driver  paid,  add   3  cts. 

If  not  paid  l>y  municipality  but  by  Volunteer  Department  charge  4 
cents  and  omit  No.  21. 
(No  charge  if  no  steamers  ) 

19.  If  firemen  paid  according  to  number  of  fires  attended, 
charge  same  as  No.  16    6  cts. 

20.  If  paid  fire  department,  but  not  free  from  improper 
political  control  and  influences,  add  from  1  cent  to   4  cts. 

21.  If  volunteer,  add   5  cts. 

These  charges  will  be  self-explanatory. 

22.  FIRE  MARSHAL  OR  FIRE  CORONER— If  none, 

add   2  cts. 

The  smallness  of  the  charge  would  probably  be  the 
only  criticism  made  upon  it  ;  but  it  was  carefully  con- 
sidered and  is  believed  to  be  relatively  correct. 

23.  STREETS — In  mercantile  section,  if  not  paved  or 
macadamized,  or  if  exceeding  say  10%  are  impassable  for 
engines  during  wet  seasons,  add   2  cts. 

Note. — While  streets  are  impassable  the  fire  engines  and  extinguishing 
appliauees  of  a  city  are,  of  course,  practically  useless. 

24.  If  exceeding  40$  of  whole  number  in  mercantile 
section  are  less  than  70  feet  wide,  add   2  cts. 

These  clauses  need  no  explanation. 

25.  BUILDING   LAW — If  none,  or  not  well  enforced, 

or  if  no  ordinance  as  to  storage  of  explosives,  etc.,  add  ....      3  cts. 

If  has  been  suggested  that  charge  No.  25  is  too  low, 
but  the  intimation  overlooks  the  fact  that  this  entire 
Schedule  is,  in  effect,  a  building  law  and,  by  its  penal- 
ties of  charges  and  encouragement  of  deductions,  will 
do  more  to  enforce  proper  building  methods  than  any 
municipal  or  state  regulation  which  is  simply  mandatory. 

26.  ELECTRIC  TROLLEY  (or  other  dangerous)  system 

of  street  railway,  add   2  cts. 

27.  CONFLAGRATION  HAZARD — Danger  of  sweep- 
ing fires  from  outlying  exposures,  such  as  extensive  frame 
or  lumber  districts,  aggregations  of  special  hazards, 
especially  wood-workers,  about  a  common  water-power,  or 
along  a  water-front  near  enough  to  endanger  city,  not  less 

than   5  cts. 

This  charge  should  be  very  carefully  considered.  The 
schedule  is  based  upon  the  ordinary  conflagration  hazard 
of  the  average  city.    Where  mercantile  and  other  build- 


CITY  SCHEDULE. 


R39 
19 


ings  are  abnormally  high,  especially  in  the  class  of  towns 
known  as  "  six-story  towns  with  two-story  fire  depart 
ments,"  water  mains  small,  and  general  construction 
poor,  by  reason  of  incorrect  building  methods,  defective 
bricks  and  mortar,  etc.,  a  liberal  charge  should  be  made 
under  this  item.  The  "  lay  of  the  land  "  also  should  be 
taken  into  account,  and  an  extra  charge  should  be  made 
for  cities  built  upon  a  hill  or  mountain  side,  such  as 
Quebec,  St.  Johns,  N.  F.,  Lynchburg,  Va.,  etc.  Such 
conditions  minimize  the  separating  effect  even  of  wide 
streets.  Where  cities  are  located  in  canons,  also,  a 
charge  should  be  made,  as  in  the  case  of  Hot  Springs, 
Ark.,  Virginia  Citv,  etc.  (The  latter  town  was  destroyed 
in  1875.)  In  Astoria,  Ore,  the  business  section  is  Luilt 
on  spiles,  with  an  air  space  below,  and  is  therefore  more 
liable  to  a  sweeping  fire  by  reason  of  this  fact. 

The  destruction,  in  May,  1900,  of  Ottawa  and  Hull, 
Can.,  due  to  the  burning  of  large  accumulations  of 
lumber,  outlying  exposures,  etc.,  is  a  more  recent  in- 
stance enforcing  the  importance  of  studying  the  envi- 
ronment of  cities. 

28.  NATURAL  GAS  OR  OIL  FOR  FUEL,  add   2  cts. 

The  hazard  of  natural  gas  has  of  late  years  been  better 

understood,  and  the  great  number  of  fires  due  to  its  use 
when  first  applied  for  heating,  cooking,  etc.,  has  been 
largely  cut  down.  Meanwhile,  the  insurance  companies 
stood  in  the  breach,  as  it  is  always  their  misfortune  to 
do  in  the  case  of  all  new  hazards,  and  paid  for  all 
mistakes  and  lack  of  proper  precautions. 

29.  HIGH  WINDS — If  city  subject  to  high  winds,  add 
according  to  hazard,  say    5  cts. 

30.  PREVIOUS  FIRE  RECORD— This  schedule  is  based 
on  the  supposition  of  a  normal  fire  record  of  the  city 
or  town  to  be  rated.  If,  however,  the  previous  fire 
record  of  the  place  has  been  abnormal  and  disastrous,  a 
higher  basis  rate  for  a  standard  building  in  such  place 
should  be  made,  in  accordance  with  such  record.  An 
average  annual  loss  on  mercantile  risks  for  the  previous 
period  of  five  years  of  not  exceeding  $5  for  each  $r,ooo 
of  insurance  or  value,  as  shown  by  the  books  of  the  prin- 
cipal insurance  agents,  may  be  regarded  as  normal.  For 


640 

20 


CITY  SCHEDULE. 


each  dollar  of  loss  or  part  thereof,  in  excess  of  $5  per 
$1,000  of  insurance  on  Mercantile  Business,  20%  should 
be  added  to  the  above  basis  rate  of  a  standard  building 
in  the  city  to  be  rated. 

(Twenty  per  cent,  of  the  key-rate  to  be  the  maximum 
increase  or  addition  for  any  one  sweeping  fire  or  confla- 
gration.) 

For  example,  if  the  average  annual  fire  loss  for  the  pre- 
vious five  years  has  been  at  the  rate  of  $7  per  each  $1,000 
of  insurance,  and  the  rate  of  a  standard  building  in  such 
city  has  been  ascertained,  as  above,  to  be  40  cents,  40$ 
thereof,  or  16  cents,  should  be  added,  making  56  cents 
is  the  basis  rate  of  a  standard  building. 

By  way  of  illustration,  let  us  suppose  a  town  whose 
insurance  on  mercantile  values — buildings  and  stocks — 
amounts  to  $20,000,000.  If  its  average  losses  amount  to 
|ioo,ooo  per  annum,  they  would  be  at  the  rate  of  $5  per 
$1,000  of  insurance,  or  normal.  If  the  average  rate  be  i# 
the  premiums  would  be  $200  000,  and  the  loss  ratio  50^  ; 
but,  let  us  suppose  that  instead  of  $100,000  losses  per 
annum,  the  annual  loss  is  $140,000.  This  would  be  at 
the  rate  of  $7  per  $1,000  or  $2  per  $1,000  in  excess  of 
normal,  and  70$  of  the  premiums  at  ife.  The  schedule 
would  increase  the  rate  20$  for  each  dollar  in  excess  of 
five,  or  40$,  and,  at  a  rate  of  140,  the  premiums  would  be 
$280,000  on  which  the  $140,000  of  losses  would  be  50^ 
Mercantile  values  of  a  city  and  the  annual  fire  loss  can 
be  estimated  with  approximate  correctness  by  an  intelli- 
gent expert,  assisted  by  the  local  agents  or  by  the  Com- 
panies. Even  where  not  possible  to  get  accurate  figures, 
however,  anything  gained  under  this  item  of  the  schedule 
will  be  a  practical  improvement  on  present  methods, 
which  ignore  this  feature  of  previous  fire  record 
altogether. 

REDUCED  FIRE  WASTE — There  should  be  a  reduction, 
also,  of  1$  of  premium  rate  for  each  1$  decrease  in  fire 
waste  below  55^,  not  exceeding  15$  on  a  three  year 
period.    (See  page  123.) 

31.  EXCEPTIONAL  FEATURES  OF  CITY.— If  the 
city  or  town  has  unfavorable  features  [not  provided  for  in 
the  schedule]  which  are  exceptional,  and  which  should  be 


CITY  SCHEDULE. 


041 
21 


provided  for  in  the  general  city  charge  as  affecting  all 
structures  in  the  compact  portion,  charge  according  to 
danger  

"Note. — The  only  supply  water-main  for  an  important  Southern  city,  for 
example,  crosses  a  wooden  railroad  bridge,  the  locomotives  using  wood 
for  fuel.  An  important  Western  city  was  dependent,  at  one  time,  upon 
the  working  of  a  telephone  to  secure  water  for  fires.  It  did  not.  work  and 
a  conflagration  was  the  result.    Such  faults  should  be  roundly  charged  for. 

The  Galveston,  Texas,  water  supply  was  cut  off  by  the  great  storm  of 
September,  1900.  The  water  supply  of  an  important  city  in  North 
Carolina  depends  upon  a  single  fireman  some  distance  from  the 
city  and  an  accident  to  him  would  cripple  the  service.  It  is  strange  that 
such  contingencies  are  so  frequently  overlooked. 

DEDUCTIONS. 

32.  CHEMICAL  ENGINES  ON  WHEELS. — For  each 
deduct  (not  exceeding  5^  in  all)  from  foregoing  total   3  % 

These  are  admirable  in  their  way,  and  where  used  with 
intelligence  by  the  chief  of  the  fire  department  frequently 
save  immense  loss  to  underwriters,  which  would  other- 
wise result  from  throwing  large  quantities  of  water  on 
damageable  stocks,  like  hardware,  millinery,  etc.  They 
are  gradually  winning  their  way,  so  that  most  of  the 
practical  fire  chiefs  are  using  them. 

33.  AUXILIARY  STEAMERS— Where  a  city  has  grav- 
ity water-works,  with  head  sufficient  to  throw  over  highest 
building,  or  direct  pressure  system,  and  sufficient  hose  for 
six  streams,  if  one  or  more  steam  engines,  maintained  in 

good  condition,  are  also  provided,  deduct   5  # 

It  is  too  frequently  the  case  that  municipalities  with 
gravity  water-works,  or  with  a  direct  pressure  system, 
fail  to  provide  fire  steamers,  or,  having  them  already, 
dispense  with  them  upon  securing  the  direct  pressure 
system.  Those  towns  which  keep  them  should  have 
recognition  of  them. 

34.  HOOK  AND  LADDER   TRUCKS— One  to  every  4 
steamers   5  % 

RESULT— The  Basis  or  "Key-Rate"  for  a  Stand- 
ard Building  in  said  city  

(For  illustration  see  page  59.) 

This  basis  rate  once  obtained,  in  this  manner,  will  be 
the  "  Key  "  Rate  for  rating  all  buildings  in  the  city,  and 
so  ascertained,  it  is  only  necessary,  thereafter,  to  use  the 
following  schedules  for  rating  all  structures. 


SCHEDULE  FOR  "NOMIRE-PROOF" 
BUILDINGS. 

KEY-RATE— The  key-rate  of  the  city  is  intended  to 
measure  the  average  rate  of  a  standard  building  in  the 
city  ;  but  such  a  building  would  receive  further  deductions 
later,  for  proximity  to  hydrants  on  an  adequate  water 
main,  and  for  private  fire  appliances  155,  156,  etc. 

The  various  items  of  the  schedule  are  numbered  ami 

arranged  in  their  numerical  order,  and  they  will,  therefore, 

be  explained  in  the  order  of  their  arrangement,  as  follows: 

38.  WALLS  (other  than  "Party,"  for  which  see  No. 
40)  — If  the  two  side  or  bearing  walls  (or  either  of  them 
— charge  for  worse  but  not  both),  vary  in  thickness  from 
standard  construction,  add  according  to  deficiencies. 

This  may  be  computed  by  charging-  for  variation  of  the 
wall  from  the  standard  by  estimating  the  average  thick- 
ness of  the  standard  required  for  a  building  of  equal 
height  and  charging  at  the  rate  of  2  cents  for  each  de- 
ficiency of  4  inches  of  average  thickness  or  fraction 
thereof.  (if  building  over  4  stories  high,  double  the 
charge.)  For  example,  the  average  thickness  of  a  four- 
story  wall  according  to  standard  would  be  12  plus  16  plus 
20  plus  24,  equals  total  72  inches,  averaging  say  18  inches 
throughout.  If  the  wall  should  be  12  inches  average 
thickness,  4  cents  should  be  added.  If  two  independent 
walls  adjoin,  4  inches  may  be  deducted  from  the  average 
of  these  requirements. 

The  standard  building  of  the  schedule  is  seldom  to  be  met 
with,  even  in  cities  with  admirable  building  laws.  Most 
builders  and  architects  regard  a  rule  requiring  an  increase 
of  four  inches  in  thickness  for  each  story  to  the  bot- 
tom as  too  severe  a  requirement.  Such  a  building,  how- 
ever, would  be  calculated  to  confine  a  fire  within  its 
own  four  walls,  and  we  do  not  hesitate  to  express  the 
opinion,  after  long  consideration  of  the  matter,  that  all 
buildings  in  the  compact  portions  of  cities  should  be  con- 
structed in  this  manner.  Tn  isolated  locations,  where  the 
owner  of  land  has  no  neighbors,  he  may  well  claim  that 
he  should  be  allowed  to  build  as  he  pleases;  but  proper 
consideration  for  community  interests  requires  that,  in 
cities  and  towns,  each  property-owner  should  be  required 
so  to  build  that  the  burning  of  his  property  would  not  nec- 
essarily destroy  that  of  his  neighbor.  Whatever  hardship 
this  may  be  to  him  is  more  than  offset  by  the  great  advan- 
tage of  having  his  neighbors  held  to  the  same  rule,  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  they  outnumber  him  a  thousand  to  one. 


"non-fire-proof"  schedule. 


23 


The  schedule  recognizes  the  merit  of  a  wall  such  as  is  re- 
quired by  the  New  York  building  law,  however,  as  it  will 
be  found  the  charge  for  variations  from  the  standard  are 
very  light.  A  wall  12  inches  in  thickness,  for  the  upper- 
most 1 5  feet,  increasing  4  inches  in  thickness  for  every  1 5  feet 
below  to  the  foundation,  is  a  good  wall  and  should  not  be 
penalized  more  seriously  than  the  schedule  provides. 

39.  WALLS,  on  buildings  over  three  stories  high,  if 
average  thickness  be  less  than  12  inches  (no  portion  to 
be  less  than  8  inches),  charge  according  to  danger  and 
adjoining  buildings,  not  less  than   8  ots. 

(This  in  addition  to  No.  38.) 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  section  provides  for  a  wall 
which  by  reason  of  a  number  of  thick  sections  making  a  high 
average  of  thickness  might  yet  be  weakened  by  one  or  two 
sections  only  8  inches  in  thickness,  as  is  sometimes  the  case. 

40.  PARTY  WALLS  should  average  4  inches  thicker 
than  independent  walls,  and  should  be  16  inches  for  the 
top  story,  increasing  4  inches  for  each  story  to  the  foun- 
dation; no  portion  to  be  less  than  12  inches.  For  each 
inch  of  deficiency  of  the  average  thickness  of  the 
wall  to  be  rated  (charge  for  worse  but  not  both),  from 
the  average  thickness  of  a  standard  wall,  charge  (If 
building  is  over  four  stories,  double  the  charge.)   1  ct. 

For  example,  a  standard  four-story  party  wall  would 
be  16  plus  20  plus  24  plus  28,  equal  total  88,  or  average  22 
Inches;  and  if  risk  is  18  Inches  average  thickness,  4  cents 
should  be  charged. 

Party  walls  should  be  thicker  than  independent  walls, 
as  they  are  laid  with  less  care.  Two  independent  walls 
would  be  brought  to  face"  on  both  sides  and  properly 
bonded;  but  party  walls  may  be  filled  in  with  "bats"  and 
may  have  air  spaces,  and  should  be,  as  is  here  required,  at 
least  four  inches  thicker  than  independent  walls. 

41.  PARTY  WALLS— If  party  wall  be  less  than  12 
inches  thick  for  any  portion  thereof,  charge  according  to 
danger  and  adjoining  buildings,  not  less  than   10  cts. 

(This  In  addition  to  No.  40.) 

This  requires  a  charge  for  any  section  less  than  12  inches 
thick.  An  8-inch  party  wall  would  bring  the  ends  of  the 
floor  beams  of  the  two  buildings  too  near  together. 

Note. — In  buildings  where  wooden  beams  or  girders 
are  used,  the  ends  of  beams  should  be  protected  by  iron 
anchor  boxes  or  tin,  to  prevent  charring  if  in  proximity 
to  flues.  The  timbers  should  also  be  chamfered  off  or  cut 
on  a  bevel  of  3  inches,  so  as  to  be  self-releasing  in  case 
they  are  burned  through,  permitting  them  to  fall  without 
tearing  out  the  walls.  At  least  one  beam  In  five,  however, 
should  be  tied  to  the  walls,  to  strengthen  the  building. 
This  may  be  accomplished  by  a  projecting  tongue  or  lug 
on  the  bearing  corresponding  with  a  groove  in  the  lower 


644 


24  "xon-fibe-pboof"  schedule. 

side  of  the  beam,  which  would  lift  off  the  lug  in  case  the 
beam  should  fall.  If  these  provisions  are  made  a  deduc- 
tion may  be  made.   See  item  No.  178. 

42.  WALLS — If  walls  not  parapet  through  roof,  at 

least  12  inches,  and  coped,  add  for  each  exposed  side. ...       5  cts 

Note. — If  the  building  be  higher  or  lower  than  the  ad- 
Joining  building  by  a  difference  of  12  inches  or  more, 
without  openings  in  excess  height — unless  openings  be 
protected  with  approved  tin-covered  wood  shutters,  and 
without  wooden  cornices  or  exoosed  woodwork,  no  charge 
need  be  made  for  absence  of  ^arapet.  If  parapet  exceeds 
12  inches  in  height,  a  deduction  will  be  made  at  No.  126. 

If  it  be  claimed  at  this  point  that  a  parapet  wall 
should  proper!}-  be  three  feet  high ,  it  can  be  answered  that 
such  walls  are  rarely  built,  and  to  charge  for  deficiency  at 
this  point  would  entail  an  unnecessary  amount  of  labor  in 
ninety-nine  risks  out  of  a  hundred.  The  greater  height 
of  wall  is  provided  for  by  deduction,  Xo.  126,  so  that  it 
will  receive  recognition  in  the  few  instances  in  which  it  is 
to  be  found,  without  adding  to  the  labor  of  the  great  ma- 
jority of  buildings  not  so  protected. 

43.  WALLS — If  the  brick  are  not  hard  burned  and  of 
good  quality,  or  if  the  mortar  be  of  poor  quality  for  want 
of  sharp  sand,  etc.,  an  additional  charge  should  be  made 

of  not  less  than   20  cts. 

This  charge  is  necessary  and  should  be  intelligently 
made.  In  many  sections  it  is  customary  to  charge  all  build- 
ings a  higher  rate  to  cover  faults  of  bricks  and  mortar  inci- 
dent to  the  majority;  but  this  is  unjust  to  those  property- 
owners  who  are  exceptions  to  the  rule.  In  Brooklyn,  for  ex- 
ample, for  many  years  the  market  for  "pale"  or  poorly 
burned  brick  because  of  a  poor  building  law,  if  an  owner 
bought  well  burned  bricks,  with  sharp  sand,  and  erected 
a  proper  structure,  and  his  enterprise  should  not  be  rec- 
ognized, there  would  be  no  encouragement  for  such  a  public- 
spirited  citizen,  other  than  that  of  self-approbation. 

44.  IRON  FRONTS— For  each  iron  front  or  side  not 
backed  up  solidly  with  bricks  and  mortar,  charge    5  cts. 

This  is  an  important  charge  and  it  is  safe  to  make  it,  un- 
less correctly  informed  as  to  the  facts,  so  general  is  the  pre- 
vailing negligence  with  regard  to  the  precaution  of  filling 
in  the  ironwork.  Even  when  backed  up  with  bricks  and 
mortar  an  iron  front  should  be  charged  for  as  a  deviation 
from  a  brick  wall.  This  is  provided  for  in  the  following 
charge. 


"xox-fire-proof"  schedule.  25 

45.  IRON  FRONTS— If  so  backed  up,  charge   2  cts. 

46.  IRON  FRONTS — If  building  adjoins  other  iron 
fronts,  making  one  continuous  iron  frontage,  add  for  each 

ikon  front  in  the  continuous  line   2  cts. 


Note. — Buildings  having  a  continuous  iron  frontage  are 
not  only  liable  to  be  ignited  by  the  raised  temperature  of 
the  iron  front  of  the  one  on  fire,  but  the  connection  be- 
tween the  division  walls  and  the  iron  front  is  not  always 
thoroughly  cut  off  where  the  front  connects  with  brick 
side  walls,  nor  can  defects  always  be  discovered,  which  is 
one  reason  for  the  extra  charge. 

On  the  night  of  the  great  fire  in  Worth  street,  Xew  York, 
January  17,  1S79,  the  rapidity  with  which  the  fire  proceed- 
ed from  one  building  to  another,  apparently  without  any 
intervening  obstacle,  was  amazing.  The  mystery  was  solved 
later,  when  it  was  found  that  the  dividing  brick  walls  were 
not  carried  out  to  the  iron  front  in  the  attics,  the  most  dan- 
gerous portions  of  the  buildings,  so  that  there  was  nothing 
to  prevent  the  passage  of  flame  from  one  building  to  another 
throughout  a  block  which  had  always  been  regarded  as  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  distinct  and  separate  risks.  A  loss  of 
millions  of  dollars  was  the  result  of  this  culpable  negligence 
on  the  part  of  the  builders  and  architects. 

47.  ROOF — if  approved  composition    covered  with 
gravel,  add   1  ct. 

It  will  be  observed  that  a  metal  roof  is  standard.  An  ap- 
proved composition,  covered  with  gravel,  approaches  it  in 
safety. 

48.  ROOF—If  slate  roof,  add   2  cts. 

Slate  roofs  are  objectionable  not  only  because  the  slates 

are  liable  to  crack  in  case  of  fire,  allowing  a  draft,  but  also 
because  they  are  liable  to  fall  and  injure  firemen,  inter- 


fering with  their  efforts  to  save  the  structure. 

49.  ROOF — If  shingled,  add   15  cts. 

50.  If  Mansard  Roof  with  Wooden  Frame,  even 
though  covered  with  slate  or  metal,  for  3  or  4  story  build- 
ing, add  for  mansard  one  side   15  cts. 

For  each  additional  side   5  cts. 

51.  For  mansard,  as  above,  on  a  building  of  five  stories 

or  more,  add  for  one  side   20  cts. 

For  each  additional  side    10  cts. 

(This  In  addition  to  height  charge,  63,  64,  65.1 


A  wooden  mansard  roof  has  been  aptly  compared  by  an 
experienced  fire  chief  to  a  lumber-yard  placed  out  of  reach 
of  the  fire  department.  It  is,  of  course,  objectionable  in 
proportion  to  its  height  above  the  grade,  hence  the  charge 
for  height. 


li  Mi 
26 


"non-fire-proof"  schedule. 


52.  EOOF  SPACES.  BLTND  ATTICS,  COCK-LOFTS, 
ETC. — If  hollow  air  space  left  next  roof,  plastered  or 
ceiled  below,  add  for  each  vertical  foot   3  cts. 

If  pitch  roof  or  slanting-  roof  charge  for  maximum 
height  (not  exceeding  a  total  of  10  cts.) 

Tf  said  air  space  communicates  with  elevator  or  other 
shafts  connecting  it  by  air  drafts  with  the  main  build- 
ing, see  No.  153. 

Eoof  spaces,  it  will  be  conceded,  are  decidedly  objection- 
able. They  are  usually  constructed  with  exposed  wood- 
work, and  fire  gaining  access  to  them  soon  reaches  the  un- 
extinguishable  stage.  They  are  found  more  frequently  in 
the  South  than  in  the  North,  to  give  relief  from  summer 
heat.  They  should  be  cut  off  from  all  the  vertical  drafts, 
like  staircases,  elevator  shafts,  etc. 

53.  FLOORS — If  not  standard,  but  of  two  thicknesses 
of  floor  plank,  and  less  than  3  inches  thick,  or  if  one  course 

of  2  inch  plank,  add   3  cts. 

If  the  two  courses  of  floor  plank  cross  each  other  diago- 
nally, which  would  prevent  co-incidence  of  cracks  or  joints, 
the  floor  would  be  more  fire-resisting  and  waterproof. 

54.  FLOORS — If  single,  i.  e.,  with  only  one  course  of 

floor  plank  less  than  2  inches  thick,  charge   5  cts. 

55.  FLOORS — If  floor  beams  or  joists  be  less  than  3 

inches  (say  3  x  10)  thick,  charge  in  addition  to  53  or  54      3  cts. 

This  charge  is  an  important  one  and,  in  some  cities, 
should  be  larger,  not  only  on  account  of  the  small  carrying 
capacity  of  the  floor,  but  also  on  account  of  the  brief  resist- 
ance to  flame  which  smaller  floor  beams  than  3  x  10  (prac- 
tically two-inch  plank  on  edge)  present.  In  some  sections 
this  plan  of  construction  is  so  common  that  it  is  safe  to 
assume  and  charge  for  the  fault  in  the  absence  of  knowl- 
edge, if  investigation  or  inquiry  fails  to  determine  the  facts. 

If  first  floor  "fireproof  or  fire  -resisting,"  according  to 
standard,  see  deductions,  No.  119,  etc. 

56.  WOODEN  CEILING — If  ceiling  is  sheathed  with 
wood  or  strawboard  or  other  combustible  material,  add 
according  to  hazard,  not  less  than  5  cents  for  one  story 
and  3  cents  for  each  additional  story  

57.  WOODEN  SHEATHING— If  side-walls  are 
sheathed  with  wood,  wood  lath,  furring  or  other  combus- 
tible material  (no  charge  for  dados),  charge  for  one 
story  5  cents  and  3  cents  for  each  additional  story  


"non-fire-proof"  schedule. 


27 


57a.    Cloth  or  paper  ceiling  or  siding  on  wooden  studs, 
each  story,  10  cents. 

Few  property  owners  appreciate  the  difference  in  fire- 
resisting  properties  between  the  old-fashioned  plaster,  and 
wooden  ceilings  with  varnished  surfaces.  Ordinary  plaster, 
even  on  wooden  laths,  will  resist  fire  for  a  much  longer  time 
than  most  persons  suppose.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  broken 
plaster  is  penalized  by  a  fault  of  management  charge,  No. 
144. 


58.  AREA — If  ground-floor  area  in  excess  of  2,500 
square  feet  and  not  exceeding  5,000  square  feet,  add  for 

each  1,000  square  feet  in  excess  of  2,500  square  feet   1  ct. 

59.  AREA — If  ground  floor  exceeds  5,000  square  feet, 
add  for  each  1,000  in  excess  of  2,500  up  to  10,000  : 

In  buildings  not  over  3  stories  high   2  cts. 

"       "  over  3  stories  and  not  over  G   3  cts. 

CO.    AREA — If  ground-floor  exceeds  10,000  square  feet, 
add  for  each  1,000  or  fraction  thereof  in  excess  of  2,500  : 

In  buildings  not  over  3  stories  high   2%  cts. 

"       "        over  3  stories  and  not  over  6  „   5  cts. 

(Not  exceeding  a  total  of  200  cents.) 


G2.  AREA — If  building  exceeds  6  stories  in  height  and 
10,000  square  feet  of  ground  floor  area,  double  the  area 
charge  

(Not  exceeding  a  total  of  300  cents.) 

If  building  is  of  standard  fire-resisting  construction 
throughout,  one-half  the  area  charge  only  to  be  made. 

One-Story  Building,  one-half  the  charge  for  three- 
story. 

Two-Story  Building,  two-thirds  the  charge  for  three- 
story. 

If  curtain,  cross  or  division  walls,  sub-dividing  and 
Strengthening  the  building,  even  though  with  arched  open- 
ings or  door  ways,  deduct  10  per  cent,  of  area  charge  for 
each  wall  so  dividing  the  risk,  not  exceeding  a  total  deduc- 
tion of  40  per  cent,  of  the  area  charge.  Communications 
with  adjoining  buildings  unprotected,  charge  for  area  both 
buildings  and  allow  for  the  division  walls. 

Single  Occupancy — If  only  one  tenant  (outside  of 
dwelling  and  oftice  tenants )  twenty  per  cent.  ( 20  %  )  of 
the  area  charge  may  be  deducted.  (N.  B. — Single  occu- 
pancy, as  a  rule,  involves,  with  undivided  responsibility 
and  management,  greater  care  and  cleanliness  and,  also, 
less  crowding  of  merchandise  on  floors  by  piling  or  tier- 
ing-) 

These  charges  are  framed  recognizing  the  fact  that  area, 
iwhile  in  itself  objectionable,  is  especially  so  when  found 


28 


"non-fire-proof"  schedule. 


in  connection  with  height.  Fires  in  buildings  of  large  area 
and  excessive  height  combined  are  rarely  extinguished, 
when  once  started,  by  even  the  best  fire  departments,  and 
are  generally  "  conflagration  breeders." 

Division  partition  walls  are  recognized  as  deserving  of 
lower  rates  for  two  reasons :  First,  because  they  deaden  the 
fire,  on  the  same  principle  that  bricks  mixed  with  the  coal 
in  a  furnace  would  retard  combustion;  and,  second,  be- 
cause they  afford  barriers  and  corners,  compartments  or 
bulkheads,  so  to  speak,  into  which  the  fire  department  can 


crowd  a  fire  and  possibly  extinguish  it. 

63.  HEIGHT — For  fifth  story,  add   5  cts. 

64.  HEIGHT — For  sixth  story,  add   10  cts. 

65.  HEIGHT — For  seventh  story,  add   25  cts. 

^  66.  HEIGHT — For  each  story  in  excess  of  seven,  add.  40  cts. 

These  charges  cumulative;  for  example,  a  seven  story 
building  would  have  40  cents  added.  If  any  story  double 
height,  charge  for  two. 

Note. — If  building  is  of  standard  construction  through- 
out it  may  be  seven  stories  high  without  extra  charge  in  a 
fire  department  town  whose  key-rate  does  not  exceed  30  cents. 

66a.    For  eighth  story  on  standard  building   24  cts. 

66b.    For  ninth  story  on  standard  building   40  cts. 


Those  who  think  larger  height  charges  than  the  above 
should  be  made  must  not  overlook  the  fact  that  the  pro- 
visions of  Nos.  38,  39,  40  and  41,  as  to  wall  requirements, 
together  with  the  area  charges  62,  etc.,  will  make  the  rate 
sufficiently  high  for  tall  buildings,  especially  if  not  excep- 
tionally well  constructed. 

While  the  charges  for  the  sixth,  seventh  and  higher 
stories  may  be  regarded  by  some  as  severe,  there  are  few  un- 
derwriters who  would  not  prefer  to  let  seven-story  build- 
ings of  ordinary  construction  go  uninsured  at  prevailing 


rates. 

67.  ELEVATORS — If  not  in  shaft,  according  to  the 
standard,  but  in  hall-way  or  enclosed  in  lath  and  plaster 
partitions, or  with  self-closing  traps  at  each  floor,  charge. .       5  cts. 

67a.  Cut  off  by  brick  or  fire-proof  shaff,  but  doors  not 
standard,  or  with  wood  sills,  or  if  windows  in  shaft  are  not 
wire  glass  or  otherwise  fire  resistant,  charge   3  cts. 

68.  ELEVATORS— If  open  from  floor  to  floor  and 
varying  from  above,  charge   12  cts. 

69.  ELEVATORS— If  the  shaft  is  sheathed  or  lined 
with  wood  (unless  covered  with  tin  or  galvanized  iron, 

in  which  case  half  charge),  charge   15  cts. 


649 

"non-fire-proof"  schedule.  29 

If  elevator  and  stairway  are  combined  and  contained 
in  the  same  shaft  or  opening,  make  only  one  charge  for 
the  two.  If  more  than  one  elevator,  charge  for  worst  and 
add  one-fourth  charge  for  each  in  excess  of  one.  If 
elevators  are  provided  with  traps  which  are  not  automatic, 
or  traps  closed  only  at  night,  no  deduction  can 
be  made  for  the  same.  If  bottom  of  elevator  Bhaft 
used  for  closets,  see  No.  141. 

70.  ELEVATORS— One-half  the  above  charges  for 
elevators  in  buildings  otherwise  standard  throughout,  or 
in  buildings  occupied  exclusively  fob  offices. 

Nothing  so  weakens  the  fire-resisting  properties  of  a 
building  as  unprotected  openings  from  cellar  to  roof,  such 
as  unenclosed  stairways,  open  elevator  shafts,  well-holes, 
etc.  They  insure  the  rapid  progress  of  fire  throughout  the 
structure  on  the  same  principle  that  a  stovepipe  promotes 
combustion  in  a  stove ;  and  there  is  no  excuse  for  such  faults 
in  mercantile  buildings.  Even  when  enclosed  in  ordinary 
lath  and  plaster  partitions,  with  wooden  doors  at  each  floor, 
combustion  may  be  retarded  sufficiently  to  enable  the  fire 
department  to  arrive  in  time  to  save  the  building.  Every 
minute  gained  when  a  fire  starts  increases  the  probability 
of  extinction.  In  this  view,  it  is  a  grave  question  if  the  pro- 
tection of  these  communications  from  floor  to  floor  be  not 
more  important  than  the  structural  composition  of  the 
floors  themselves.  It  is  possible  to  protect  an  elevator  shaft 
even  after  the  erection  of  a  building,  by  metallic  lath  and 
plaster. 

71.  STAIRWAYS— If  not  enclosed  according  to  the 
standard,  but  in  separate  hallway  or  shaft  enclosed  by 
lath  and  plaster  partitions  with  self-closing  spring-doors 


at  each  floor,  or   automatic  trap-doors  in  floors,  charge       7  cts. 

(If  charge  has  been  made  for  67,  68  or  69  one-half 
charge— halve  the  smaller  charge.) 

71a.  If  stairways  are  simply  provided  with  traps  which 
are  closed  only  at  night,  charge   12  cts. 

71b.  Cut  off  by  brick  or  tile  hallways,  but  doors  not 
iron  or  metal  covered,  or  if  lights  in  panels  are  not  wire 
glass,  or  otherwise  lire  resistant,  charge   5  cts. 

71c.  If  stairs  in  the  above  case  be  fire-proof  with  in- 
combustible treads,  charge  only   2  cts. 

72.  STAIRWAYS— If  the  enclosure  is  of  wooden  par- 
titions instead  of  lath  and  plaster,  with  self-closing  doors 

at  each  floor,  charge   10  cts. 

(If  charge  has  been  made  for  67,  68  or  69  one-half 
charge— halve  the  smaller  charge.) 

73.  'STAIRWAYS— If  open  staircases  from  floor  to 


floor  throughout  building,  not  cut  off  by  partitions  with 
self-closing  doors,  charge  according  to  hazard,  not  less  than     15  ctf 


650 


3°  "non-fire-proof"  schedule. 

(If  charge  has  been  made  for  67,  68  or  69  one-half 
charge— halve  smaller  charge  J 

If  more  than  one  stairway  charge  for  worst  and  add  one- 
fourth  charge  for  each  additional. 

No  charge  under  these  stairway  items  for  buildings 

occupied  exclusively  for  offices  or  dwellings  above  first  story 
when  stairway  does  not  open  into  store. 

There  would  be  no  charge,  of  course,  for  stairway  in 
standard  building. 

It  will  be  observed  that  provision  is  made  for  smaller 
charges  for  each  subsequent  breaking  of  a  floor  by  stair- 
cases, elevators,  etc.,  on  the  principle  that  while  two  holes  iu 
a  fence  are  worse  than  one,  they  are  not  twice  as  bad. 

74.  WELL-HOLES,  HATCHWAYS,  ETC.— If  not  pro- 
vided with  self-ciosing  traps,  add,  according  to  size,  for 

each  floor  pierced,  not  less  than   5  ets. 

If  well-holes  have  approved  traps,  half  charge. 

Make  full  charge  for  each,  for  each  floor.  No  allowance 
for  traps  which  are  not  automatic  in  every  particular  and 
which  do  not  lit  openings  closely. 

Probably  no  better  illustration  of  the  difficulty  of  extin- 
guishing a  fire  in  a  building  with  well-holes  is  to  be  found 
than  in  the  case  of  the  Home  Building,  in  Pittsburg,  which, 
although  of  fireproof  construction,  failed  to  protect  the 
merchandise  in  its  various  stories,  which  was  burned  as 
effectually  as  if  in  a  stove. 

75.  WOODEN  CHUTES,  DUMB-WAITERS,  (unless 
enclosed  in  brick  with  standard  doors),  VENTILATING 
SHAFTS,  BELT  HOLES  and  openings  through  floors  for 
steam  and  water  pipes,  etc.,  tend  to  the  rapid  spread  of 
fire  throughout  the  building  and  should  be  charged  for 
according  to  size,  not  less  in  any  case,  for    each  and 

for  each  floor  pierced,  than   2  cts. 

If  dumb-waiters  are  in  brick  shaft,  but  the  doors  to 
floors  are  not  sheet  iron  or  metal  lined,  deduct  only  50$ 
from  charge  in  order  to  compel  their  being  made  standard. 

Note. — No  charge  need  be  made  for  openings  for  steam 
and  water  pipes  if  the  space  around  the  pipes  is  filled  in 
with  mineral  wool,  asbestos  or  other  incombustible  ma- 
terial, or  otherwise  arranged  to  prevent  draughts  and 
leakage  of  water  to  floor  below. 

A  fire  in  the  "fire-proof"  Mills  Building,  New  York, 
passed  from  one  story  to  another  through  the  channels  for 
electric  light  wires  and  pipes.  Such  communications  from 
one  floor  to  another,  especially  where  dumb-waiters  are 
used,  should  always  be  charged  for. 

Dumb-waiters  should  be  in  a  fire-proof  shaft,  with 
standard  doors  at  cacli  story.  This  is  required  by  the 
New  York  Building  Law. 


651 

"non-fire-proof"  schedule.  31 

In  the  case  of  the  fire  in  the  Cammeyer  Building, 
January  18,  1899,  the  fire  went  rapidly  from  one  story  to 
another  through  dumb-waiters  with  wooden  shafts 
and  wooden  doors,  which  had  been  used  for  sending  goods 
from  one  story  to  another.  The  firemen  could  not  under- 
stand the  matter  until  the  fire  had  revealed  the  fault. 
It  is  a  grave  question  whether  such  concealed  avenues 
for  fire  are  not  much  worse  than  well-holes,  which  the 
firemen  know  they  must  guard.  An  illustration  of  this 
was  to  be  found  in  the  fire  in  Bloomingdalc  Bros.' 
store,  in  New  York,  where  the  fire  department  held  the 
fire  at  the  well-hole,  knowing  the  danger,  although  the 
same  men  failed  to  hold  the  fire  in  the  Cammeyer  Build- 
ing owing  to  the  fact  that  they  were  ignorant  of  these 
concealed  passages  for  flame. 

76.  SKYLIGHTS— If  more  than  three  feet  square 
(nine  square  feet),  add  for  each  nine  square  feet  or  frac- 
tion thereof  in  excess  (not  exceeding  a  total  of  25  cents)      2  cts. 

(If  metallic  frames  and  heavy  deck  or  prismatic  glass  or 
wire  glass,  no  charge.  Glass  should  be  J^-inch  it  through  roof 
and  %-inoh  if  through  floor.) 

77.  SKYLIGHTS— If  covered  above  and  below  with 
strong  wire  netting,  one-half  charge  

78.  SKYLIGHTS— If  skylight  is  monitor  style,  i.  e., 
box  form  with  raised  sides,  charge  for  square  feet  in  sides 
as  well  as  top  

It  is  so  easy  to  construct  these  in  such  manner  that  they 
will  not  afford  an  entrance  to  burning  brands,  by  wire  glass 
or  wire  protection,  that  they  should  be  roundly  charged  for. 
A  large  skylight  of  ordinary  construction  may  readily  be  as 
objectionable  as  a  shingle  roof. 

79.  CORNICES — For  wooden  cornices,  wooden  dormer 
windows,  cupolas,  monitor  roofs,  large  wooden  signs,  or 
other  exceptional  features,  add  according  to  hazard,  tak- 
ing into  account  height  of  building  and  nature  of  ex- 
posures, not  less,  however,  in  any  case  than   3  cts. 

This  charge  is  probably  self-explanaiory. 

80.  WOODEN  AWNINGS— If  building  has  wooden 
awnings,  and  is  only  one  story  high,  so  that  awning 

would  endanger  roof,  add   10  cts. 

81.  If  in  non-fire  department  town,  charge  from.  ...  10  to  20  cts. 

82.  WOODEN  AWNINGS— If  building  is  two  stories 
or  more  high  (in  which  case  there  would  be  less  danger 

to  roof  timbers),  charge   1  ct. 

83.  If  in  non-fire  department  town,  charge  from  5  to  10  cts. 


052 
32 


"non-fire-proof"  schedule. 


The  difference  in  charge  for  wooden  awnings  on  one-story 
buildings  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  generally  framed 
into  the  roof  timbers,  and  an  entire  block  might  in  this  way 
get  on  fire,  as  was  the  case  some  years  ago  in  Pensacola, 
Fla.,  where  a  block  of  one-story  brick  buildings,  supposed  to 
be  exceptionally  good  risks,  burned  from  this  cause,  and  one 
company  lost  $18,000.  They  are  less  dangerous,  of  course, 
in  higher  buildings,  where  the  framing  of  the  awnings 
would  be  in  the  brickwork  of  the  building,  and  would  have 
no  connection  with  the  woodwork  thereof. 

84.  LIGHTING — If  by  electricity,  with  system  and 
installation  in  compliance  with  National  Board  rules  and 
specifications,  add   2  cts. 

85.  If  electrical  installation  not  in  compliance  with 
board  rules,  or  in  unsafe  condition,  see  No.  154. 

For  swinging  gas  brackets,  see  No.  142. 
No  matter  how  safe  the  electric  light  installation  may  be 
supposed,  it  is  worth  two  cents  in  the  rate  ;  and  if  unsafe  it 
is  difficult  to  place  any  proper  charge  upon  it.   The  penalty 
of  25  cents  (154)  is  not  too  high. 

86.  LIGHTING— If  by  kerosene,  add   2  cts. 

(No  charge  if  charge  of  two  cents  or  more  has  been  made  for 
electric  light.) 

Any  other  system  of  lighting  must  be  subject  to 
approval  of  Local  Board  of  Underwriters  and  charged  for  by  rule. 

At  the  Hartford  convention,  which  passed  upon  the  Uni- 
versal Schedule,  the  point  was  aptly  made  by  one  of  the  dele- 
gates that  inasmuch  as  electricity  and  kerosene  were 
charged  the  same  rate,  they  should  be  treated  as  inter- 
changeable; and,  logically,  if  half  the  building  should  be 
lighted  by  electricity  and  the  other  half  by  kerosene,  there 
should  be  one  charge  for  the  whole  building.  The  conven- 
tion took  this  view  of  the  matter. 

87.  HEATING— If  by  furnace,  add   3  cts. 

88.  HEATING— If  by  furnace  with  metallic  cold-air 
box  and  hot-air  pipes  through  brick  walls,  and  one  register 
fastened  open,  add  (instead  of  No.  8?)   2  cts. 

All  vertical  hot-air  pipes  should  be  inclosed  in  the  brick 
walls  whenever  possible  ;  if  passing  horizontally  between  a 
floor  and  the  ceiling  below,  or  vertically  in  lath  and  plaster 
partition  between  studs,  they  should  be  double,  with  an  inch 
space  between  the  two  pipes,  and  the  studs  should  be 
sheathed  with  tin.  Inasmuch  as  it  is  impossible  to  ascer- 
tain these  facts,  some  charge  should  be  made  for  all  hot-air 


"non-fire-proof"  schedule. 


053 
33 


pipes  of  this  character  and  not  less  than  two  cents  should 
be  added. 

A  metallic  cold-air  box  or  duct  of  tin  or  galvanized  iron 
is  essential  for  health  as  well  as  for  safety  from  fire.  A 
wooden  box  soon  opens  joints  and  cracks  from  shrinking, 
taking  the  foul  air  of  the  cellar,  from  damp  coal,  decaying 
vegetables,  etc.,  and  forcing  it  throughout  the  living  and 
sleeping  rooms  of  the  house  by  the  operation  of  the  furnace. 
If  property-owners  could  be  made  to  realize  this  all  cold-air 
boxes  would  be  of  metal. 


89.  HEATING — If  by  stoves,  add   2  eta. 

90.  HEATING— If  stove-pipes  through  floors  or  hollow 
partitions  with  double  thimbles  or  safely  protected,  charge 

for  each  passage  from  2  cts.  to   10  cts. 


91.  HEATING— If  through  partition  not  protected, 
charge  at  No.  140. 

92.  HEATING — Stove-pipes  through  windows,  roofs, 
etc.,  protected  by  double  metal  chimneys,  etc.,  No.  140. 

93.  HEATING — Stove-pipes  through  windows,  roofs, 
etc.,  not  protected  by  double  metal  chimneys,  etc.,  No. 
140. 

94.  HEATING— If  stove-pipe  enters  bottom  of  flue 
vertically,  charge  at  No.  140. 

95.  HEATING — If  stove-pipe  enters  chimney  in  attic 
or  unused  room,  charge  at  No.  140. 

96.  HEATING— Natural  gas  or  oil  fuel,  with  approved 


pressure  regulating  appliances,  add   5  cts. 

97.  CHIMNEYS — If  not  built  from  ground  but  resting 
on  beams  or  brackets,  charge  for  each   5  eta. 

Note. — There  should  be  not  less  than  six  courses  of 
brick  at  the  bottom,  or  three  courses  with  a  flagstone. 


These  would  get  an  additional  charge  if  less  than  8  inches 
thick,  under  No.  98,  and  if  of  poor  bricks  and  mortar 
would  be  charged  again  under  No.  100. 

98.  CHIMNEYS — If  inadequate  for  service  required 
or  with  flue-walls  less  than  8  inches  thick — ' '  half  brick 
chimneys,"  unless  latter  are  lined  with  pipe  of  burnt 


clay  or  cast  iron,  charge  from  5  cents  to   50  cts. 

99.  CHIMNEYS — If  chimney  rests  on  attic  floor  beam 

or  roof  joists,  charge  (in  addition  to  No.  97)   25  cts. 

100.  CHIMNEYS — If  constructed  of  poor  bricks  or 
mortar,  charge  not  less  than  (this  is  in  addition  to  No. 

43 )   20  cts. 

101.  CHIMNEYS— If  cement  or  terra  cotta  chimneys, 

add   60  cts. 

102.  STREET— If  Btreet  on  which  building  fronts  is 
unpaved  or  otherwise  inaccessible,  especially  during  wet 
seasons,  for  fire  department,  add,  according  to  hazard,  not 

less  than   10  cts. 

(If  no  fire  department,  no  charge  for  this.) 


fi.54 
34 


"non-fire-proof"  schedule. 


103.  STREET— If  less  than  sixty  feet  wide  from  build- 
ing to  building  (i.  e.,  including  sidewalks),  but  not  less  than 

50,  add  (unless  opposite  side  of  street  is  vacant)   2  cts. 

104.  STREET— For  each  5  feet  less  than  50  in  width, 

unless  opposite  side  of  street  is  vacant,  add   2  cts. 

Note.— This  charge  for  narrowness  of  street  on  which  the  build- 
ing is  located  is  necessary  in  addition  to  any  charge  that  may  have 
been  made  in  the  basis  rate  in  a  city  of  narrow  streets,  which 
charge  is  intended  to  cover  the  conflagrat  ion  hazard;  the  charge  on 
each  building  for  inaccessibility  of  street  to  fire  department  is 
necessary  even  where  the  extra  city  charge  has  been  made.  In  St. 
Joseph,  Mo.,  or  Mobile,  where  the  majority  of  the  streets  are  from  40 
to  50  feet  in  width,  toe  rate  of  a  risk,  even  on  a  street  120  feet  wide, 
by  reason  of  the  exposure  of  all  building-i  behind  it,  rendering  it 
more  liable  to  burn  by  a  sweeping  conflagration,  should  be  greater 
than  that  of  a  building  which  fronts  on  a  narrow  street  lying 
between  two  120  foot  streets,  in  a  ciiy  like  Washington  or  Salt  Lake, 
where  only  the  charge  for  the  risk  itself  is  necessary. 

105.  OVERHEAD  WIRES,  TELEGRAPH,  ETC.,  on 
poles  in  front  of  building  in  sufficient  number  to  interfere 
with  operations  of  fire  department,  charge  according  to 
quantity  not  less  than     2  cts. 

These  interfere  seriously  with  the  operations  of  the  lire 
department,  especially  in  the  case  of  water-towers  and 
ladders. 

106.  NUMBER  OF  TENANTS  (other  than  office  and 
dwelling  tenants) — For  each  tenant  in  excess  of  one,  add     2  cts. 

This  is  intended  as  a  personal  charge,  only,  to  cover  the 
average  moral  hazard,  carelessness,  negligence,  etc.,  which 
increase  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  tenants. 

The  physical  hazard  of  additional  tenants  by  reason  of 
extra  quantity  or  cubic  feet  of  material,  stock,  etc.,  will  be 
provided  for  by  other  charges,  area,  height,  etc.,  and  by 
the  charge  for  stocks  above  or  below  the  grade  floor,  and 
area  charge  (Note  to  No.  62),  where  it  will  be  seen  dis- 
crimination is  made  in  favor  of  single  occupancy  buildings. 

As  explained,  this  clause  is  not  intended  for  the  physical 
hazard  of  a  tenant,  but  as  a  personal  charge.  Of  course, 
there  is  a  personal  equation  in  the  case  of  every  tenant  of  a 
building,  and  each  additional  human  being  with  interest  in 
collecting  insurance  may  be  said  to  increase  the  moral 
hazard.  On  this  account,  it  has  been  argued  that  the  charge 
for  every  tenant  should  be  at  least  5  cents,  but  this  would 
increase  the  rate  to  an  uncollectible  figure,  and,  moreover, 
would  be  unjust,  as  we  think  the  following  considerations 
would  demonstrate: 

In  fire  department  cities  less  than  5%  of  the  losses  are 
cotal.   We  think  it  will  be  conceded  that  the  majority  of 


655 

"non-fire-proof"  schedule.  35 

incendiary  fires  would  result  in  total  losses.  With  the 
choice  of  time  and  circumstance  the  incendiary  is  almost 
certain  to  succeed;  his  fires  usually  take  place  in  the  night, 
and  he  can  so  contrive  them  as  to  insure  totality.  This 
being  so,  incendiary  fires,  or  at  least  a  very  large  majority 
of  them,  would  be  found  in  the  total  losses  and,  therefore, 
must  be  less  than  5$  of  the  whole  number  of  fires.  We 
think  few  underwriters  would  claim  that  one-half  of  the 
'  'total"  fires  were  incendiary ;  if  this  be  a  fact,  one  cent  would 
be  enough  on  a  50  cent  risk  and  two  cents  on  a  1%  risk. 
These  supposititious  figures  arc  confirmed,  we  may  add,  by 
the  tabulation  of  the  causes  of  fires  made  by  taking  the 
opinions  of  careful  adjusters,  expressed  at  the  tune  of  inves- 
tigating and  adjusting  the  loss,  in  more  than  20,000  fires. 

106a.  For  each  manufacturing  tenant  in  addition  to  the 
highest  rated  one  (which  is  charged  for  in  No.  128)  add 
ten  per  cent.  (10%)  of  the  first  column  charges  of  such 
additional  tenants. 

As  already  explained,  the  ignitibility  and  combustibility 
hazards  of  occupancy  are  measured  by  the  first  column 
charge  in  the  table;  the  addition,  therefore,  of  10^  of  this 
first  column  charge  for  each  manufacturing  tenant  in  excess 
of  the  highest  rated  one  (which  is  charged  for  specifically 
at  No.  127)  will  adjust  the  rate  to  the  compound  hazard  of 
a  number  of  manufacturing  tenants. 

This  charge  and  10Gb  are  intended  for  rating  mercan- 
tile buildings  occupied  in  part  for  light  manufacturing 
purposes,  such  as  are  found  in  the  larger  cities. 

106b.  MANUFACTURING  RISKS— Charge  one-fifth  of 
.01  for  each  operative  employed  in  excess  of  lO.not  exceed- 
ing a  total  of  25  cents  in  risks  where  the  first  column  charge 
does  not  exceed  25  cents,  and  double  this  amount  in  wood 
working  and  other  hazards  where  the  first  column  charge  ex- 
ceeds 25  cents,  but  not  exceeding  a  total  of  100  cents  

In  a  building  with  a  number  of  tenants  the  charge 
should  not  be  doubled  for  all  of  the  open  ♦ivep,  but  only 
to?  the  number  of  operatives  of  the  woodworker  or  other 
tenant  whose  first  column  charge  is  in  excess  of  25  cents.. . 

It  is  believed  this  charge  will  be  self-explanatory,  as  in- 
tended to  measure  the  extent  of  processes  according  to  the 
number  of  operatives. 

107.    AGE  OF  BUILDING — If  over  20  years,  add   2  cts. 

If  building  is  in  poor  repair,  charge  at  No.  144. 
This  is  intended  to  measure  the  hazard  of  age  in  all 
buildings  as  an  average,  and  would  probably  cover  the  cases 


656 
36 


"non-fire-froof"  schedule. 


which  are  not  specifically  measured  as  to  variations  from 
standard,  etc. 

108.  FRAME    REARS,    EXTENSIONS,    ETC.— Ac- 
cording to  danger  and  number  in  block,  not  less  than. ...     10  cts. 

If  frame  portion  is  protected  with  approved  metal  cover- 
ing, halve  charge. 

Note. — This  is  very  important,  as  entire  brick  blocks 
are  frequently  destroyed  by  reason  of  small  frame  rears 
and  extensions.   See  diagram  of  Sullivan,  Ind. 

Brick  buildings  with  frame  extensions  may  often  prove 
no  more  desirable  or  safe  than  frame  buildings. 

109.  STONE  PIERS,  STONE  COLUMNS,  PILLARS, 
or  brick  piers  with  bond  stones,  carrying  important 
weights,  especially  if  supporting  beams  or  girders  in  the 
interior  of  buildings,  in  basements,  cellars,  etc.,  charge 
according  to  number  not  less  than   5  cts. 

(Stone  columns  subjected  to  fire  and  water  are  certain  to  dis- 
integrate and  wreck  the  building  if  located  in  the  interior.  In  ex- 
terior walls  they  are  not,  as  a  rule,  dangerous.) 

This  charge  is  an  important  one.  Stone  is  a  dangerous 
building  material,  especially  so  in  the  case  of  columns. 

The  danger  of  bond  stones  in  piers  is  that  they  disin- 
tegrate under  the  action  of  fire  and  water,  and,  the  moment 
they  crack,  fail  in  their  purpose  of  distributing  the  super- 
imposed weight  over  the  entire  pier  and  throw  the  excess 
of  it  on  a  comparatively  small  area,  which  splits  the  brick- 
work and  results  in  the  fall  of  the  pier  if  not  of  the  en- 
tire structure.  Strangely  enough,  they  are  advocated  by 
many  builders  and  architects,  who  have  in  mind  only  the 
strengthening  of  the  pier  for  weight-carrying  purposes, 
overlooking  the  serious  danger  of  the  failure  of  the  bond 
stones  and  cap  stones  for  that  very  purpose  in  case  of  fire. 

The  burning  of  the  Cammeyer  building,  in  New  York, 
January  18,  1899,  showed  how  utterly  unreliable,  in  case  of 
fire,  are  bond  stones  and  cap  stones,  even  if  of  granite  of  ex- 
tra thickness.  They  ought  to  be  prohibited  by  law,  and 
would  be  under  the  New  York  building  law  but  for  the  fact 
that  the  stone  interests  opposed  their  exclusion. 

The  best  bond  for  a  pier  is  a  cast-iron  bond,  with  holes 
for  the  incorporation  of  the  mortar.  Cast-iron  will  not  rust 
to  the  point  of  danger  and  will  answer  the  purpose  admira- 
bly. 

110.  UNPROTECTED  IRON  COLUMNS— Cast-iron, 
10  cts.  ;  ateel  or  wrought-iron,  15  cts  


"non-fire-proof"  schedule. 


657 
37 


The  greater  charge  for  steel  or  wrought-iron  columns  is 
due  to  the  greater  danger  of  rust  (see  page  63)  and  of 
warping.  This  is  in  accord  with  the  general  opinion  of 
iron  experts  almost  without  exception,  and  the  various 
fires  in  New  York,  especially  that  of  the  Appleton  Build- 
ing, in  Bond  Street,  a  number  of  years  ago,  and  of  the 
later  fire  in  the  Cammeyer  Building,  already  referred  to, 
where  6-inch  cast-iron  columns  stood  the  heat  better 
than  the  bondstones  in  piers,  justify  the  difference  in  rate. 

111.  STEAM  BOILER— (except  for  heating)  Inside  first 
floor  or  basement,  .05;  upstairs,  .10;  wood  shavings  for 
fuel,  1.00  

If  boiler  in  fire-proof  room  cut  off  in  approved  manner, 
no  charge. 

112.  POWER — Steam,  electric,  gas  or  gasoline  for 
running  shafting,  charge  according  to  hazard  and  Board 
Rules.    If  unsafely  arranged,   charge  under  faults  op 

MANAGEMENT. 


116.    Total  Deficiencies  i'lus  Key-Rate 


DEDUCTIONS  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CONSTRUCTION,  ETC. 

117.  If  no  cellar  or  basement,  deduct  10  %  of  above  total 

118.  SMALL  RISKS -If  building  is  not 
over  1,500  square  feet  of  ground  floor  area,  say 

25x60,  and  not  over  three  stories  high,  deduct.  .10  %     "  " 


119.  FLOORS— For  tin  or  sheet-iron  between 
floors,  deduct  from  schedule  rate  obtained  an 
amount  equal  to   5  %  " 

120.  FLOORS— If  water-proof,  deduct  2  %  " 

121.  FLOORS— If  water  -  proof,  arranged 
with  waste-ways  and  scuppers  and  inclined  to 
carry  off  surplus  water  thrown  by  fire  depart- 
ment to  sewer  or  street,  deduct   5  % 


121a.  If  floors  exceed  3  inches  in  thickness 
deduct  \%  for  each  excess  inch  (this  in  addition 
to  119,  120  and  121). 

122.  FLOORS— If  the  grade  floor  be  fire- 
proof, protecting  the  upper  portion  of  the 
building  from  fires  in  the  basement  or  cellar, 


and  the  communicating    stairway    to  main 
building  thoroughly  cut  off ,  deduct  10  %  " 

123.    FLOORS— For  each    fire-proof  floor 

above  the  grade  floor,  deduct   5%  " 

(Not  exceeding  40%  in  all.) 


124.    CEILINGS  AND  PARTITIONS— If 

of  incombustible  material  throughout  or  plaster- 
ed on  metallic  studs  and  lathing,  the  lathing  to 
have  a  good  key  for  plaster,  (no  deduction  for 
this  in  fire-proof  construction),  deduct  10  % 


(358 
38 


"non-fire-proof"  schedule. 


125.  CEILINGS,  PARTITIONS  AND 
FURRING— If  metallic  lathing  on  wooden 

studs,  deduct  5  %  of  above  total. 

Notr— If  the  main  "  fore  and  aft "  partition  separat- 
ing halls  containing  stairs  and  elevators  from  the 
stores,  be  of  brick  or  metallic  I  ithing,  etc.,  with  pro- 
tected openings  it  would  save  building  from  charges 
C7,  68,  69,  70,  etc.,  as  to  elevators  and  stairways. 

126.  PARAPET  WALLS— If  carried  more 
than  12  inches  above  roof  on  all  exposed  sides, 
and  coped  or  covered,  deduct  for  each  foot  in 

excess  of  one  (not  exceeding  3%  in  all)  1  %       "  " 

Note.— Parr\  pet  walls  which  are  three  feet  or  more 
in  height  are  improved  if  pierced  tor  the  use  of  hose. 

Total  Deductions   %    (of  No.  116) 

These  are  treated  as  deductions  for  two  reasons :  First, 
they  are  of  exceptional  occurrence  and  save  the  time  of 
considering  them  in  at  least  95%  of  all  risks,  which  would 
be  lost  by  charging  for  their  absence  as  a  deficiency. 
Second,  treating  them  as  deductions  prevents  loss  to 
the  companies  if  overlooked  by  rating  experts.  The  prop- 
erty-owner may  be  relied  upon  not  to  overlook  them.  This 
will  further  explain  the  apparent  inconsistency  of  making 
deductions  for  exceptional  features  of  risks  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  they  have  been  stipulated  for  in  the  require- 
ments for  a  standard  building.  It  is  believed  that  the 
two  reasons  given  for  recognizing  them  by  deductions 
will  be  regarded  as  sufficient ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  would  probably  be  conceded  that  it  is  best  to  make 
the  description  of  a  standard  building  as  nearly  perfect  as 
possible,  in  order  that  it  may  be  educational  to  an  owner 
who  contemplates  building  as  a  guide  for  such  construc- 
tion as  will  secure  for  him  the  lowest  rate,  either  by 
escaping  charges  for  variations  from  standard  or  by 
securing  deductions  for  exceptionally  good  features. 

127.  RESULT— RATE  OF  BUILDING  UNOCCUPIED.  cts. 

OCCUPANCY,  add  the  figure  named  for  the  occupancy  in  the  first 
column  of  the  alphabetical  table  of  occupancies,  p.  143,  selecting,  in 
case  there  be  more  than  one  occupancy,  the  highest  rated  one  for 
such  addition,  to  get  the  occupied  rate  of  building  ;  retail  drugs,  for 
example,  add  10  cents,  while  cigars  and  tobacco  add  only  5  cents ; 
the  10  cent  charge,  therefore,  should  be  selected. 

128.  RESULT— RATE  OF  BUILDING  OCCUPIED... . 

Subject  to  any  deductions  to  which  the  risk  may  be  entitled  in 
the  liit,  Nos.  155,  156,  &c,  page  45  

129.  RESULT— NET  RATE  OF  BUILDING  OCCU- 
PIED. UNEXPOSED  


"non-fire-proof"  schedule. 


39 


130.  EXPOSURE — Add  according  to  hazard*  

130a.    CONFLAGRATION  HAZARD  due  to  congested 

business  district  

Note. — Charge  No.  27  inlhe  City  Schedule  is  intended  to  cover 
the  danger  of  a  sweeping  lire  liablo  to  destroy  mercantile  district, 
while  the  charge  here  refers  merely  to  the  conflagration  group 
found  in  some  cities,  such  as  New  York,  Pittsburg,  Philadelphia, 
et  al,  due  to  high  and  large  area  buildings,  combined  with  de- 
ficient street  mains,  etc. 

131.  RESULT— NET  RATE  OF  BUILDING  OCCU- 
PIED AND  EXPOSED  

131a.  AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS— (See  rule  page  51). 
DEDUCT  FOR..£  CO-INSURANCE— (See  rule  p.  52) 
On  buildings  in  fire  department 

towns,  for  80,1  15%  of  above  total. 

On  buildings  in  non-fire  department 

towns,  for  80$  7'/2%      "  " 

For  explanation  of  these  percentage  deductions  see  page  108. 

132.  RESULT— RATE  OF  BUILDING  OCCUPIED, 
WITH  %  CO-INSURANCE   

Note.— To  secure  deduction  for  co  insurance  the  percentage  co- 
insurance clause  must  be  attached  to  policy. 

ADD  FOR  ADVERSE  LEGISLATION,  taxation, 
etc.,  No.  13G  to  No.  139,  p.  42  

ADD  FOR  FAULTS  OF  MANAGEMENT,  if  any, 
No.  140  to  No.  154,  pp.  42-43    

FINAL  RATE  OF  BUILDING  

To  Obtain  Rate  on  Stock. 

Rate  of  building  occupied,  No.  128   cts. 

Deduct  a  sum  equal  to  one-fourth  of  the  defi- 
ciencies of  the  building  

(t.     one-fourth  of  excess  of  item  No.  127over25  cents) 

as  follows— Kate  No.  127   cents,  minus  25  cents, 

equals    cents:  one-fourth  of  which  

cents  (deducted  from  No.  128)  leaves  

(Extend  difference  into  further  column) 

N.  B. — This  will  be  the  KEY  OR  BASIS  RATE  for  all 
Stocks  in  the  building. 


*Note.— This  will  involve  careful  consideration  of  many  facts  and  conditions, 
the  distance  of  the  risk  from  the  exposure,  the  relative  area,  size  and  height 
of  the  two  buildings,  the  thickness  of  walls  and  the  numbei  and  protection  of 
openings,  the  character  of  roofs  and  other  features  of  construction,  as  well 
as  the  nature  of  oontents  (a  building  containing  oils  or  a  st>ck  of  lurniture,  for 
example,  being  a  much  worse  exposure  at  the  same  distance  from  a  risk  than 
one  containing  millinery  good-)  and  also  upon  the  provisions,  public  and 
private,  for  extinguishing  fire.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  to  the  extent 
a  risk  exposed  would  be  damaged,  even  in  paint  or  glass,  ihe  Company 
insuring  it  is  carrying  the  risk  of  the  exposing  hazard.  If,  for  example,  a 
building  worth  $50,0.i0,  whose  unexposed  rate  would  be  50  cents,  is  exposed 
by  a  planing  mill  worth  ;0  per  cent.,  whose  burning  would  probably  damage 
the  risk,  in  the  opinion  of  the  rating  expert,  to  theextentof  $.11  0,  the  insurance 
companies  are  clearly  running  the  additional  risk  of  having  $500  involved  in 
the  burning  of  the  10  per  cent,  mill,  and  ought,  theretore,  to  receive  $50 
additional  premium  for  it.  To  collect  this  on  the  $50,000  risk  would  requtre 
an  addition  to  its  rate  of  10  cents  per  $10  i,  which  would  increase  its  rate 
from  50  cents  to  60  cents.  While  a  buildiug  of  standard  construction  ought 
not  only  to  protect  its  own  contents  from  outside  exposure  and  also  prove  a 
safe  oven  for  the  cremation  of  its  own  contents  without  damage  to  adjacent 
property,  an  exposure  charge  should  invariably  be  applied  in  all  cities 
where  there  are  continuous  blocks  of  ordinary  buildings.  Exposure  charges 
are  generally  inadequate,  especially  where  the  exposing  risk  is  of  large 
area  with  inflammable  contents,  or  where  it  is  of  greater  height  so  as  to 
end  inger  the  risk  if  its  walls  should  fall.  (See  Schedule  for  rating  Exposure 
Hazard.) 


660 
4° 


"non-kike-proof"  schedule. 


This  computation  is  necessary  to  adjust  the  difference  in 
rate  between  a  building  and  its  stock.  Obviously  the  dif- 
ference between  the  two  should  be  greater  in  proportion 
as  the  building  is  of  substantial  construction;  in  other 
words,  the  better  the  building  the  greater  should  be  the 
difference  between  its  rate  and  that  of  its  stock,  which  is 
more  susceptible  to  damage ;  and  the  poorer  the  building 
the  less  should  be  the  difference,  for  a  building  of  weak 
construction  is  almost  as  certain  to  be  totally  destroyed 
as  the  stock  contained  in  it.  Clearly,  the  amount  added 
to  the  key-rate  (or  rate  for  a  standard  building)  for  vari- 
ations of  the  building  from  standard  construction  is  the 
proper  guide  for  determining  the  relative  weakness  of  the 
building  and,  therefore,  whether  more  or  less  should  be 
added  to  the  building  rate  to  obtain  its  stock  rate. 

From  the  maximum  sum  to  be  added  to  the  rate  of  a 
standard  building  to  obtain  its  stock  rate,  25%  of  the  de- 
ficiencies of  the  building,  (viz.,  the  rate  of  the  building  at 
No.  127)  deducted  from  the  amount  to  be  added  for  the 
stock  rate  will  have  the  effect  of  bringing  the  two  rates 
nearer  together  in  proportion  as  the  building  has  deficien- 
cies or  variations  from  safe  construction.  The  same  re- 
sult will,  of  course,  be  obtained  by  making  this  deduction 
from  the  occupied  building  rate,  No.  128,  and  the  differ- 
ence will  be  the  "key-rate  of  the  building"  for  all  stocks 
contained  in  it,  to  which  it  is  only  necessary  to  add  the 
second  column  charge  in  the  table,  for  susceptibility  to 
damage  of  any  stock,  to  obtain  its  rate.  This  will,  of 
course,  be  subject  thereafter  to  additions  for  height  above 
the  grade  and  to  deductions  for  fire  appliances,  Nos.  190, 
21 T,  etc. 

All  stocks  are  arranged  in  a  table  of  two  columns.  The 
first  column  contains  the  measure,  in  cents,  of  those  fea- 
tures of  a  stock  which  cause  fires  and,  when  once  started, 
bad  or  intense  fires — liable  to  destroy  both  building  and 
contents.  The  second  column  contains  that  feature  of 
the  stock  which  may  be  termed  its  susceptibility  to  damage 
by  water,  smoke,  etc. 

All  stocks,  for  insurance  purposes,  should  be  regarded 
from  these  three  standpoints.  Those  which,  like  whole- 
sale drugs,  stocks  of  furniture,  oils,  etc.,  are  liable  to  cause 


"NON-FIRE-PROOF"  schedule. 


66] 

41 


fires  and  to  furnish  fuel  for  intense  combustion,  should  in- 
crease the  rate  of  any  building  into  which  they  enter,  and 
also  the  rate  of  all  other  stocks  under  the  same  roof.  The 
susceptibility  to  damage  feature,  however,  is  not  one  which 
makes  the  building  worse.  A  stock  of  cutlery,  for  example, 
is  peculiarly  liable  to  damage  by  water  or  smoke,  and  this 
fact  should  be  taken  into  account  in  fixing  the  rate  upon 
it,  but  it  does  not  add  anything  to  the  hazard  of  the  build- 
ing containing  it.    See  also  pp.  53,  54,  55,  etc. 

Add  tbe  figure  in  second  column  of  occupancy 
table  for  "  susceptibility "  of  the  stock  to  be 
rated  

Add  if  entire  stock  is  above  or  below  grade  floor,  see 
rule  p.  58   

PUBLIC  WAREHOUSES  and  Storage  Stores  BONDED, 
complying  with  rules  of  Local  Board,  deduct  3'6^%  

PUBLIC  WAREHOUSES  and  Storage  Stores  FREE,  25* 

PRIVATE  WAREHOUSES— Original  unbroken  pack- 
ages only,  20%.  Sales  by  sample  only,  15%.  Delivery  of 
broken  packages,  10%  

133  

Subject  at  this  point  to  any  deductions  to  which  risk  may  bo  en- 
titled, Nos.  190,  191,  192,  etc. 

134.  RESULT— NET  RATE  ON  STOCK  IN  UNEX- 
POSED BUILDING  

N.  B.— MINIMUM  STOCK  RATE — The  stock  rate  at  this  point. 
No.  134,  must  exceed  that  of  Building  at  No.  129  by  an  amount  equal 
to  at  least  20%  of  the  second  column  charge  in  the  table  for  the 
stock;  if  it  does  not,  increase  it  to  such  figure. 

1 34a.  EXPOSURES*  see  note  page  39 ,  add  according  to 
hazard  

131b.  CONFLAGRATION  HAZARD  due  to  congested 
business  district  

134c.    AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS— See  page  51 ... . 

DEDUCT  FOR  . . .%  CO-INSURANCE  (see  rule  p.  52) 

135.  RESULT— RATE  OF  STOCK  WITH....£  CO- 
INSURANCE  

Note. — To  secure  deduction  for  oo-insurance  the  percentage  co- 
insurance clause  must  be  attached  to  policy. 

ADD  FOR  ADVERSE  LEGISLATION,  taxation,  etc., 
No.  136,  etc.,  (page  42)   

ADD  FOR  FAULTS  OF  MANAGEMENT,  if  any, 
Nos.  140  to  154,  p.  42  

fINAL  RATE  OF  STOCK  


*  In  non-fire  department  towns  not  exoeeding  one-balf  the  ex- 
posure charges  to  a  weak  building  badly  exposed  should  be  added 
to  the  rate  of  a  movable  grade  floor  stock  contained  in  it. 


662 


42  "non-fire-proof"  schedule. 

CHARGES  FOR  ADVERSE  LEGISLATION. 

136.  VALUED  POLICY  LAW— If  law  applies  to  per- 
sonal property  as  well  as  buildings,  add  from  50  cts  to. . .    100  cts. 

137.  VALUED  POLICY  LAW— If  law  applies  to  build- 
ings only,  add  to  building  rate,  according  to  ellect  of  law, 

from  10  cts.  to     50  cts. 

And    on  stocks  and  other  personal  property  therein, 
according  to  effect  of  law,  from  5  cts.  to   25  cts. 

Note.— In  those  States  like  Texas,  where  the  provisions  of  the 
valued  policy  law  as  construed  by  the  courts  are  especially  danger- 
ous, these  charges  mav  be  too  small ;  while  in  such  of  the  remaining 
valued  policy  1  >w  States  (Ohio.  Wis  ,  Mo.,  N.  H.,  Ark.,  Del.,  Neb.) 
where  the  observed  effect  of  the  laws  as  construed  by  the  courts  is 
less  expensive,  the  charge  may  be  modified. 

138.  ANTI-COMPACT  or  other  laws  prohibiting  agree- 
ments among  Companies,  add,  according  to  increased  ex- 
pense of  transacting  business,  from  2  cents  to   10  cts. 

Note. — Equitable  and  discriminating  rating  by  schedule  is  only 
possible  by  co-operation  or  Insurance  Companies  for  comparing 
their  experience,  and  sharing  and  lessening  the  expense,  and  is  in 
the  interest  of  all  property  owners. 

139.  TAXATION  AND  LICENSES,  State  and  Munici- 
pal— If  taxation  other  than  on  net  results  to  company 
after  deducting  losses  and  expenses*  and  not  exceeding  2% 
thereon,  add  according  to  amount  

FAULTS  OF  MANAGEMENT,  NEGLIGENCE,  ETC. 
The  following  charges  being  for  faults  which  would 
naturally  and  probably  be  corrected  to  escape  the  penalty, 
have  been  arranged  as  a  final  addition  ajter  the  net 
rate  with  co-insurance  has  been  computed,  in  order  that 
the  computation  will  not  have  to  be  reopened  and  deduc- 
tions again  calculated  when  the  fault  is  corrected. 

140.  STOVEPIPES— If  through  floors  or  hollow  par- 
titions unprotected,  charge  50  cents.  If  through  windows 
or  roofs  protected  by  double  metal  chimneys,  50  cents,  (if 
unprotected,  100  cents.)  If  pipe  enters  bottom  of  flue 
vertically,  25  cents.  If  pipe  enters  flue  in  attic  or  un- 
used room   25  cts. 

140a.    If  floor  beneath  stove  is  not  protected  by  metal, 
add   5  cts 

141.  If  bottom  of  elevator  shaft  is  used  for  storeroom, 

coat  closets  or  lamp  and  oil  closets,  charge   50  cts. 

This  fault  led  to  the  destruction  of  one  of  the  largest 
buildings  in  the  country. 

*  This  Schedule  is  based  upon  a5J  profit  above  the  actual  cost 
of  insuring  property,  and  contemplates  no  tax  other  than  that  ex- 
plained under  item  139  above.  Of  course,  if  a  turthertaxis  imposed, 
the  expense  of  the  Companies  will  be  to  that  extent  increased  and 
an  extra  premium  must  De  collected.  Insurance  Companies  do  not 
object  to  paying  to  any  .State  a  percentage  tax  on  the  profits  of 
their  business  in  the  State,  or  upon  the  excess  of  their  rectived 
premiums  over  paid  losse-s  and  expenses.  It  is  difficult  for  them  to 
see  why  they  should  be  called  on  to  pay  a  tax  on  the  gross  pre- 
miums of  any  State  where  the  amount  paid  by  them  to  its  citizens 
in  the  shape  of  fire  losses  and  commissions  to  agents,  who  are  resi 
dent  citizens,  may  consume  all  or  more  than  the  premiums  received. 
In  such  case  they  are  taxed  for  the  doubtful  privilege  of  leaving 
more  money  iu  the  State  than  they  take  out  of  1t.  Charles  Sumner 
spoke  truly  when  he  said  :  "  A  tax  upon  Insurance  Is  a  tax  upon  a 
tax  and,  therefore,  a  barbarism." 


"fon-fike-pkoof"  schedule.  43 

142.  Swinging  gab  brackets  unprovided  with  stops,  or 
within  36  inches  of  woodwork  overhead,  or  otherwise  un- 
safe, (ditto  as  to  bracket  lamps),  for  one,  add  not  less  than      5  cts. 

For  eaih  additional  one  add  1  cent. 

143.  Charge  for  untidiness  as  to  rubbish,  ashes,  etc., 
especially  in  cellar,  not  less  than   25  cts. 

Packing  material  not  in  bins   15  cts. 

144.  ducked  or  bulged  walls,  bond  timber  in  walls, 
thin  and  worn  floors,  broken  plastering  exposing  lathing, 
broker  windows,  especially  on  lower  floors,  etc.,  10  to   25  cts. 

\4'o.  Empty  boxes,  rubbish  and  barrels  in  rear  yard  or 
alL-ys  or  in  the  recess  for  windows  below  grade,  or  in  area 
f>i  cellar  openings  under  sidewalk  gratings   10  cts. 

146.  Lights  in  show  windows,  open  or  unprotected,  or 
if  electric  bulbs  be  covered  with  tissue  paper  or  paper 
shades   25  cts. 

147.  Sawdust  spittoons,  or  sawdust  on  floors,  espe- 
cially in  drug  and  oil  stores   25  cts. 

148.  If  kerosene  is  used  on  floors  when  sweeping   25  cts. 

149.  ASH  AND  WASTE  CANS  to  be  of  metal.  If 

not,  charge   10  cts. 

150.  HOT  AIR  FURNACES— The  top  of  a  brick  fur- 
nace should  be  not  less  than  four  inches  below  wooden 
beams  or  plastered  ceilings  cbove,  with  a  hanging  shield. 
If  portable  furnace  not  less  than  twelveinches,  with  shield; 
charge  for  deficiency  from  10  cents  to   25  cts. 

BOILER — Unsafely  arranged,  charge  not  less  than.     25  cts. 


151.  FIREPLACES— Wooden  floors  should  be  trimmed 
at  least  sixteen  inches  from  the  front  of  chimney 
breast  or  fireplace,  with  a  hearth  of  stone,  brick  or  tile, 
supported  by  trimmer  arch,  which  should  be  at  least  six- 
teen inches  in  width,  measuring  from  the  face  of  the 
chimney  breast.  If  not  so  trimmed,  or  if  hearth  rests  on 
wooden  beams,  or  if  wooden  fireboards  or  summer  pieces 
are  used,  or  if  wooden  mantels  are  not  protected  with 
brickwork,  or  if  stovepipe  holes  are  not  provided  with 


metal  stoppers,  charge  from  5  cents  to   25  cts. 

152.  STEAM  PIPES— In    contact    with  woodwork, 
charge  not  less  than   1  ct. 

153.  ROOF  SPACES,  BLIND  ATTICS,  COCK 
LOFTS,  ETC.— If  elevator  shaft,  ventilating  or  other 
shafts  communicate  with  roof  space,  connecting  it  by  air 

drafts  with  the  building,  add  not  less  than   25  cts. 

154.  ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  or  other  system  with  in- 
stallation not  in  compliance  with  Underwriters'  Rules ; 

or  arc  lights  unprotected  by  tight  globes  or  screens   25  cts. 

154a.    Crowded  merchandise  without  proper  aislts  op- 
posite or  too  near  windows,  overloading,  not  less  than.  ...     25  cts. 


These  charges,  it  is  unnecessary  to  explain,  are  intended 
to  be  corrective.  The  faults  would  probably  be  removed 
with  the  incentive  of  a  high  rate  charge,  and  their  correction 
would  tend  to  reduce  the  fire  losses  of  the  city.  They 
are  added  as  the  last  item  of  the  schedule,  after  all  de- 
ductions for  fire  appliances,  etc.,  have  been  made,  so  that 
their  correction  would  not  necessitate  a  second  computation 
of  the  rale,  it  being  only  necessary  to  deduct  the  gross 
charge  from  the  final  rate  in  case  the  risk  is  improved. 


064 

44  "non-fire-proof"  schedule. 

DEDUCTIONS   FOR   EXCEPTIONAL  FEATURES 
OF  FIRE  APPLIANCES,  CONSTRUCTION,  ETC. 

The  following  deductions  are  separated  so  as  to  apply, 
some  of  them  to  buildings  and  some  of  them  to  stocks. 
Certain  features  of  construction  and  extinction  may  be  of 
advantage  to  the  one  and  of  none  whatever  to  the  other. 

The  deduction  for  self-releasing  floor-beams,  arranged 
to  prevent  their  tearing  out  the  walls  in  case  they  should 
burn  through  and  fall,  No.  178,  for  example,  has  not  been 
credited  to  stocks,  because  at  the  point  where  such  pro- 
vision would  insure  salvage  on  the  walls  the  stock  would 
have  been  destroyed.  In  like  manner,  fire  patrols  or 
salvage  corps  for  saving  merchandise  by  tarpaulin  covers, 
etc.,  are  credited  to  stocks,  being  of  little  value  to  the 
building. 

No  system  of  schedule  rating  can  be  correct  which  first 
builds  up  the  rate  of  a  building,  taking  into  account  all 
features  of  extinction  and  construction,  and  then  adds  to 
the  final  building  rate,  so  obtained,  a  fixed  sum  intended 
to  measure  the  additional  cost  of  insuring  the  stock. 
Even  a  charge  for  exposure  to  a  building  ought  to  be  con- 
sidered and  treated  separately  from  the  stock.  An  ex- 
posure which  would  damage  the  building  might  not  in 
any  way  endanger  a  stock  contained  in  it. 

If  an  ideal  or  perfect  standard  should  be  employed  for 
rating  each  risk,  necessitating  charges  for  variations  or 
deficiencies,  unnecessary  labor  would  be  entailed  for  the 
large  majority  of  risks  to  be  rated.  The  treatment  of 
exceptional  features  of  construction  by  making  deductions 
not  only  saves  labor  on  the  large  majority  of  risks  which 
are  deficient,  but  also  insures  that  in  case  any  feature  is 
overlooked,  the  insurance  company  will  not  be  the  loser,  as 
would  be  the  case  if  recognition  of  the  exceptional  feature 
should  be  provided  for  by  charges  for  its  absence. 
Omissions  would  be  especially  frequent  in  the  case  of  such 
features  as  self-releasing  floor  beams,  waterproof  paper 
between  floors,  metallic  lathing,  etc.,  which  are  not 
always  easily  ascertained.  If  the  property  owner  is  en- 
titled to  them  he  is  not  likely  to  overlook  them. 


DEDUCTIONS  FROM  BUILDING  RATE,  NO.  128. 


665 

45 


DEDUCTIONS  FROM  RATE  OP  BUILDINGS. 

The  following  deductions  for  exceptional  features  may 
be  made  from  the  occupied  rate  of  buildings,  after  the 
occupancy  charge  has  been  added,  by  the  following  per- 
centages of  such  occupied  or  gross  rate  (No.  128)  : 


155.  HYDRANTS,  ETC.— If  building  within  300  feet 
of  one  post  or  flush  hydrant,  supplied  by  8-inch  or  larger 
water-pipe,  deduct   5% 

(If  6-inch  pipe  one-half  deduction.) 

156.  HYDRANTS,  ETC.— If  within  300  feet  of  two  or 
more  hydrants,  supplied  by  8-inch  or  larger  water-pipe, 
deduct   10% 

(If  6-inch  pipe  one-half  deduction.) 

157.  HYDRANTS,  ETC.— If  said  water-pipe  be  fed  at 

both  ends  by  mains  or  sub-mains,  deduct  an  additional. . .  S 


(If  6-inch  pipe  one-half  deduction.) 

Note.— Hydrants  form  the  connecting  link  with  the  fire  depart- 
ment of  the  city,  and  on  their  proximity  depend  the  availability 
and  value  of  stealers,  etc.  For  this  reason,  risks  in  tbe  suburbs 
of  a  city  which  are  unprovided  with  hydrant  service  ought  not  to 
receive  the  full  credit  of  the  fire  department. 


158.  AUTOMATIC  FIRE  ALARM,  for  approved  tele- 
graph signal  to  a  central  station,  or  tire  dept.  station,  with 
thermostats,  deduct   6  % 

158a.    BURGLAR  ALARM— If  approved  system  to 
central  station,  deduct   8  % 

158b.  SPECIAL  BUILDING  CALL  DIRECT  TO 
FIRE  DEPT.,  approved  system,  telegraphic  call  box  each 

floor,  etc   5  % 

(One-half  allowance  if  no  watchman.) 

159.  CHEMICAL  ENGINES  ON  WHEELS— If  one 
or  more  chemical  engines  are  available  in  case  of  fire, 
deduct   5  % 

160.  FIRE  ESCAPES — If  iron  fire  escapes  are  pro- 
vided on  the  outside  of  building,  with  landings  at  each 

floor,  deduct   %  % 

Note.— These  are  of  advantage  and  are  relied  upon  by  firemen 
for  fighting  a  fire,  enabling  them  to  hold  advantageous  positions  to 
the  last  moment. 

161.  CASKS  OF  WATER  or  filled  water  pails  on  each 
floor,  deduct,  if  no  public  hydrants  within  300  feet  10#,  if 
hydrants  within  300  feet   5  % 


Note. — To  receive  above  deduction  thpre  must  be  at  least  six 
filled  pails  for  each  2,500  square  feet  of  floor  area.  If  one-naif  the 
number  of  pails  be  filled  with  sand,  especially  in  Oil  Stores,  sand 
being  better  than  water  for  oil  fires,  or  where  water  would  be  likely 
to  freeze,  it  would  be  an  improvement.  One  cask  may  be  consid- 
ered the  equivalent  of  three  pails. 

162.    STAND-PIPES— INTERNAL,  adequate  number 


near  stairways,  supplied  from  tank,  with  hydrants  and 
sufficient  approved  hose  attached  at  each  floor  at  land- 
ings, deduct       2  % 

163.    If  stand-pipes  without  tank,  but  under  pressure 
to  ensure  water  on  highest  floor   \  % 


666 

46  DEDUCTIONS  FROM  BUILDING  BATE,  NO.  128. 


164.  STAND-PIPES— EXTERNAL,  for  use  of  fire  de- 
partment, with  Siamese  connections,  deduct   1  % 

165.  ACCESSIBILITY  TO  FIRE  DEPARTMENT — 
If  building  is  on  a  corner  or  extends  through  to  rear  street 
or  wide  alley,  affording  access  to  fire  department  for  tire 
extinction  or  removal  of  goods,  deduct  for  each  side  or  rear 

so  accessible  (none  for  front)   3  % 

166.  PROXIMITY  TO  FIRE  ENGINE  HOUSE,  ETC.— 
If  risk  to  be  rated  is  within  300  feet  of  a  tire  dept.  house, 
engine  or  hose  house,  which  would  insure  prompt  response 

of  skilled  men  to  any  fire  alarm,  deduct   2  % 

If  next  door  or  opposite  side  street   5  % 

167.  BASEMENT  AND  SUB-CELLA.R  SPRINK- 
LERS— If  perforated  2J^-inch  pipe  be  provided  in  base- 
ment and  sub-cellar,  with  attachment  at  street  grade  for 
fire  department,  standard  size  of  thread  and  coupling,  and 
standard  butt  and  with  waste  ways  to  sewer,  deduct  from 

total  building  rate   2}  % 

Note. — Aside  from  the  fact  that  fires  are  most  likely  to  start  In 
basements  and  sub  cellars,  where  accumulated  rubbish,  etc.,  cause 
them,  it  Is  difficult  for  the  firemen  to  reach  them;  a  system  of 
piping,  therefore,  which  would  enable  them  to  make  hose  connec- 
tions at  the  street  level  would  be  of  great  advantage. 

168.  AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS  IN  BASEMENT 
and  sub-cellars.  If  approved  installation  (unless  deduc- 
tion has  been  made  for  sprinklers  throughout  building,  in 

which  case  no  allowance  for  this),  deduct   5  % 

169.  DWELLING  OCCUPANCY— If  the  occupancy 
of  the  building  above  ttie  grade  floor  is  for  a  family  dwell- 
ing exclusively,  20$  may  be  deducted  from  the"  rate  of 

the  building   20  % 

(If  one  floor  only  bo  occupied  deduct  10  %.) 

170.  DWELLING  OCCUPANCY— If  upper  floors  oc- 
cupied by  two  families   15$ 

171.  DWELLING   OCCUPANCY— If    occupied  by 

more  than  two  families   10  % 

172.  DWELLING  OCCUPANCY— If  occupied  as  a 
tenement-house  above  the  grade  floor,  with  the  grade  floor 

hall  door  open  night  and  day,  deduct  only   5  % 

173.  OFFICE  OCCUPANCY— If  building  occupied 
throughout  exclusively  for  offices  or  office  and  dwelling, 
deduct   25  % 

174.  OFFICE  OCCUPANCY— If  building  occupied 
above  grade  floor  exclusively  for  offices,  or  offices  and 
dwelling,  deduct   10  % 

175.  WATCHMAN — If  watchman  (on  premises)  but  no 
watch-clock,  deduct     5  % 

176.  WATCHMAN— If  watchman  (on  premises)  with 
watch-clock  or  electric  detector,  deduct    10  % 

(N.  B.  — If  automatics,  No.  158,  allow  only  one-half  deduction  for 
watchman.) 

177.  ROOF  HYDRANTS,  protected  from  freezing, 
deduct   2  % 

178.  SELF-RELEASING  FLOOR  BEAMS — If  floor 
beams  and  girders  are  arranged  so  as  to  be  self-releasing 
in  case  of  tire  by  means  of  metallic  anchor-boxes  or  other 
provisions,  deduct   1  % 

(See  note  41.  p.  23.) 

179.  AUXILIARY  PRIVATE  FIRE  PLANT,  Force 
pump,  etc.,  available  for  day,  night  and  holidays;  stand- 
pipe,  hose  attached  at  each  floor ;  competent  engineer  on 

hand  at  all  times,  deduct   10  % 

(This  in  addition  to  163, 164  and  176.) 

186  Total, 


DEDUCTIONS  FROM  BUILDING  RATE,  NO.  128.  47 


EXCEPTIONAL  CITY  FIRE  DEPARTMENTS. 

(The  following  deductions  to  be  made  from  net  rate  of  building 
No.  1:29  after  above  deductions  have  been  made.) 

184.  EXTRA  STEAMERS— If  exceeding  five 
steam  fire-engines  can  be  supplied  with  water  and 
assembled  at  a  fire,  deduct  for  each  engine  in  excess 
of  five  (one-half  of  one  per  cent.)  not  exceeding 

total  of  20%   J^jt  of  net  rate. 

(N.  B.— If  the  horses  of  any  steamer  are  used  for  any  other 
work,  or  it' at  least  lour  of  the  men  a  e  not  paid  firemen, 
no  deduction  shall  be  allowed  under  this  item.) 

Note.— The  immense  advantage  in  the  cumulative  effect 
of  a  large  number  of  steam  fire-eneines  which  can  be 
assembled  at  a  fire,  to  the  number  of  fifty  or  more,  in  cities 
like  New  Yom,  Chicago,  BostOD,  etc.,  even  though  there  be 
no  more  than  two  to  each  square  mile  of  compact  portion 
(see  p.  11),  is  not  overestimated  in  the  above  percentages. 

185.  WATER-TOWER— If  one,  deduct  2%  %    "  M 

"    If  two,  deduct  5  %       "  " 

Note. — To  secure  this,  risk  must  be  within  reach  of  tower. 

186.  FIRE-BOATS— For  risks  near  water-front, 
say  within  500  feet  or  on  pipe  lines  where  protection 

of  fire-boats  can  be  secured,  deduct  5  %       "  " 

186a.  GRAVITY  PRESSURE — For  every  effective  fire  stream 
available  at  the  building  and  supplied  by  a  gravity  pressure  of  not 
less  than  40  lbs.  at  the  base  of  the  nozzle  by  a  hydrant  on  an  eight- 
inch  or  larger  main,  deduct  1  %  of  the  rate  of  building  No.  129,  not 
exceeding  15  %  in  all.  If  the  main,  be  six  inches,  one-half  the  above 
deduction. 

Only  one-half  the  foregoing  deductions  (whichever  applies)  in  case  the 
supply  main  from  the  reservoir  is  not  in  duplicate. 

These  allowances  in  addition  to  the  allowances  for  extra  steamers.  See 
note,  page  50,  for  explanation  of  this  allowance. 

If  precautions  are  not  systematically  taken  by  the  city  to  prevent  freezing 
of  hydrants,  only  one-half  the  deductions  either  for  Extra  Steamers  or  Gravity 
Pressure  or  Hydrant  Deductions  should  be  allowed. 

N.  B.— To  entitle  a  risk  to  those  deductions  certain  important  conditions 
must  exist,  and  they  are  easy  of  ascertainment.  .First,  there  must  be  the 
actual  pressure  at  the  base  of  the  nozzle  at  all  hours  of  the  day  and  night  with 
the  maximum  number  of  streams  for  which  credit 'tins  been  gnen  in  full  play.  It 
may  happen  that  a  pressure  of  40  lbs.  at  the  nozzle  may  be  drawn  down  so  soon 
as  other  hydrant  outlets  are  opened.  This  is  important.  The  pressure  recog- 
nized, therefore,  should  be  the  minimum  pressure  at  the  hour  of  the  day  when 
it  is  least— on  Monday  morninas  for  example.  To  deliver  a  stream  of  40  lbs. 
pressure  at  the  nozzle  would  require  that  the  pressure  at  the  hydrant  should  be 
80  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  using  not  over  250  feet  of  hose.  Where  the  distance 
from  the  hydrant  to  the  building  is  greater,  requiring  a  greater  longth  of  hose 
and  therefore  involving  greater  friction,  the  pressure  at  the  hydrant  would 
need  to  be  greater  than  80  lbs.  The  allowance  also  requires  street  mains  of 
adequate  capacity  and  strength. 


DEDUCTIONS  FROM  STOCK  RATE,  No.  133. 

The  following  deductions  for  exceptional  features  may  be  made  from  the 
rate  on  stocks  obtained  by  the  rule  explained  on  pages  39  to  41.  The  per- 
centage to  be  deducted  is  the  percentage  of  the  said  total  stock  rate  (No.  133): 

190.   HYDRANTS,  ETC.— If  building  within  300  feet 


of  one  post  or  flush  hydrant,  supplied  by  8-inch  or  larger 

water-pipe,  deduct   4  % 

(If  6-inch  pipe  one-half  deduction.) 

191.  HYDRANTS,  ETC.— If  within  300  feet  of  two 
or  more  hydrants,  supplied  by  8-inch  or  larger  water-pipe, 
deduct   6  * 

(If  6-inch  pipe  one-half  deduction.) 


f>68 

48  DEDUCTIONS  FROM  STOCK  RATE,  NO.  133. 


192.    HYDRANTS,  ETC.— If  said  water-pine  is  fed  at 
both  ends  by  mains  or  sub-mains,  deduct  an  additional  ...         4  % 
(If  6-inoh  pipe  one-half  deduction.) 

Not«.— The  same  percentage  of  deduction  is  not  allowed  as  in 
the  case  of  building,  for  two  reasons:  first,  the  water  throwing  of  a 
fire  department  is  not  as  beneficial  to  stocks  as  to  buildings;  and, 
second,  the  stock  rate  being  the  larger  rat  >  of  the  two,  would,  on 
the  lowei  percentage  of  deduction,  get  the  full  measure  of  credit. 


193.  AUTOMATIC  FIRE  ALARM-For  approved 
automatic  lire  alarm  telegraph  signal  to  a  central  station 

or  a  fire  dept.  station,  with  thermostats,  deduct   5  % 

193a.    BURGLAR  ALARM— If  approved  system  to 
central  station,  deduct    2  % 

193b.    SPECIAL   BUILDING    CALL  DIRECT  TO 
FIRE  DEPT   5  % 

This  must  not  be  allowed  uuless  there  is  at  leaBt  one  call  on  every 
floor,  and  half  allowance  if  no  watchman. 

194.  CHEMICAL  ENGINES  ON  WHEELS— If  one 
or  more  chemical  engines  are  available  in  case  of  fire, 
deduct   5  % 

195.  FIRE  ESCAPES— If  iron  fire  escapes  are  pro- 
vided on  the  outside  of  building,  with  landings  at  each 

floor,  deduct   2  % 


Note.— These  are  of  advantage  and  are  relied  upon  by  firemen  for 
fighting  a  fire,  enabling  them  to  hold  advantageous  positions. 

196.  CASKS  OF  WATER  or  filled  pails  on  each  floor, 
deduct,  if  no  public  hydrants  within  300  feet  10£,  if  hy- 
drants within  300  feet   6  % 

Note. — To  reoeive  above  deduction  there  must  be  at  least  six  filled 
pails  for  each  2,500  square  feet  of  floor  area.  If  one-half  tne  number 
of  pails  be  filled  with  sand,  especially  in  Oil  Stores,  sand  being  better 
tban  water  for  oil  fires,  or  where  water  would  be  likely  to  freeze,  it 
would  be  an  improvement.  One  cask  may  be  considered  the  equiva- 
lent of  three  pails. 


197.  STAND-PIPES— INTERNAL,  adequate  number 
near  stairways,  supplied  from  tank,  with  hydrants  and 
sufficient  approved  hose  attached  at  each  floor  at  landings, 
deduct   2  % 

198.  STAND-PIPES— EXTERNAL,  for  use  of  fire 
department,  with  Siamese  connections,  deduct  ,   1  % 

199.  ACCESSIBILITY  TO  FIRE  DEPARTMENT — 
If  building  is  on  a  corner  or  extends  through  to  rear  street 
or  wide  alley,  affording  access  to  fire  department  for  fire 
extinction  or  removal  of  goods,  deduct  for  each  side  or  rear 

so  accessible  (no  deduction  for  front)   3  % 

200.  PROXIMITY  TO  FIRE  ENGINE  HOUSE, 
ETC. — If  risk  to  be  rated  is  within  300  feet  of  a  fire  engine 
house  or  hose  house,  which  should  insure  prompt  response 

of  skilled  men  to  any  fire  alarm,  deduct   2  % 

If  next  door  or  opposite  side  street   5  % 

201.  BASEMENT  AND  SUB-CELLAR  SPRINKLERS 
—If  perforated  2£  inch  pipe  be  provided  in  basement  and 
eub-cellar,  with  attachment  at  street  grade  for  fire  depart- 
ment with  standard  size  of  thread  and  coupling,  and 
standard  butt  and  with  waterways  to  sewer,  and  merchan- 
dise be  on  skids,  deduct   2  % 


DEDUCTIONS  FROM  STOCK  RATE,  NO.  133.  49 

202.  AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS  IN  BASEMENT 

and  sub-cellars.    If  approved  installation,  deduct   5  % 

(Unless  deduction  has  been  made  for  sprinklers  throughout  build- 
ing, in  which  case  no  allowance  lor  this.) 

203.  DWELLING  OCCUPANCY— If  the  entire  occu- 
pancy of  the  building  above  the  ground  floor  is  exclusively 

for  a  family  dwelling,  deduct    20  £ 

If  one  floor  only  so  occupied,  deduct   10  % 

204.  DWELLING  OCCUPANCY— If  upper  floors  oc- 
cupied by  two  families   15  % 

205.  DWELLING  OCCUPANCY— If  occupied  by  more 

than  two  families   10 

206.  DWELLING  OCCUPANCY— If  occupied  as  a 
tenement-house  a'love  the  grade  floor,  with  the  grade  floor 

hall  door  open  night  and  day,  deduct  only   5  % 

207.  OFFICE  OCCUPANCY— If  building  above  grade 

floor  is  occupied  entirely  for  offices,  deduct   5  % 

208.  OFFICE  OCCUPANCY— If  building  above  grade 

floor  is  occupied  entirely  for  offices  and  dwelling,  deduct..         15  % 

2C9.    WATCHMAN — If  watchman  on  premises  and  no 
■watch-clock,  deduct   5  % 

210.  WATCHMAN— If  watchman  on  premises  with 
■watch-clock  or  electric  detector,  deduct   15  % 

Note.— One-half  deduction  for  watchman  if  automatio  alarm 
No.  193. 

211.  ROOF  HYDRANTS,  protected  from  freezing, 
deduct   1  % 

212.  FIRE  PATROL— For  salvage  corps  or  fire  patrol, 

if  supported  by  city,  deduct   8  % 

If  supported  by  the  Insurance  Companies,  no  deduction.  (Hav- 
ing paid  tor  it,  they  are  entitled  to  it.) 

213.  COVERS,  TARPAULINS— If  merchandise  cov- 
ered by  tarpaulins  or  other  water-proof  covers  each  night, 
deduct   5  % 

(These  oovers  may  be  made  fire-resisting  by  fire-proofing  proc- 
esses.) 

214.  TIN-COVERED  CASES  —If  merchandise  be  kept 

in  tin-covered  wooden  side-wall  and  other  cases,  deduct. . .         5  % 


Note.— These  cases  may  be  economically  made  of  ordinary  white 
pine,  covered  with  tin,  in  the  same  manner  that  tin-covered  doors 
and  shutters  are  made  (see  specifications  on  thtse  points)  and  may 
be  grained  to  resemble  woods,  or  may  be  veneered  with  real  woods- 
mahogany,  cherry,  or  others,— without  impairing  their  fire-resisting 
qualities.  Especially  should  the  top  and  back  of  the  case  be  covered 
with  tin,  to  shed  water,  tbe  top  being  inclined  to  throw  the  water 
beyond  the  line  of  frontate.  If  tin-covered  sliding  doors  to  these 
cases  would  prevent  display  of  stock,  glass  doors  may  be  used, 
which  would  save  such  stocks  as  hats,  millinery,  silks,  cutlery,  etc., 
from  water  damage. 

215.    SKIDS — If  mdse.  on  skids  or  platforms 


six  inches  high,  deduct   2  % 

216.  GRADE  FLOOR  STOCKS — Deduct  for 
a  stock  entirely  on  grade  floor,  in  non-fire  depart- 
ment town,  10%*;  in  fire  department  town   5  % 


*This  deduction  may  result,  in  the  case  of  a  building  of  poor  con- 
struction, especially  if  an  exposed  risk  in  a  non-fire  department 
town,  in  a  lower  rate  on  stock,  than  on  building,  but  under  such  cir- 
cumstances the  discrimination  would  be  proper. 


670 
5° 


DEDUCTIONS  FROM  STOCK  RATE,  NO.  133. 


If  the  stock  extends  over  only  ouc  additional  floor,  viz., 
the  second  or  basement,  deduct  3^.  If  stock  extends  over 
grade  floor,  basement  and  second  floor,  no  deduction  or 
charge  (see  rule  for  stocks  above  grade  floor,  p.  58). 

217.  AUXILIARY  PRIVATE  FIRE  PLANT,  Force 
pump,  etc.,  available  for  day,  night  and  holidays;  stand 
pipe,  hose  attached  at  each  floor;  competent  engineer  on 
hand  at  all  times,  deduct  5  ,. 

(This  in  addition  to  197,  198  and  210.) 

Total, 

EXCEPTIONAL  CITY  FIRE  DEPARTMENTS. 

(These  deductions  to  be  made  from  net  rate  of  stock  No.  134,  after 
above  deductions  have  been  made.) 

Note. —There  are  two  reasons  for  making  a  separate  deduction 
for  exceptional  Fire  Departments  ;  one  is  note  No.  184  ;  aud  the  other 
that  it  saves  charges  for  deficieocies  on  the  large  majority  of  cities 
and  towns  unprovided  with  such  exceptional  appliances. 

219.  EXTRA  STEAMERS— If  exceed- 
ing five  steam  fire-engines  can  be  supplied 
with  water  and  assembled  at  a  fire,  deduct 
for  each  engine  exceeding  five,  one-quarter 

of  one  per  cent.  (J£  of  1  %)  of  final  rate  (134).     %  of  net  rate. 

N.  B  —If  the  horses  of  any  steamer  are  used  for 
any  other  work,  or  it  at  least  four  of  the  men  are 
not  paid  firemen,  no  deduction  shall  be  allowed 
under  this  item. 

220.  WATER-TOWER — If  one,  deduct  2t£  %    "  " 

"  "  If  two,  deduct    5%    "  " 

Note.— To  secure  this,  risk  must  be  within  reach 
of  tower. 

221.  FIRE-BOATS— If  risk  near  water 
front,  say  within  500  feet,  or  on  pipe  lines 
where  protection  of  fire-boats  can  be  se- 
cured, deduct   5  %    "  " 

221a.  GRAVITY  PRESSURE— For  every  effective  fire  stream 
available  at  the  building  and  supplied  by  a  gravity  pressure 
of  not  less  than  40  lbs.  at  the  base  of  the  nozzle  by  a  hydrant  on  an 
eight-inch  or  larger  main,  deduct  xi  of  1%  of  the  rate  of  stock  No. 
134,  not  exceeding  1%%  ia  all.  If  the  main  be  six  inches,  one-half 
the  above  deduction. 

Only  one-half  the  foregoing  deductions  (which  ever  applies)  in  case 
the  supply  main  from  the  reservoir  is  not  in  duplicate. 

These  allowances  in  addition  to  the  allowances  for  extra  steamers. 

If  precautions  are  not  systematically  taken  by  the  city  to  prevent 
freezing  of  hydrants,  only  one-half  the  deductions  either  for  Extra 
Steamers  or  Gravity  Pressure,  or  Hydrant  Deductions  should  be 
allowed. 

N.  B.— To  entitle  a  risk  to  thsse  deductions  certain  important  conditions 
must  exist,  and  they  are  easy  of  ascertainment  First,  there  must  be  the 
actual  pressure  at  the  base  of  the  nozzle  at  all  hours  of  the  day  and  night 
with  the  maximum  number  of  streams  for  which  credit  has  been  given,  in  full  play. 
It  may  happen  that  a  pressure  of  40  lbs.  at  the  nozzle  may  be  diawn  down  so 
soon  as  other  hydrant  outlets  are  opened.  This  is  important.  The  pressure 
recognized,  therefore,  should  be  the  minimum  pressure  at.  the  hour  of  the  day 
when  it  is  l-ast— on  Monday  mornings,  for  example.  To  deliver  a  stream  of  40 
lbs.  pressure  at  the  nozzle  would  require  that  the  pressure  at  the  hydrant 
should  be  80  lb- u  the  square  inch,  using  not  over  250  feet  of  hose.  Where 
the  distance  from  the  hydrant  to  the  building  is  greater,  requiring  a  greater 
length  of  hose  and  therefore  involving  greater  friction,  the  pressure  at  the 
hydrant  would  need  to  be  greater  than  80  lbs.  The  allowance  also  requires 
street,  mains  of  adequate  capacity  and  strength. 

Note. — The  reason  for  this  extra  allowance  for  gravity  pressure  in  addition 
to  the  recognition  of  gravity  pressure  in  the  key-rate  will  be  apparent  from  a 
consideration  of  the  fact  that  in  a  town  whose  average  pressure  on  the  water 


671 


DEDUCTIONS  FOB  AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS.  5 1 


mains  is  only  sufficient  to  supply  steamers  for  suction  there  may,  notwith- 
standing, be  risks  on  lower  levels  than  the  average  where  it  is  only  necessary 
to  attach  a  hose  to  the  hydrant  to  throw  an  effective  fire  stream.  In  the  city 
of  New  York,  for  example,  where  the  average  pressure  in  the  daytime  for 
nine-tenths  of  the  area  is  not  over  22  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  there  are  three 
localities  where  the  pressure  at  the  hydrant  is  over  90  lbs.  to  the  square  inch. 
There  are  numerous  cities  throughout  the  country  having  different  grades  and, 
therefore,  different  hydrant  pressures,  such  as  Kansas  City,  Albany,  Brooklyn, 
etc.  A  warehouse  located  on  the  lower  level,  having  the  benefit  of  full  press- 
ure, is  certainly,  in  that  respect,  better  than  a  similar  one  less  favorably 
located. 

The  fact  will  not  be  overlooked  that  steamers  may  be  prevented  from 
reaching  a  fire  by  severe  suo vv  storms  or  blizzards,  such  as  that  which  occurred 
in  New  York  in  March,  1888,  or  by  an  epizootic  among  the  horses,  such  as 
occurred  at  the  time  of  the  great  Boston  conflagration  of  1872.  Even  with 
auxiliary  steamers,  therefore,  an  adequate  gravity  pressure  is  a  decided 
advantage,  especially  as  credit  for  it  is  given  only  to  the  specific  risks  bene- 
fited. It  would  seldom  be  found  that  a  city  would  get  the  allowance  for  both 
extra  steamers  and  gravity  pressure.  Steamers  are  seldom  purchased  or 
retained  where  a  gravity  pressure  is  adequate  If  steamers  should  be  main- 
tained, however,  in  conjunction  with  gravity  pressure,  as  in  Boston,  for 
example,  where  the  Introduction  of  a  high  pressure  system  is  probable,  justice 
would  require  recognition  of  so  important  a  fact.  Where  no  steamers  are 
supplied,  the  above  credit,  in  addition  to  hvdrant  deductions,  Nos.  155,  190, 
etc.,  would  recognize  the  advantage  of  gravity  pressure  over  direct  pressure, 
explained  in  the  article  on  Water  Works  (which  see)  of  uniform  pipe  strains 
and  constant  readiness. 

AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS— For  approved  WET 
PIPE  SYSTEMS  deduct  on  buildings  as  follows;  and  on 
stocks  three-fourths  of  the  amounts  named. 

For  DRY  PIPE  SYSTEMS  make  only  three-quarters  of 
allowance  given  for  wet  pipe  systems. 

The  allowances  assume  that  80$  co-insurance  is  carried. 
Decrease  the  deductions  for  each  1$  of  co-insurance 
less  than  80$  on  building  and  stock. 

Equipments  to  be  in  compliance  with  the  standard  of  the 
underwriters  having  jurisdiction,  relative  to  number  and 
location  of  sprinklers,  size  of  pipes,  feed  mains,  valves, 
fittings,  etc. 

Grade  "A."  If  connected  with  at  least  two 
approved  independent  water  supplies,  one  of 
which  must  be  automatic,  in  addition  to  approved 
outside  connection  for  City  Fire  Department, 
deduct   40  $ 

Grade  "  B."  If  connected  with  at  least  two 
approved  water  supplies  without  connection 
for  City  Fire  Department,  deduct   35  4, 

Grade  '-C."  If  connected  with  one  approved 
water  supply  in  addition  to  approved  connec- 
tion for  City  Fire  Department,  deduct   30  ^ 

Grade  "  D."  If  connected  with  one  approved  water 
supply  without  approved  connection  for  City 
Fire  Department,  deduct   25  $ 


52  CO-INSURANCE. 


Note— Deductions  for  fire  extinguishing  or  detecting  appliances,  such  as 
automatic  sprinklers,  automatic  alarms,  etc.,  should  be  by  percentages  of  the 
rate,  for  they  clearly  become  valuable  in  proportion  to  danger,  especially  In 
the  direction  of  increased  ignitibility,  and  combustibility,  it  being  important 
that  in  the  case  of  rapid  or  intense  fires  these  appliances  should  act  promptly. 
No  one  would  claim,  probably,  that  any  allowance  should  be  made  for  sprink- 
lers in  a  dwelling  house,  whereas  a  material  reduction  would  be  warranted  in 
a  woodworker.  The  intermediate  degrees  of  hazard  would  best  be  measured 
by  a  percentage  which  would  adjust  the  allowance  according  to  the  rate, 
which  indicates  the  hazard.  Especially  should  the  allowance  increase  in  the 
case  of  rates  based  upon  large  areas,  for  example  ;  for  as  the  rate  grows  larger 
in  proportion  to  area  the  advantage  of  detection  and  extinction  should  in- 
crease proportionately,  as  it  would  by  a  percentage.  If  a  sprinkler  is  good 
for  10,000  square  feet  of  area  in  a  risk  of  50  000  square  feet,  more  should  be 
allowed  if  the  whole  area  is  protected  than  if  a  portion  should  be. 

OUTSIDE  SPRINKLERS  (Not  Automatic)  —  For 
approved  equipment  as  per  standard  requirements  adopted 
by  the  National  Fire  Protection  Association  or  the  under- 
writers having  jurisdiction,  deduct  50f0  of  what  the  exposure 
charge  would  otherwise  be. 

N.  B. — Reference  may  be  had  for  information  as  to  the  proper  installation 
of  sprinklers  to  the  National  Board  requirements  and  also  to  those  of  the  New 
York,  Boston  and  other  boards. 


CO-INSURANCE. 


Co-insurance  being  most  valuable  where  risks  are  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Fire  Departments  which  tend  to  insure  partial  instead  of 
total  losses,  and  least  valuable  under  conditions  which  result  in 
total  losses,  the  following  rule  should  be  observed,  viz.  :  Deduct 
(with  the  percentage  co-insurance  clause  in  policy)  for  co-insurance  on 
risks  under  the  protection  of  Fire  Departments — 

ON  BUILDINGS — £  of  1%  of  rate  for  each  per  cent,  of  stipulated 
co-insurance  in  excess  of  50%,  not  exceeding  \5'J>  in  all. 

ON  STOCKS — 5  of  \%  of  rate  for  each  per  cent,  of  co-insurance  in 
excess  of  50%,  not  exceeding  1%%  in  all. 

ON  RISKS  NOT  UNDER  PROTECTION  OF  FIRE  DEPART- 
MENTS— Deduct  I  of  \%  of  rate  for  each  per  cent,  of  co-insurance 
in  excess  of  50%  on  both  buildings  and  stocks,  not  exceeding 7 '\%  in  all. 

N.  B. — To  secure  these  deductions  the  percentage  co-insurance 
clause  must  be  endorsed  on  the  policy. 

EXAMPLE — In  the  case  of  a  risk  in  a  fire  department  town,  carrying  80% 
insurance,  or  30%  in  excess  of  50%,  deduct  \5%  of  rate  on  building  and  7}&%  (J4  of 
30%)  on  stocks.  On  a  risk  carrying  80^  insurance  in  a  non-fire  department  town, 
deduct  714%  (%  °f  8WJ  on  building  and  the  same  percentage  on  stock. 

Note.— Deductions  for  co-insurance  must  not  be  made  vntU  all  other  deduc- 
tions have  been  made  and  a  final  rate  obtained.   (See  Nos.  132  and  135.) 
For  explanation  of  rule  see  page  108. 

IF  INSURANCE  IS  LESS  THAN  50%  OF  VALUE  add  1%  of 
rate  for  each  per  cent,  that  insurance  is  less  than  50%  of  value. 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY. 


673 
53 


FOR  EXAMPLE— If  insurance  is  40$  add  10$  of 
rate ;  if  30$  add  20$  of  rate. 

GOODS  IN  FIRE-PROOF  SAFES— If  in  building  of 
ordinary  floor  construction  with  specific  amount  in  safes 
■with  co-insurance  clause,  deduct  33-|$  of  final  rate  on  non- 
combustible  goods,  jewelry,  etc.,  and  20$  on  combustible 
goods,  silks,  etc.  This  in  addition  to  final  deduction  for 
Co-insurance. 

(If  in  fire-proof  building,  see  333,  page  73.) 

TERM  POLICIES— No  policy  shall  be  written  for  more 
than  one  year  on  building,  lease  or  rents  of  any  risk,  ex- 
cept on  the  basis  of  adding  three-fourths  of  the  annual  rate 
for  each  year  in  excess  of  one.*  For  fractional  parts  of  a 
year  in  excess  of  one  year,  a  pro  rata  proportion  of  the 
annual  rate  shall  be  added.  No  term  policy  to  be  written 
on  stocks  or  other  contents. 

RENT  RATES— If  building  of  standard  size,  25  x  100, 
four  stories  high,  charge  one-half  of  building  rate,  provided 
form  contains  full  co-insurance  clause.  Increase  rate  ten 
(10)  per  cent,  for  each  additional  50,000  cubic  feet  of  con- 
tents, which  obtain  by  multiplying  ground  floor  area  by 
height. 

(The  larger  the  building  the  longer  the  time  required  to  rebuild  and  the 
greater  the  loss  of  rents.) 

If  no  co-insurance  clause,  rate  should  be  same  as  that  of 

building. 

LOWEST  MINIMUM  RATE. 
No  building,  no  matter  how  constructed  or  no  matter 
what  be  the  deduction  to  which  it  is  entitled  (even  though 
sprinkled,  co-insurance,  etc.,  etc.),  shall  be  rated  below  12 
cents,  nor  shall  its  contents,  merchandise  stored  therein  in 
original  packages,  be  rated  at  less  than  25  cents.  If  mer- 
chandise not  in  original  packages,  net  rate  shall  not  be  less 
than  30  cents. 

CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY, 

MERCANTILE  STOCKS  AND  OTHER  CONTENTS  OF 
BUILDING. 

In  the  table  of  occupancies,  page  143,  the  first  column 
contains  the  amount  which  should  be  added  to  the  un- 
occupied building  rate,  ascertained  by  preceding  schedule, 

*  This  would  yield  2y3  annuals  for  3  years  and  <  annuals  for  5  years. 


54 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY. 


page  38  (item  127),  to  measure  the  increased  risk  of  the 
building  by  reason  of  such  occupancy,  and  to  obtain  the 
"occupied  building  rate"  (item  128),  which  will  then  be 
subject  to  the  deductions  on  page  45. 

The  figures  in  the  second  column  represent  the  sum  to 
be  added  to  the  building  rate  to  ascertain  the  rate  at  which 
the  insurance  on  the  stock  or  other  contents  should  be 
written,  said  sum  being  reduced  if  the  building  is  not 
standard,  or  if  the  city  in  which  it  is  located  is  not  stand- 
ard, according  to  deficiencies  as  hereinafter  explained. 

In  fixing  a  rate  for  a  stock  of  merchandise,  three  features 
must  be  taken  into  account ;  first,  the  susceptibility  of  the 
stock  itself  to  damage  by  fire,  water  or  smoke  ;  second,  its 
liability  to  ignite  easily  or  to  cause  fires  ;  third,  its  liability 
by  reason  of  inherent  qualities,  when  ignited  to  cause  dan- 
gerous or  intense  fires,  resulting  in  total  destruction  of 
building  and  contents.  These  last  two  features  should 
increase  the  rate  of  the  building  itself,  and  are  measured  in 
the  following  table  by  the  amount  named  in  the  first 
column.  All  three  should  be  taken  into  account  in  rating 
the  stock  itself. 

Such  stocks  as  laces  and  embroidery,  wall-paper,  milli- 
nery, artificial  flowers,  cutlery,  etc  ,  illustrate  the  first- 
named  feature,  while  wholesale  drugs,  oils,  cabinetware, 
household  furniture,  etc.,  illustrate  the  second  and  third 
features  combined.  Indeed,  wholesale  drug  stocks  or 
stocks  of  cabinetware  would  illustrate  all  three,  being  not 
only  particularly  susceptible  to  damage  but  liable  to  cause 
fires  and  those  of  destructive  character. 

If  two  stocks  in  the  same  building  differ  as  to  these  last 
two  features,  one  adding  a  greater  amount  to  the  building 
than  the  other,  the  difference  between  the  two  should  be 
added  to  the  minor  hazard  in  fixing  its  rate.  In  the  case  of 
artists'  materials  and  wholesale  drugs,  for  example,  the 
hazards  of  wholesale  drugs,  so  far  as  they  affect  the  build- 
ing, adding  thereto  100  cents,  include  all  of  the  hazards  of 
artists'  materials,  which  add  to  the  building  10  cents ;  the 
difference  between  the  two  (90  cents)  measures  the  net 
effect  of  wholesale  drugs  upon  a  stock  of  artists'  materials 
when  both  are  under  the  same  roof. 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY. 


55 


RATES  OF  BUILDINGS  AS  COMPARED  WITH 
STOCKS. 

Every  underwriter  of  experience  will  understand,  without 
explanation,  that  in  direct  ratio  as  a  building  approaches 
standard  construction  and  in  direct  ratio,  also,  as  the  city 
in  which  it  is  located  approaches  the  standard  city,  as  to 
waterworks,  fire-extinguishing  appliances,  etc.,  will  the 
difference  between  a  building  and  the  merchandise  con- 
tained in  it  increase ;  in  other  words,  the  better  the 
construction  and  fire  department  the  better  will  be  the 
building  as  a  risk  compared  with  the  stock,  and  the  poorer 
the  construction  and  fire  department  the  less  should  be  the 
difference  in  rate  between  the  building  and  the  stock.  The 
system  or  plan  of  making  additions  to  the  building  to  obtain 
the  stock  rate,  therefore,  should  be  sufficiently  elastic  to 
conform  to  this  principle.  Inasmuch  as  the  preceding 
schedule,  by  its  deficiency  charges,  is  intended  to  measure 
these  differences,  both  of  fire-extinguishing  appliances  and 
construction,  the  following  rule  for  rating  stocks  will  be 
conceded  to  recognize  the  principle  stated  : 

RULE  FOR  RATING  STOCKS. 

From  the  rate  of  the  Building  occupied,  No.  128,  deduct 
a  sum  equal  to  25$  of  the  charges  for  deficiencies*  of  the 
building  from  standard,  as  ascertained  page  38  (item  127). 
The  remainder  will  be  the  Key-rate  of  the  Building  for 
rating  all  stocks  contained  in  it.  To  this  should  be  added 
the  second  column  figure  of  any  stock  to  obtain  its  rate 
which  is  then  subject  to  dedtictions  No.  190,  etc.  Under 
no  circumstances,  however,  must  the  difference  between  the 
stock  rate  and  the  building  rate  be  less  than  20^  of  the  second 
column  figure  for  the  stock  to  be  rated,  which  shall  be  the 
minimum  addition  to  any  building  for  the  stock  rate.\ 

For  example,  let  us  suppose  that  it  is  desired  to  obtain 
the  rate  for  a  stock  of  dry-goods  in  a  building  whose  un- 
occupied rate  (item  127)  is  65  cents.  Of  that  sum  the 
deficiency  charges  are,  of  coarse  (the  standard  being  25 

*  25  cents  being  the  rate  of  a  standard  building  in  a  standard  city,  the  excess 
of  this  sum  will  be  the  charge  for  deficiencies  of  the  building  to  be  rated. 

t  Only  in  the  case  of  movable  grade  floor  stocks  in  exposed  and  weak 
buildings  in  non-tire  department  towns,  should  a  stoqk  rate  be  lower  than  a 
brick  building  rate ;  see  note  216,  page  41). 


676 

56 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY. 


cents),  40  cents;  25$  of  which,  or  10  cents,  should  be  de- 
ducted from  the  occupied  building  rate  before  adding  the 
rate  named  in  the  second  column  of  the  table  for  dry- 
goods  (50  cents),  making  1.05  for  the  stock,  which  rate 
would  be  subject  to  such  further  deductions  for  any  ex- 
ceptional features  of  fire  extinction,  etc.,  as  are  heretofore 
provided  for,  page  47. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  unoccupied  building  rate 
should  be  41  cents,  25$  of  the  deficiencies  (16  cents),  or 
4  cents,  should  be  deducted  from  the  occupied  rate  of  the 
building  (No.  128),  before  adding  the  50-cent  charge  for 
stock,  making  87  cents  the  rate  on  the  stock,  so  that  the 
building  rate  would  be  41  cents,  and  the  stock  rate  87  cents. 
A  building  so  nearly  standard  as  to  be  rated  under  the  sched- 
ule at  29  cents,  would  have  deficiency  charges  of  only  4 
cents;  2o$  of  which,  or  1  cent  being  deducted,  would  leave 
28  cents,  to  which  50  cents  being  added  for  the  stock, 
would  make  78  cents  as  the  rate  for  the  stock  and  29  cents 
as  the  rate  of  the  building,  the  stock  being  nearly  three 
times  the  rate  of  the  building,  as  should  be  the  case  in  a 
building  of  such  construction. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  stock  rate  and  the  building 
rate  will  approach  each  other  exactly  in  proportion  as  the 
building  becomes  undesirable  and  high-rated,  whereas  the 
stock  and  building  rate  will  diverge  exactly  in  proportion 
as  the  building  approaches  the  standard  as  to  construction 
and  fire  appliances. 

BUILDINGS  OF  TWO  OR  MORE  TENANTS— In 
buildings  having  more  than  one  tenant  the  charges  are  not 
cumulative,  but  the  rate  of  the  most  hazardous  stock 
should  be  the  one  added  to  the  schedule  rate  of  the 
building  at  No.  127. 

For  example,  in  a  building  containing  toys,  which  increase 
the  building  rate  10  cents,  hardware,  which  increases  the 
building  rate  10  cents,  and  cabinetware  and  furniture, 
which  increase  the  rate  25  cents,  the  sum  total  of  these 
three  should  not  be  added  to  the  building,  but  the  highest 
rated  one  of  the  three.  Therefore,  the  unoccupied  rate  of  a 
building  (item  127)  should  have  added  to  it  only  25  cents 
if  containing  the  three  stocks  named. 

In  rating  a  stock  in  a  building  of  two  or  more  tenants, 
the  amount  named  in  the  first  column  for  the  most  hazardous 


CHAKGES  FOK  OCCUPANCY. 


077 

57 


occupancy  in  the  building  is  taken  for  the  occupied  building 
rate,  and  10^  of  the  first  column  charge  of  each  manufactur- 
ing tenant  (other  than  the  highest  rated  one,  which  is 
charged  for  at  No.  128)  is  added  at  No.  106a. 

If  any  stock  in  a  building  is  of  a  character  to  increase 
the  rate  of  the  building,  it  should  certainly,  by  the  same 
amount,  increase  the  rate  of  any  other  stock  in  the  build- 
ing, and  the  amount  named  in  the  first  column  of  the 
occupancy  table,  therefore,  as  the  measure  of  increase  on  the 
building  is  included  in  the  rate  of  the  most  hazardous 
stock.  For  instance,  artists'  materials  add  10  cents  to  the 
rate  of  the  building,  -while  wholesale  drugs  add  100  cents, 
and  the  difference,  90  cents,  should  be  added  to  the  rate  of 
a  stock  of  artists'  materials,  to  measure  the  increased  haz- 
ard by  reason  of  its  being  under  the  same  roof  with  whole- 
sale drugs. 

GENERAL  MERCHANDISE,  MIXED  STOCKS,  DE- 
PARTMENT STORES,  ETC.,  should  be  rated  according 
to  the  proportion  of  various  kinds  of  stock.  This,  of 
course,  can  only  be  approximately  estimated  by  the  person 
applying  the  schedule.  He  can,  however,  by  intelligent 
observation  of  the  stock,  estimate  the  various  kinds  of 
merchandise  and  the  proportion  which  each  bears  to  the 
whole  value,  and  thus  easily  determine  about  what  average 
rate  should  be  obtained.  For  example,  in  a  stock  consist- 
ing of  paper  hangings,  wall-paper,  etc.,  for  which  the  rate 
is  If0,  and  carpets,  oilcloths,  etc.,  for  which  the  rate  is  40 
cents,  the  addition  to  the  building  to  obtain  the  stock  rate 
should  not  be  140,  but  should  be  graded  according  to  the 
preponderance  of  either  stock.  If  the  total  stock  is  $100,000 
in  value,  of  which  $90,000  is  carpets  (No.  634,  which  at  40 
cents  would  yield  $360  premium)  and  $10,000  wall-paper 
(No.  1622,  which  at  lf0  would  yield  $100  premium),  the 
total  premium  for  the  stock  would  be  $460,  which  would  be 
an  average  rate  of  46  cents.  The  rate  for  the  second  col- 
umn of  the  table,  therefore,  to  be  added  to  the  building 
should  be  46  cents,  the  average  of  the  two.  If,  however, 
the  proportion  were  reversed,  and  the  wall-paper  should  be 
$90,000  in  value  (premium  on  which  would  be  $000)  and 
the  carpets  $10,000  (premium  for  which  would  be  $40),  the 
total  premium  would  be  $940,  and  the  average  rate  94 


678 

58  CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY. 

cents.  The  rate  of  the  second  column,  therefore,  to  be 
added  to  the  building  rate  should  be  94  cents. 

A  simple  method  of  arriving  at  the  proper  figure  for  the 
second  column  is  to  add  such  fraction  of  the  rate  therein 
named  for  each  class  of  merchandise  as  its  value  bears  to 
the  total  value. 

For  example,  in  the  above  case,  if  three-fourths  of  the 
stock  were  carpets  and  one-fourth  wall-paper,  the  rate 
would  be  three-fourths  of  40  cents  (30  cents),  and  one- 
fourth  of  100  cents  (25  cents),  or  55  cents  in  all. 

STOCKS  ABOVE  AND  BELOW  THE  GRAD  E  FLOOR 
— In  other  than  single  occupancy  buildings,  where  the 
entire  stock  to  be  rated  is  above  or  below  the  grade  floor, 
add  5  cents  to  the  rate  of  stock  for  each  floor  above  or 
below  the  grade. 

If  the  stock  to  be  insured  extends  over  two  or  more 
floors,  the  charge  should  be  an  average  for  the  floors  cov- 
ered, obtained  by  adding  the  charges  for  the  different  floors 
and  dividing  by  the  total  number.  For  example,  a  stock 
covering  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  floors  should  be  charged 
10  plus  15  plus  20,  total  45,  divided  by  3,  equals  15  cents, 
which  would  be  the  average  of  the  three  charges.  If  stock 
extends  over  the  three  floors,  grade,  basement  and  second 
floor,  no  charge  or  deduction  should  be  made. 


For  Grade  Floor  Stocks,  see  No.  216,  p.  49. 


RATINC  SLIP.-NON-FIRE-PROOF  BUILDINGS. 

InsfetteJ  by  


UNIVERSAL  MERCANTILE  SCHEDULE. 


Risk  

Stock  of— 


Story  _ 


-Street, 
—Bldg. 


Ins.  Map,  page.  .  Block       City  of 


DEFICIENCIES. 


KEY-RATE  OF  CITY  tSee  page  13.)  

WALLS— Independent  (for  Forty  we  No.  40)  38   Charge  for 


n  average  from  standard  (r/ W^.  t 


80    On  bull  JIu cis  over  :( stones  hlizh  if  «vi  ni-t  thick  ne-W  levs  than  12  in,  lies, 

add  (in  addition  to  No  BR  not  loss  Uud  08 

II  two  Inclrpriiilri.i  n  iin  .v!)o  n.  t  n. r  ii.-.  :n. .  i.  .Wudj"!  from  «> *r%$t  of  UV»e  rrqulit- 

o4«Vln''tI.n-  l.!t  '-uli  -'.t.  t-  it-..  I  r,n      uM        .1-  If  H -t  .ri.i1  nutvericeel 

IS  In,  I,.-,  if  «  •l.'rt.l.  I«  InrHc.  J,ti.rl.«.  J!  Inrh..  fl.torii*  i'lnrll.*.  7  H.'H.»  SUnttltS 

40  Paiity  Wall— Charge  for  each  inch  deficiency  In  average  from 
standard  (•/  fi!J;  c-rr  4  i/mn         J.-uhlt  iht  thargt). 

41  If  party  wattless  than  " 


l  1J  indies  thick  in  any  [.onion.  adJ  (in  addition 

 10 

r  3  -I'-ry  I . I d k*  .  33  hit  lit*,  i  ■tory.  S  IlithBi,  Sltor7, 

i  posed  side  08 

:>  with  bricks  and  mortar  05 


ROOF— 47  Compoiiiioi 


ROOF  SPACE.  BLIND  ATTIC,  i 

FLOORS— 53    Double  flooriti 

64   Single  flooring  iew'th 
55    PtoOB  Beams  t'ii  Ton 
CEILING  OR  SHEATHING— .-,11 

each  additional  story 

67  Woodorgtrawboardf 
If  sidewalk  Fuhkbdb. 

r.T.i  Cloth  or  paper  colling 
AREA— (Ground  floor  )   

68  2.,r.(K>  sq.  ft  to  5,000,  i 
.Mi   5,000    "     *■  10,000, 

5,000    "     "  10,000, 


-52  Tnko  maximum  height  If 
.  ,03,  not  exceeding  a  lota)  of  .10 
ics  thick,  or  single  2-lnch  floor- 


»- hoard    Cbilino,  one  story  .05 


ory  ii");  each  additional  story.  .  .03 
half  charge  fur  wnnd  sheathing. 

wooden  MinK  each  story  10 

 ft.  Total  aq.  ft. 

:h  1,000  in  excess  of  S.MCsq.  ft..  .01 

  .08 

"     »  "      "  .09 


01  10,000 
62  10,000 


height-^1 

04  Sixtht 


r  11  dories,  double  the  urea  charge. 

riniuN  !iX-dMiUnn^i!id^r«n0fVi.liji|j  th«  holltlln^. 

.1.-1.  .'Iinrv.'  I'''  itfn  Ivlli  I.  iIMIt,.-.         I  ml,  u 
iirv-.-  iiinl. -I  '  Kll"..iiri  V1  forilrli-rtl..  .I.flw.     ^  tw  t 

I..TLC   lllfll     I.  ll.-llllll-l 

I   For  flfth  story,  add  06 


fllta  Eighth  slury  on  standard  building  

li.lh    V.t.ll,  -I. TV  it,  AliLI.-litnl  tulililini; 

E  LEVATORS— 117    Km  los.d  in  huh  mi.l  plaster  shaft  ..r  hull  way,  or  If  pro 

with  approved  mil  omul  if  I  nip  floors  

07s  Fire  proof  shaft,  hut  defective  doors,  or  walls  not  through  roof  . 

08  Open  

09  Wooden  shaft  will  t  pip|ir..i-.  tl  nulimiatu-  imps  

70    Ooe-half  above  charges  fur  elevators  in  buildiuga  otherwise  6Un 

or  fn  office  buildings. 
STAIRWAYS- rT'l-iV,  l'".'l!iCi';!r|.1th  and  piaster  hallway  or  provided  with 

umllc  trap  doors  in  floors  

71ft  Simitar  to  nlmve  with  traps  closed  only  at  night  , 

71b  Fire  proof  tnelonire.  but  J.  f-.  live  duors.  ett 

"'"     Enclosed  in  wood  «  ilh  -ell  eli>«ing  doori  each  Hour  


73  Op* 


WELL-HOLES — 74    If  open 

chutes.'dumb-waiters, 

SKTLIGHTS-TO  L[f  ..f  Lhll 


■I  ijvolllai;. 

upprovi  il 


WOODEN  CORNICES.  CUPOLAS.  ETC. 
WOODEN  AWNINGS-SO    On  one  story  nun 

81  One  Storv  hiiildines  in  lion  (ire  d>'p:i 

82  On  buildings  over  one  story  

88    On  building*  over  one  story  1  t, 

LIGHTING  —  S4  Kli  Hricity,  approved,  (if  i 
80    Kerost  lie  (iifi  cbarg.  il  <  barged  for 


HEATING  — s7    It  bv  hot  air  furnace.  . 

88  Furnace,  with  metallic  cold  i 
through  brick  walls  and  oue  n 
No.  87)  

89  Stove*  

00    If  stove  pipes  through  floors 

not  exceeding  a  total  of.  .„  .^.^ 
Ofi    Natural  g».Tor  o(Pf  iiel.  appro  v 
CHIMNEYS-U7    Not  hullt  from  groui 
OS    If  Inadequate  for  service  icq. 


is  lop.    If  protected 


09    If  r 


STREET— 
103  Ifl< 


Joists,  add  . 
No.  43).... 


,        under  50  feet,  add  for  each  S  feet  less  

WIRES  — 105    Overhead  to  interfere  with  lire  dept.  (telegraph,  trolley,  . 

TENANTS— 100    B  ich  in  excess  of  one.  exclusive  of  office  and  dwe 


lOOu  For  each  u ,\st  r .u  tukino  ten  wt  In  no ■&*  of  the  hlchc-M  rated  oi 
(which  Is  charged  for  in  No  lWi,  add  UK  of  il-  tlrst  eoluuin  ehurjie 
occupancy  lahle  ■  •  

100b  If  lUM  FACTrutM-i  iti-kiidd  1  of  (»1  for  each  opi-raliv«  employ i-l 
no-"[  10         ,  i,  ■  ..In.j.  .  e  L.I  ,-f       m  ri.k.  nh-r-  11,,^  ilnl  col(im;i  ebaref  ilf 

AGE  ..I  l'!ii.l'iiriL'"'lli:'   Ov.r  JO  ve  if  of  In  pimr  r.pai  r  charge  at  No.  14-1  )  ' 

FRAME  REARS-l»s    KiMisiont.  etc*  ,  nM'ef^M  10 

STONE  PIERS-lUli^S 


 iTltig  h»t(  chiref 

nc  columns,  pillars,  or  brick  piers  with  bond  stones, 
inpurtiint  iir-iL-ht-  .no/,  m  i  on  I  in  if  to  nnui  Iht  not  h  —  than  n.'i 
IRON  COLUMNS  UNPROTECTED  — 1  III  Cast  iron  10;  steel  or  wrougW  15 
STEAM  BOILER  -  1  1 1  o"tii  r  tlmn  h.  atinci     Charcc  if  in  I.  .-,  i.u-nt  05;  above 

basement   HI;  wood  shuviiurs  for  fu.  l  1  i«i  adilii  lonal  

POWER—  1 11     '  harev  n..fjnliiig  to  hazard  


Total  Deficiencies  Puis  Ket-Rate  

DEDUCT  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CONSTRUCTION. 

117  No  cellar  or  basement,  deduct  W 

118  Shall  Run  under  UN  ao,  ft  ground  floor  area  and  not  over 

8itorica  high  10J 

119  Tin  or  sheet  inm  between  floor!  6J 

120  Water- proof  pnp.  r  .  r  u  rn.  ill  hi  t  mm  floors  W 

121  Floors  water  pn-of  and  also  inclined  wilh  scuppers  to  carry  oB 

surplus  water  to  sewer  ......Hi 

121a  If  fluor>  ciett-il  .'I  inch.*  in  ttiiel.n.j    deduct  If   for  each  ex  «sa 

inch  (in  adding  to  liy.  1^0  and  121)  

lit    If  grade  floor  flrc-proof  IV^iZ 

128  Each  fire  pro*  if  II.  - -r  ahov,  gn.de  I  not  t  in  i-din^'  a  lolal  Of  4tW)  51 

124  Metallic  studs  and  laihinc,  tlin.in;)euil  10» 

125  MeUllic  lathing  on  w.»len  studs  ■  ■  

126  Pahaflt  Wamj*  en  redinc  one  f.»,t  aL-.ve  f -f  on  all  exposed 

•Idas,  deduct  for  each  foot  In  exceas  of  one  (not  cxeaadlng  ft 
total  of  3ft  « 


Total.. 


127    RATE  OF  BUILDING  UNOCCUPIED.    FonwARD  (ovxn)  . 


127    RATE  ( 


OCCUPIED  Tir>or>:.E!T  F.n.wviuo  . 


A.I.)  lor  ..c.iipvi.  v  n i u Alt',  in  l«,-  il,mn«lul.,.Ml>  1«, 

«w      lb.  mil  iMM/iluuj  ut-uy*n<j  In  u»  bultdlug  i 

12S    RESULT— RATE  OF  BUILDING  OCCUPIED  

DEDUCTIONS  FOR  FIRE  APPUANCES.  ETC.  ON  BUILDINGS. 

1.1.1    One  hydrant  supplied  by  (Much  water  main,  within  .:■•>  feel   fi* 

l.iti    Two  or  i„..r.  in.lrniiu.-  in.  h,  main  uiiinyi         i.<t  lm 

157    Ifaaid  wdi.-r  pi>  I"'  fed  „i  boiuvuds  t-y  LiL-iiu.   .5*;  (15*  io  all) 

Aiilnmnli,  lirT- li'ir m  '< ■  n:  rll  >i i  r  hi..-\j.  |.(    5* 


102    Susiulplpe  internal  with  t 


(if  do  hydrants 


■«  n>  i-nrTi  floor   » 

ll.-l  [Mil  ach  ■!.'■>*< 

■  u  WK)  ft  lOfl  


k  supply   if 

tank  supply    1* 

1«*  "  eslcmi.l  with  M-uru-o  t -.rm,  ct mri  f..r  use  of  fire  drpt   It 

It;,.     Fn.  Ii  -i.k'  it  r.  jr  .uy.  -.-idle  l<>  nr.?  1 1.  |i  t  modulo*  ii,.n  f..r  fr,,fit .  ;.- 
l«(l    Fir.-  d.-parlmcnt  hollae,  engine,  hose  or  h.-.k  ntid  Ud.br,  wltjijn  1IIK)  r. .  1 
if  in  M  .I-  .r  ..r  mi  ,i|.|.miH.  -ii|...  nf  -In  ,  t 

1(17     Base  in.  nt  mid   Ilur  p-rfonitcd  pipe  -.prm I.  l-r*  .         ■  . 

108    Automatic  «|.niihl,  nt  In  In. at,  (no  d.  dm  f  id  Ion   1,  . .  I  .  n 

mnrlo  for  sprinkl.  r.  IhroiiL'hout  luiild u. L- .   fil 

1C9  Occupancy,  en  lu-m  k  bine:  id.mve  trade  floor,  if  one  family  2"* 
110         "  -  00  *  00e  """"^n^p  fmaillM,   is* 

Ul  "  "  "         if  mm  tli.m  two  families   10* 

172  '*  if  tenement  house  above  grade  floor    B* 

173  "  If  buildum  '<'*  opii.l  TliruiiLdiout  i'm  Ih-itHv   f,.r  .  ttl.i  -.-r 

dwelling  and  offices   33* 

174  "  If  occupied  ,  x.  linivt  ly  almvo  grade  floor  for  offices,  or 

ofnc.-S  and  dwelling   10* 

175  Watchman  but  no  watch  clock     f,* 

1  <tt  "        with  ivati-h  cluck  it  id'i  in.  d,  i,  .  mt.          bull  .1,  .1          i,  |,  , 

wBtrliinun,  if  ant  at ic  id.irm  No.  158)    io* 

177     Hoof  liydrnnls  I'toli-i  t..i  fr.Tii  freezing   2* 

17S    Floor  bcami  ii n. !  fifli  r*  self  r-liaMug   If 

179    Auxiliary  private  lire  Hunt,  force  pump,  etc   10* 

Total  Dbdcctioxs  

EXCEPTIONAL  CITY  FIRE  DEPARTMENT— 1 S4  Estra  slean.ers,  U  of  IK  for 
each  one  III  vKcosa  of  live  (not  i-\v.  .din-  n  tilal  of  \"i  I-.;.  \\  in 
tower*,  if  one,  ■:,  if  two.  ,11  1>.«  Fin- t«.at  available  S*.  Wis 
Gmvily  Pressure;  for  each  effective  lire  str.mn  available  nt  risk, 
supplied  hv  n  gravity  pr-  ^nre  of  not  lew  ttinn  40  11m.  nl  tins-  of 
noMte.  by  ludroii  on  -  in,  b  ,.r  lurc-r  nmin.  deduct  H  (not excopdm™  n 
^totnlofiv:  i    If  (1  im  h  i  ,i  on   b-df  deduction. 

Ih.'  ,  II.  1,,  j'.f.-.,  1,1  Ir,.  .  lr,_        I ,  i  .1 ; .  I ,  s,, 

Tot  At. 


1^0    RESULT  — X.  l  r.,l.  ,.f  boil, 

)l{0    EXPOSUHE    If  i,n\   I  i 

lill,,  r  ON  Ft  rtf,  HATION  tilVZARO  . 

181    RESULT— Nlt  IUtKOI  It 


ADD  FOR  FAULTS  OF  MANAGEMENT.  EA! 

HO  If  stovepipes  thnni»li  floors  or  iiariition, 
window,  rr«ifor\mll,  witb  double  nn-lnl  , 
1.00;  entering  bottom  of  Hue  vertically.  .1 


Hi 

143  Until 

144  C'rark-d  or  bulu'i.il  widU,  thin  and  worn  U 
14i  Emjity  boxus.  rubblnli.  etc.,  in  rear  yard, 


t    LT.lt. (■ 


i;>iu  Crowded  . 

FINAL  RATE  ON  I 


,  charges  for  faults  of  management,  etc.) 


Add  amount 
Add  (in  otlie 


TO  OBTAIN  RATE  ON  STOCK. 


x  piibility"  of  the 
oor  on  which  the 


GRADE  FLOOR  STOCKS    ll  s  It  .  v.  bi.iv,  lv  on  L-r.„|.   lb,  „  In  ,„,n  tin  ,1.  |.l    towns  , 

10S;  in  Are  dept.  towns,  d.du.  t  r>1-  if  slm  k  cul.-ndt  onlv  over  »nt  additional 
biineiuenl      si-coinl,  ■  1. 1 J  ll.  t  Hi.  

PUBLIC  WAREHOUSES  mid  Stor:,-,.  Ston-s  BONDED,  ,b  d n.  I  :t:t'  .  ■. 

PUBLIC  WAREHOUSES  mid  Stong,.  S|.,rca  FREE,  .k-du.-t  'J,,, 

PRIVATE  WAREHOUSES    ttn-inul  iitib.okut  jnii.kHL-ft  only,  SOI,    Bftlu  by  sampie  only  IM 
Delivery  of  broken  packages  10*  


138 


Total, 

DEDUCTIONS  FOR  FIRE  APPLIANCES,  ETC.  ON  STOCKS. 


r-pipc  f.  .1  nt  lioib  ."n. Is  by  i 
■untie  tire  i.l'.irni  t,.  ll 


witter-muin  »itbin  :110  ft   4f 

it.  r -muin  within  UUU  ft  0* 

in,  nilditionid   4ji  tHU  in  ulli 

I.Htl„.n  Ni  l  ]!«!,  IS),  IUJ) 

r  ceutnil  Btutlou  6)f 

lepitrtmcnt,  (one  I  ml  f  nllowiuic-  if  no 


Ing  at  each  floor  St 

pints  to  nn  b  'J.  fii.HI  s.iunre 

i  300  ft  ,  101.) 


lie  of  lire-  di-pt  1J 

etion  for  frout)....  !« 
il.  r  witbiu  UlXi  feet.  'J.', 

 w 

lers,  and  utork  be  on 


SOI    Basement  and  sub-cellar  perforated  pipe 

202    Auloimitic  Bprlnkleni  in  bimeinent  mo  deduction  if  allowance  bus  been 


liiude  lor  .[.rinkt.  r-  t b ron flu .m  bniMiiiL-i 
208    Occupanev,  ii.  tu-i vcl v  dwr  lllng  above  lirst 


flnit  floor,  if  one  family...  3U< 


20.5 
20  7 


SOS 


il  luiil,h„L. 

if  ■ 

0»    Watchman  bi 
allow  onli 


if  more  tb.m  two  fnuiili.-s   10* 

if  tenement-bouse  rihov,.  grade  Moor   6* 

egfttdc  floor enlirely  for  olllces,  .'j* 


21  I    R.K.f  hydmut,  ii 


c  detector,  (if  nnlninnllcs  No.  HW. 


Fire 


atrol,  a 


companies  uolbiug  )  111 


EXCEPTIONAL  CITr  FIRE  DEPARTMENT— 

eath  in  exec^.  of  five  loot  exceed     ,  . 
rone.  S.'.t;  if  (wo.  .V;     1>21   Fire  liiut,  .iviiibibb,  ,',(.    22U  (inivilv 
1  r.  — ore;  f„r  ,  ...  b  .H.-etiv-  lire  itr.  uni  nvi.ilut.le  nt  risk  -uj.|.ti.  ,l  by 
I ' ' '    -lire  of  „,,i  b-,-  linin  -111  Hih  tit  bus.  ..f  iii>//I.     I.,  hydrulil 
-  *"  it  larger  n,  d.  iluct     of  K  (not  exceeding  a  total  of"  7  "j*). 


If  nmin  o 


134  RESULT-N.i 


n.  .O.  ,)r  NiU.f 


i  I  St.  mi,. I  nirwl  ttu 
tun  tb*rgs  In  tbi  ulili  I 


134c  AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS— See  rule  page  51  

DEDUCT  FOR   <  CO-INSURANCE  I7<{*  for  80*1 

l:t.5  RESULT— Nm  It.ti,- ..s  st.--R  With  *  Volxirnxycn. ...  ^\\\y 
ADO  FOR  ADVERSE  LEGISLATION,  Tu-ntion  V  ilu.  d  I'ol    lA,vS  130  nase  49 

'•    FAULTS  OF  MANAGEMENT,  if  any,  140  to  154  above  

FINAL  RATE  ON  STOCK -< Including  Co  ins.,  charge*  for  faults  of  management,  eto.). . 


679 

APPLICATION  OF  SCHEDULE.  59 

APPLICATION  OF  SCHEDULE. 
The  following  example  will  illustrate  the  application  of 
the  schedule  : 

Let  us  assume  that  a  building  is  to  be  rated  in 
a  given  citj  and  that,  starting  with  the  charge  for 
basis  rate  of  a  standard  building  in  a  standard 

city,  of   25  cts. 

the  following  additions  thereto  are  to  be  made  for 
variations  of  the  city  from  standard  : 
Waterworks,   direct   pressure  system, 
pumps  by  steam-power,  in  duplicate 

(No.  5)   4  cts. 

Absence  of  standpipe  or  intermediate 
reservoir,  affording  a  supply  in  case 
pumping  machinery  should  not  work 

 (No.  7)   2  cts. 

No  Fire  Marshal  (No.  22)   2  " 

No  building  law  (No.  25)   3  " 

Electric  trolley  railroad  (No.  26)   2  " 

Natural  gas  for  fuel  (No.  28)   2  " 

  15  cts. 

Total   40  cts. 

From  this,  if  auxiliary  steamers  are  provided,  a  de- 
duction would  be  legitimate  of  5$   2  " 

Leaving  the  key-bate  of  the  city  in  which  risk  is 

located   38  cts. 

Let  us  assume  that  to  this  key-rate  should  be  added  for 
deficiencies  of  the  building  to  be  rated  from  standard 
construction,  as  follows : 

"Walls,  not  according  to  standard  (No.  38)    2  cts. 

Slate  roof   (No.  48)    2  " 

Floors,  ordinary  (No.  54)    5  " 

Area   (No.  59)    3  M 

Stairways  (No.  72)  10  " 

Lighting  by  kerosene  (No.  86)    2  " 

Heating,  by  furnace  (No.  87)    3  " 

  27  cts. 


Result,  Rate  of  Building  Unoccdpied  ....  65  cts. 

(Subject  to  deductions  for  any  exceptional  features,  page  45.) 


080 

Co  APPLICATION  OF  SCHEDULE. 

If  at  tbis  point,  for  example,  we  desire  to  obtain  the  rate 
on  a  stock  of  retail  dry  goods,  for  which  tbe  cbarge  in  the 
second  column  of  tbe  table  is  50  cents,  we  deduct  from  tbe 
above  rate  of  65  cents  for  building  unoccupied,  25$  of  the 
deficiency  charges  contained  in  such  unoccupied  building  rate 
of  65  cents  (65  minus  25  equals  40)  or  10  cents  leaving 
55  cents  as  the  key  or  basis  rate  of  the  building  for  rating 
all  stocks  contained  in  it,  and  to  this  key-rate  we  add  the 
50  cents  for  dry  goods  (No.  811  in  table),  making  1.05  as 
the  rate  on  the  stock.  If  the  risk  be  entitled  to  no  other 
deductions  contained  in  the  list,  page  47,  it  may  safely  be 
assumed  that  under  tbe  encouragement  of  tbe  deduction 
No.  196  of  10$,  casks  and  pails  will  be  introduced,  and  tbe 
stock  rate,  therefore,  will  be  10  cents  less,  or  95  cents. 

If,  instead  of  being  in  a  single  occupancy  building,  a 
stock  of  wholesale  drugs  with  compounding  is  also  in  tbe 
building,  the  rate  of  tbe  building  and  dry  goods  will  be  in- 
creased 100  cents,  which  would  make  the  rate  of  the  build- 
ing 1.65  or,  deducting  10$  for  casks  and  pails,  1.49  net. 
Tbe  rate  on  the  dry  goods  would  be  computed  as  follows  : 

To  the  building  rate,  as  above   65  cts. 

Add  for  the  amount  which  wholesale  drugs  increase 

the  building  and  all  other  stocks  therein   100  " 

Result,  occupied  building  rate  (No.  128). . .   165  cts. 
From  which  deduct  25$  of  tbe  deficiencies   10  " 

Result,  key-rate  of  building  for  rating  stocks  155  cts. 
To  which  50  cents  would  be  added  for  dry  goods 

rate,  making  205,  and  85  cents  (No.  806)  for 

wholesale  drugs,  making  240  cents  the  rate  for 

the  latter  stock. 
From  which  deducting  for  casks  and  pails  10$  in 

each  case,  would  give  a  net  rate  for  dry  goods 

of  185,  and  for  wholesale  drugs  of  216. 

Stated  by  way  of  formula  : 

65+100=165  Building  rate. 
165-(40-*-4)  =  155+85  =  240=Drug  rate. 
165-(40-*-4)  =  155+50=205=Dry  goods  rate. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  difference  between  the  rates 
for  the  two  stocks  is  exactly  that  of  the  difference  between 


APPLICATION  OF  SCHEDULE. 


681 
61 


their  second  column  figures  in  the  table  of  occupancies,  i  e  , 
35  cents,  which  measures  their  difference  as  to  susceptibility 
to  damage.  They  differ  also  as  to  "  ignitibility,"  and  '•com- 
bustibility," but  being  under  one  roof  the  Dry  Goods  have 
been  brought  to  this  feature  of  Wholesale  Drugs  by  the 
addition  of  100  cents  (the  first  column  figure  for  wholesale 
drugs,  the  highest  rated  stock)  in  fixing  the  key-rate  of 
the  building  for  all  stocks  in  it. 

Nearly  one- half  of  the  labor  in  the  computation,  it  will 
be  observed,  is  that  of  ascertaining  the  key  or  basis  rate  of 
the  city,  which,  however,  once  obtained  in  this  manner  does 
not  have  to  be  again  computed.  Every  risk  in  the  town 
can  be  rated  by  simply  starting  with  38  ctnts  basis  or 
key-rate  obtained  as  stated.  Before  half  a  dozen  risks  have 
been  rated,  the  deductions  which  are  provided  for  will  be 
understood  without  checking  off  the  list  for  each  risk  ;  and 
the  compilers  believe  that  those  who  regard  the  application 
of  the  schedule  as  an  arduous  task  will  be  convinced  that  it 
is  not. 


FIRE-PROOF  SCHEDULE. 

This  schedule  is  arranged  for  rating  a  fireproof  building 
so  that  the  initial  rate  will  be  that  necessary  to  cover  the 
•wooden  trim,  plate  glass,  decoration,  floor  boards  and  other 
combustible  materials — the  rate  at  this  point  (No.  320)  ap- 
proaching that  for  a  non-fireproof  building.  It  will  re- 
ceive a  lower  rate  thereafter  only  in  proportion  as  the  in- 
surance approaches  the  value,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  table, 
and  in  proportion  as  the  insurance  actually  covers  the  fire- 
proof portion. 

A  building,  for  example,  which  would  rate  86  cents  with 
20%  of  insurance  would  rate  34.4  cents  with  80%  co-insur- 
ance. A  fire-proof  building  which  would  rate  116^ 
with  15%  insurance  would  rate  40  cents  with  80%  co-insur- 
ance. With  15%  insurance  the  company  would  be  liable 
practically  for  the  destructible  portions  of  the  building; 
with  80%  of  insurance  it  would  be  covering  also  bricks  and 
mortar,  iron  beams,  etc. 

The  committee  believe  that  the  comparative  rates  on  fire- 
proof buildings  and  the  stocks  contained  in  them  will  com- 
mend themselves  to  underwriters  as  being  relatively  cor- 
rect. Merchandise  on  a  single  floor  of  a  fire-proof  building 
once  on  fire  would  probably  be  as  thoroughly  destroyed  as 
in  a  non-fire-proof  building.  It  would  have  the  advantage 
of  being  cut  off  horizontally  as  well  as  laterally  from  other 
floors  and  other  buildings,  but  unless  the  floors  are  cut  off 
at  each  story  little  is  gained  and  the  schedule  does  not 
make  material  reductions  in  rates.  Where  the  floors  are 
cut  off  at  each  story,  and  the  policy  covers  merchandise 
on  various  floors,  the  deduction  is  made  at  the  point  for 
co-insurance — obviously  the  correct  place  for  recognizing 
this  feature  of  the  risk,  for  without  co-insurance  the  ad- 
vantage would  pass  to  the  owner. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  deduction  for  80%  co-insur- 
ance on  cne  floor  is  15%,  as  compared  with  30%  deduction 
where  the  policy  covers  four  or  more  floors. 

Stone  Treads  to  Staircases. — These  have  been  charged 


FIRE-1'ROOF  SCHEDULE. 


683 
63 


for,  as  they  are  found  to  be  serious  faults,  the  stone  treads 
yielding  early  in  the  fire  to  fire  and  water.  Where  they  are 
let  into  rabbets  in  an  iron  frame  the  result  is  an  iron  stair- 
case of  holes  which  would  be  impassable  for  the  exit  of  in- 
mates or  the  ascent  of  firemen.  The  new  building  law  of 
New  York  requires  that  the  stone  treads  shall  in  all  cases 
be  supplemented  with  iron  treads  beneath  the  stone. 

Unprotected  Iron  Columns,  Etc. — The  schedule  rec- 
ognizes a  difference  between  cast  iron,  steel  and  wrought 
iron  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  iron  factors  and  other 
experts.  In  a  large  convention  of  iron  factors  held  some 
time  since  in  this  city,  there  was  not  a  dissenting  voice 
as  to  the  superiority  of  cast-iron  in  the  matter  of  rust  over 
wrought-iron,  and  possibly  over  steel.  All  agreed  that 
cast-iron  would  not  rust  to  the  point  of  danger,  but  that 
wrought-iron  would  rust  to  the  point  of  destruction, 
while  steel  had  not  been  tested  a  sufficient  length  of  time 
to  tell  whether  or  not  it  would  be  susceptible  to  the 
danger  of  rust.  This  is  an  important  matter  where  iron 
is  required  to  be  covered  with  incombustible  material, 
preventing  its  examination  from  time  to  time.  The  lire 
in  the  Appleton  Building  some  years  ago,  and  in  the 
Cammeycr  Budding  more  recently,  not  to  mention  other 
tests,  prove  the  superiority  of  cast-iron  pillars  over 
wrought-iron  for  resisting  tire. 


SCHEDULE  FOR  "FIRE-PROOF"  BUILDINGS. 

Standard  Building. — Walls  not  less  than  10  inches  for  the 
upper  25  feet  portion,  thence  increasing  4  inches  for  each  25  feet 
to  the  hottoin  ;  not  exceeding  five  thousand  square  feet  of  ground 
floor  area;  height  not  over  eight  stories;  lloor  beams  and  girders 
to  be  supported  by  masonry,  (if  "skeleton"  construction,  floors 
carried  entirely  by  iron  framework,  see  No.  280.)  Not  to  be  oc- 
cupied above  seventh  Hoor  for  storage  of  merchandise  or  other 
combustible  material  whose  burning  would  injure  the  ironwork, 
see  Deficiencies,  No.  207a.  All  iron  beams,  girders  and  pillars  or 
story  posts  to  be  protected  by  approved  fire-resisting  material,  ex- 
cept in  office  and  hotel  buildings,  in  which  half  charge  for  absence 
of  covering.  If  wrought  iron  or  steel  is  used  in  construction,  that 
portion  of  the  masonry  in  contact  with  the  metal  should  be  free 
from  cement  or  plaster  of  Paris,  and  only  lime  mortar  should  be 
used.  At  least  one  stairway  to  be  fire-proof  with  metal  treads  ; 
stone  treads,  whether  marble  or  slate,  being  dangerous. 

Note— Cast-iron  will  not  rust  to  a  dangerous  point,  but 
wrought  iron,  and  possibly  steel,  especially  where  constructed  on 
the  "Z"  iron  method,  with  riveted  joints,  are  especially  liable  to 
rust  in  the  joints.  Cement  and  plaster  of  Paris  are  absorbents 
of  moisture  from  the  atmosphere,  and  should  never  be  in  contact 
with  iron  or  wood.    Lime  mortar  is  not  injurious. 

285.  KEY-RATE  OF  THE  CITY,  as  ascertained  by 
Schedule,  see  page  13  

2S6.  WALLS. — If  "skeleton"  construction,  i.  e.,  thinner 
walls  and  flows  carried  by  riveted  wrought  iron  or  steel 
posts  or  columns,  charge   5  eta. 

Note. — No  charge  if  the  upright  or  vertical  supports, 
pillars  or  story  posts  be  of  cast-iron.  The  beam-bearing 
brackets  should  be  cast  in  one  piece  with  the  pillar,  and 
not  secured  by  rivets,  which  are  liable  to  rust,  especially 
if  of  wrought  iron  or  steel. 

Skeleton  construction,  while  not  bo  durable  for  weight- 
carrying  purposes,  and  from  a  structural  view  point  (on 
account  of  the  liability  of  vertical  members,  posts,  pillars, 
etc.,  to  rust  when  enclosed),  as  the  old-fashioned  construc- 
tion in  which  all  of  the  weights  are  carried  by  the  brick 
or  stone  walls,  is  yet  only  little  inferior  for  fire-resisting 
purposes,  where  the  iron  members  are  protected  with  in- 
combustible materials. 

287.  WALLS. — If  the  average  thickness  of  the  two  side 
or  bearing  walls  (or  either  of  them)  be  less  than  20  inches 
(obtained  by  adding  the  thickness  of  the  various  stories 
ana  dividing  by  the  number)  charge  for  each  inch  of 
deficiency    2  cts, 

If  any  portion  of  the  wall  be  less  than  12  inches,  double 
the  charge.  The  growing  practice  of  lessening  the  thick- 
ness of  the  walls  of  fire-proof  buildings  in  "skeleton"  con- 
struction is  calculated  to  lose,  in  the  way  of  vertical  fire- 
stops,  all  that  is  gained  in  the  horizontal  fire-stops  of  sep- 
arating fire-proof  floors,  so  that  while  a  building  may  be 
protected  from  a  fire  spreading  throughout  its  own  floors 
it  will  not  be  safe  from  fire  in  an  adjoining  building. 

288.  STONE  FRONTS  OR  SIDE  WALLS.— If  of  stone 
or  of  stone  ashlar,  plain  or  "axed"  finish,  add  1  cent  for  each  ; 

if  carved  or  ornamental,  add   2  cts. 


685 

SCHEDULE  FOR  "FIRE-PROOF"  BUILDINGS.  6<? 

This  charge  may  seem  small,  in  view  of  the  perishable 
character  of  stone  and  the  serious  damage  by  the  joint 
action  of  fire  and  water  to  carved  surfaces,  but  when  is 
taken  into  account  that  the  extra  charge  is  distributed  over 
tir  entire  amount  of  insurance  on  the  building,  and  that 
the  Company  receives  it  on  the  bricks  and  mortar,  and 
iron  work,  as  well  as  on  the  carved  side  and  front,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  charge  is  sufficient,  and  can  reasonably  be 
a  small  fraction  of  what  would  be  necessary  for  the  stone 
side  or  front  itself,  if  its  value  were  the  only  subject  of  in- 
surance. 

289.  WALLS. — If  the  brick  are  not  bard  burned  and  of 
good  quality,  or  if  the  mortar  be  of  poor  quality  for  want  of 
sharp  sand,  etc.,  an  additional  charge  should  be  made  of 

not  less  than     20  cts. 

290.  UNPROTECTED  IRON. — If  columns  and  lower 
flanges  of  iron  beams  unprotected,  charge  as  follows  :  for  un- 
protected cast-iron  columns,.  10;  unprotected  wrought-ironor 
steel  columns,  .15  ;  unprotected  lower  flanges  of  beams,  .02. 

Note.— Half  charge  for  this  in  hotel  or  office  building9 
in  which  there  is  not  enough  combustible  material  to  de- 
stroy the  iron  work. 

Office  buildings  include  partial  occupancy  by  sample  stocks  or 
small  restaur.mts  or  grade  floor  stocks  whose  first  columu  charge 
is  less  than  15  cts. 

All  experts  in  iron  concede  that  wrought-iron  is  certain 
to  rust  to  the  point  of  destruction,  and  is  also  liable  to 
yield  to  heat  and  fire,  and  that  the  durability  and  stability 
of  steel  has  not  yet  been  determined.  Inasmuch  as  all  iron 
members  should  be  protected  by  incombustible  material, 
which  necessitates  concealment  of  rust  conditions,  the 
preference  has  been  given  to  cast-iron  columns.  In  the 
case  of  the  Cammeyer  building  fire  in  New  York,  in  Jan- 
uary, 1899,  6-inch  cast-iron  columns,  as  elsewhere  stated 
(page  37),  stood  the  fire  better  than  brick  piers  with  bond 
stones. 

291.  WOODEN  CEILING.— If  ceiling  of  wood  or 
strawboard  or  other  combustible  material,  add,  according 
to  hazard,  not  less  than  1  cent  for  one  story,  and  %  cent 
for  each  additional  story  

292.  WOODEN  SIDING.  —  If  side-walls  ceiled  with 
wood  or  other  combustible  material  from  floor  to  ceiling 
(no  charge  for  dados),  charge  for  one  story  1  cent  and 
y<2  cent  for  each  additional  story  

293.  AREA. — If  ground  floor  area  exceeds  5,000  square 
feet,  up  to  10,000  charge  for  each  1,000  or  fraction  thereof 

in  excess  of  5,000  %  of    1  ct. 

(If  building  occupied  above  grade  floor  exclusively  for 
offices  or  dwellings,  no  charge  for  area.) 


686 

66  SCHEDULE  FOR  "FIRE-PROOF"  BUILDINGS. 

204.  AREA. — If  ground  floor  area  exceed*  10.000 
square  feet,  charge  for  eaeli  1,000  or  fraction  thereof  in 
excess  of  10,000  (tint  exceeding  a  total  of  40  cents;   4  cts. 

If  mercantile  building  exceeds  10  stories,  double  charge. 

There  is  a  point  at  which  area  in  a  fire-proof  building 
may  become  an  advantage,  rather  than  an  objection.  It 


is  for  this  reason  that  a  limit  of  charge  is  made. 

(If  building  occupied  above  grade  floor  exclusively  for 
offices  or  dwellings,  no  charge  for  area.) 

205.  HEIGHT. — For  each  story  in  excess  of  eight,  up 
to  twelve,  charge   1  ct. 

290.  HEIGHT. — For  12th  and  each  story  over  12  up 
to  15,  charge   3  cts. 

207.  HEIGHT.— For  15th  and  each  story  over  15, 
charge    10  cts. 

297a.  IF  MERC  H  ANDISE  BE  STORED  ABOVE  7TH 
FLOOR,  charge  15  cents,  and  add  2  cents  more  for  each 
floor  over  7th  up  to  lOtli,  and  5  cents  more  for  10th  and 


each  (loor  above  10th.     For  example:   an  eleven-story 
building  would  have  29  cents  added. 

It  probably  requires  no  explanation  or  argument  to 

state  that  the  storage  of  merchandise  at  a  greater  height 

above  the  street  than  seven  stories,  or  85  feet,  where  a  fire 

department  would  experience  difficulty  in  handling  a  fire, 

would  be  an  added  hazard,  not  merely  to  the  merchandise 

so  located,  but  to  all  other  materials  in  the  building,  and 

to  the  structure  itself. 

298.  FLOORS. — Wooden  floor  boards  laid  solid  on  con- 
crete without  air  space,  10  cents;  if  with  air  space,  15 
cents  (office  buildings  one-half). 

Standard  construction  would  be  incombustible  asphalt 
or  concrete  floors,  without  any  wooden  floor  boards  what- 
ever. A  nailing  strip  can  easily  be  inserted  around  the 
border  for  fastening  carpets  or  other  floor  covering. 

298a.  FLOOR  ARCHES. — If  concrete,  cement  or  ap- 
proved plaster  composition  floor  arches  with  iron  centres 


or  supports  (such  as  Metropolitan,  Roebling,  Expanded 
Metal,  Fawcett,  Columbian,  Bailey,  Guastavino,  Rapp  arch 
construction,  etc.)  (no  charge  for  segmental  arches  of  brick, 
burnt  clay  or  terra  cotta)   10  cts. 

If  on  exposed  corrugated  iron  centres   15  cts. 

If  flat  arch  supported  on  iron  (such  as  Rapp's  flat  type). .  20  cts. 

If  space  between  iron  floor  beams  exceeds  5  feet,  for  each 
foot  in  excess   2  cts. 

N.  B.    One-half  these  charges  in  office  or  hotel  buildings. 


The  best  floor  arch  is  the  old-fashioned  brick  segmental 
arch  properly  bonded  ;  it  will  successfully  resist  the  pas« 


SCHEDULE  FOR  "  FIRE-PROOF  "  BUILDINGS. 


6sr 
67 


sage  of  flame  and  heat.  Tile  arches  of  well-burned  clay 
rank  second  to  brick,  but  are  not  equal  to  brick  arches, 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  properly  laying  them,  which 
involves  the  danger  of  carelessness  and  indifference  on  the 
part  of  masons,  and  because  of  the  danger  of  fractures. 
Some  of  the  patent  floor  arches  are  good  in  their  way,  but 
none  of  them  is  equal  to  brick  or  tile. 

299.  E LEVATORS. — If  not  in  shaft,  according  to  the 
standard,  but  in  hallway,  or  enclosed  court,  or  if  provided 

with  approved  automatic  trap-doors  in  floors,  charge   6  cts. 

(Office  or  hotel  buildings  one-third  charge.) 

300.  ELEVATORS.    If  open  from  floor  to  floor  and 
varying  from  above,  charge   12  cts. 

(Office  or  hotel  buildings  one-third  charge.) 

301.  ELEVATORS. — If  shaft  is  sheathed  or  lined  with 
wood  (unless  covered  with  tin  or  galvanized  iron,  or  en- 
closed as  above),  charge  (one-half  charge  for  office  build- 
ing)   15  cts. 

If  elerator  and  stairway  are  combined  and  contained 
in  the  same  shaft  or  opening,  make  only  one  charge  for 
the  two.  For  each  additional  elevator  not  cut  off  add  2 
cents. 

302.  STAIRWAYS. — If  not  enclosed  according  to  the 
Btandard,  but  in  separate  hallway  or  shaft  enclosed  by 
lath  and  plaster  partitions  with  self-closing  spring  doors 
at  each  floor,  or  automatic  trap-doors  in  floors,  charge  (no 
charge  in  building  occupied  ab  ve  grade  floor  exclusivdy  lor 
offices  or  dwellings)   5  cts. 

(If  charge  has  been  made  for  299,  800  or  301  one-half 
charge.) 

303.  STAIRWAYS.— If  the  enclosure  is  of  wooden  par- 
titions instead  of  lath  and  plaster,  with  self-closing  doors 

at  each  floor,  charge   10  cts. 

(If  charge  has  been  made  for  299,  300  or  301  one-half 
charge. ) 

304.  STAIRWAYS.— If  open  staircases  from  floor  to 
floor  throughout  building,  charge  not  less  than  1  cent  each 

floor  not  exceeding  a  total  of   12  cts. 

If  office  building,  not  exceeding  total  of   4  cto. 

(If  charge  has  been  made  for  299,  300  or  301  one-half 
charge. ) 

For  each  additional  stairway  add  one-fourth  charge. . . . 

305.  STAIRWAYS.— If  at  least  one  stairway  is  not 
fire-proof  with  metal  treads  (no  charge  for  hard  wood  treads 
over  iron),  charge  as  many  times  .02  as  the  building  has 
floors  (one-third  charge  for  office  building).  If  stairway  in 
fire-proof  hall  or  enclosure  protecting  stone  treads  from 
heat  one-half  final  charge. 

A  destructible  Btaircase  with  stone  treads  may  result  in 
Jiie  destruction  of  a  building  otherwise  fire-proof.  Where 


68 


SCHEDULE  FOR     FIRE-PIiOOF  BUILDINGS. 


etone  treads  are  used,  they  should  rest  upon  an  iron  tread, 
which  would  keep  the  stone  in  place  for  a  footing  when 
cracked  or  pulverized  hy  heat.  Stone  treads  of  marble  or 
slate  are  often  laid  into  the  rabbets  of  the  iron  frame,  and 
are  supported  simply  around  their  edges.  Such  treads 
would  easily  yield  to  fire,  and  falling,  would  punch  out  the 
treads  below,  endangering  firemen,  and  prove  a  delusion 
and  snare  to  all  who  attempt  to  use  them.  They  should  be 
prohibited  by  law,  and  are  now  prohibited  by  the  building 
law  of  New  York,  but  in  no  other  city.  A  building  having 
one  safe  staircase  escapes  charge  No.  305,  but  it  is  a  ques- 
tion if  a  building  so  protected  should  not  be  charged  some- 
thing additional,  if  it  has  an  unreliable  stone  staircase,  even 
though  it  may  have  in  addition  a  safe  one. 

306.  WELL-HOLES,  HATCHWAYS,  ETC.— If  not 
provided  with  self-closing  traps,  add,  according  to  size, 

for  each  lioor  pierced,  not  less  than   3  cts. 

(No  charge  for  ollice  building.) 

307.  WOODEN  CHUTES,  DUMB-WAITERS,  VEN- 
TILATING SHAFTS,  BELT  HOLES  and  openings 
through  iloors  for  steam  and  water  pipes,  etc.,  tend  to  the 
rapid  spread  of  fire  and  smoke  throughout  the  entire 
building,  and  should  be  charged  for  according  to  size,  not 

less  in  any  case,  for  each  floor  pierced,  than. . .    2  cts. 

Note. — No  charge  need  be  made  for  openings  for  steam 
and  water  pipes  if  the  space  around  the  pipes  is  filled  in 
with  mineral  wool,  asbestos  or  other  incombustible  ma- 
terial, to  prevent  draughts. 

The  chief  merit  of  a  fire-proof  floor  is  the  prevention  of 
flame  passing  from  one  story  to  another.  This  advantage 
is  lost  if  the  stories  are  connected  with  wooden  chutes, 
dumb-waiter  shafts,  or  even  with  channels  in  the  wall  for 
the  passage  of  electric  light  wires,  gas,  water  and  other 
pipes. 

308.  SKYLIGHTS. — If  more  than  three  feet  square 
(nine  square  feet),  add  for  each  nine  square  feet  or 
fraction  thereof  in  excess  (not  exceeding  a  total  of  10 
cents.)    1  ct. 

(If  metallic  frames  and  heavy  deck  or  prismatic  glass 
or  wire  glass,  no  charge.) 

309.  SKYLIGHTS.— If  covered  above  aDd  below  with 
approved  wire  netting,  one-half  charge  

310.  STREETS. — If  street  on  which  building  fronts  is 
less  than  60  feet  wide  from  building  to  building  (i.  e., 
including  sidewalks),  and  not  less  than  50,  add  (unless 
opposite  side  of  street  is  vacant)   2  cts. 

311.  STREETS. — For  each  5  feet  less  than  50  in  width, 
unless  opposite  side  of  street  is  vacant,  add   2  cts. 


SCHEDULE  FOR     FIRE-PROOF  BUILDINGS. 


69 


312.  OVERHEAD  WIRES,  TELEGRAPH,  ETC.,  on 
poles  in  front  of  building  in  sufficient  number  to  interfere 
with  operations  of  fire  department,  charge  according  to 


313.  NUMBER  OF  TENANTS  (other  than  office  and 
dwelling  tenants.) — For  each  tenant  in  excess  of  one,  add    1  ct. 

313a.  MANUFACTURING  RISKS.— Charge  1  cent  for 
every  10  operatives  employed  in  excess  of  20  not  exceeding 
a  total  of  10  cents  in  risks  where  first  column  charge  does 
not  exceed  25  cents,  and  double  this  amount  in  wood  work- 
ing and  other  hazards  where  first  column  charge  exceeds  25 
cents,  but  not  exceeding  a  total  of  25  cents.  

This  charge  is  probably  self-explanatory,  and  corresponds 
with  10Gb.  non-fire-proof  structures. 

314.  LIGHTING. — If  by  electricity  with  system  and  in- 
stallation in  compliance  with  underwriter's  rules  and 
specifications  (if  not  in  compliance,  sec  No.  888,)  add   1  ct. 

315.  STONE  PIERS,  stone  columns,  pillars,  or  brick 
piers  with  bond  stones  or  cap  stones,  carrying  important 
weights,  especially  if  supporting  beams  or  girders  in  base- 
ments, cellars,  etc.,  charge  according  to  number,  not  less 

than    2  cts. 

Note  that  the  charge  for  pillars,  piers,  etc.,  is  for  those 
carrying  important  weights,  especially  in  cellars  where 
they  could  not  be  reached  by  the  fire  department.  Where 
pillars  are  located  on  the  street  front,  are  simply  ornamen- 
tal, and  carry  only  stone  lintels  for  porches,  and  are  not  at 
all  vital  to  the  structure,  they  should  not  be  charged  for. 

316.  TOTAL  DEFICIENCIES  PLUS  KEY-RATE. . . . 

DEDUCTIONS  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CONSTRUCTION. 

317.  FLOORS. — If  fire -proof  surfaces  of  cement,  con- 
crete or  asphalt,  deduct   5  % 

318.  FLOORS. — If  water-proof,  arranged  with  •wnstc- 
ways  and  scuppers  and  inclined  to  carry  off  surplus  water 
ihrown  by  department  to  sewer  or  street,  deduct   5  % 


319.    FIRE-PROOF  WOOD,  OR  OTHER  FIRE-PROOF 


320.  RESULT . — UNOCCUPIED  BUILDING  RATE. 

321.  OCCUr ANCY. — Add  one-half  amount  named  in 
first  column  of  table  of  occupancies,  page  143. 

322.  RESULT. — OCCUPIED  BUILDING  RATE. 
Subject  to  any  deductions  to  which  risk  may  be  entitled, 

Nos.  340,  341,  etc.,  page  73. 

Deduct  for  Exceptional  City  Fire  Department,  page  47, 

323.  EXPOSURES.— Charge  for  exposures,  according  to 
hazard,  especially  if  ''skeleton"  construction  and  even  if 
the  exposure  is  sufficient  only  to  damage  paint,  glass, 
etc.    (See  note,  page  39.) 

324.  RESULT. — NET  RATE  OF  BUILDING  OCCU- 
PIED AND  EXPOSED. 

Subject  to  deductions  for  Sprinklers  (see  rule,  p.  51)  and 
Co-insurance, 


quantity  not  less  than 


y2  ct. 


TRIM,  deduct 


5;. 


090 

7©         CO-INSURANCE  ON  "FIRE-PROOF"  BUILDINGS. 

325.  CO-INSURANCE  ON  "FIRE- PROOF"  BUILD- 
INGS.— For  insurance  not  exceeding  15%  of  the  value  of 
building,  charge  full  rate  obtained  by  the  Schedule  at  No. 
324.  For  any  percentage  of  value  in  excess  of  15%  take 
the  rate  as  shown  in  the  following  table: 

(For  explanation  of  Table  see  page  112.) 

326.  RESULT. — RATE  OF  BUILDING  OCCUPIED 
WITH  %  CO-INSURANCE  

No  office  building  to  be  rated  below  5  cents  and  no 
mercantile  building  below  10  cents  after  deducting  for 
co-insurance. 

(To  which  add  for  any  faults  of  Management.  Page  76.) 


RATE  , 
No.  314  of 

PERCENTAGE  OF  INSURANCE  TO  VALUE. 

UniTerwl 
Srh.dule.*  1 

20  <fo 

30  <fo  |  40  $ 

5°  $ 

60  $ 

70  % 

75  % 

80  io 

90  <f> 

100  % 

cents. 

cents. 

cents. 

cent9. 

cents. 

cents. 

cents. 

cents. 

cents. 

cents. 

i5cts. 

I2-95 

I0.35 

8.67 

7-45 

6.52 

5-77 

5-46 

5-16 

4.63 

4.20 

1 0 

II.04 

9.24 

7-95 

6.96 

6.16 

5.82 

5-50 

4-94 

4.48 

17 

« 

I4.67 

n-73 

9.82 

8.44 

7-39 

6-54 

6.18 

5-84 

5-25 

4.76 

I  o 

(« 

15.53 

12.42 

IO.40 

8.94 

7-83 

6-93 

6-55 

6.19 

5-56 

5  °4 

r9 

CI 

16.39 

13. 1 1 

IO.98 

9.44 

8.26 

7-31 

6.91 

6-53 

5-87 

5-32 

20 

(( 

17.26 

13.80 

II.56 

9.94 

8.70 

7.70 

7.28 

6.88 

6.18 

5.60 

2  I 

u 

I8.I2 

14.49 

12.13 

^0.43 

9-r3 

8.08 

7.64 

7.22 

6.48 

-  DO 
5.88 

2  2 

CI 

18.98 

15.18 

12.71 

10.93 

9-57 

8-47 

8.00 

7-56 

6.79 

0.  IO 

23 

II 

I9.84 

15-87 

13.29 

".43 

10.00 

8.85 

8-37 

7.91 

7.10 

6-44 

24 

(( 

2O.7I 

16.56 

I3-87 

1 1.92 

10.44 

9.24 

8-73 

8.25 

7.41 

6.72 

25 

C( 

K 

21-57 

17-25 

14-45 

12.42 

10.87 

9.62 

9.10 

8.60 

7.72 

7.00 

26 

22.43 

17.94 

15.02 

12.92 

n. 31 

10.01 

9.46 

8-94 

8.03 

7.28 

27 

l( 

23-3° 

18.63 

15.60 

i3-4i 

11.74 

10.39 

9.82 

9.28 

8-34 

7-56 

28 

<« 

24.16 

1932 

16.18 

!3-9! 

12.18 

10.78 

IO.19 

9-63 

8.65 

7.84 

29 

<« 

25.02 

20.01 

16.76 

14.41 

12.61 

11. 16 

IO-55 

9-97 

8.96 

8.12 

3° 

ci 

25.89 

20.70 

17-34 

14.91 13.05 

II-55IO-92|io.32 

9.27 

8.40 

35 

(1 

30.20 

24-15 

20.23 

17.39 15.22 

13-47 

12.74 

12.04  10.81 

9.80 

40 

(( 

34-52 

27.60 

23.12 

19.88^7.40 

15.40  14.56  13.76 

12.36 

11.20 

45 

«( 

38.83 

3J-05 

26.OI 

22.36 19.57 

17.32 

l6.38,i5.48  13.90 

12.60 

5° 

It 

43-15 

34-5° 

28.90 

24.85 

21-75 

19.25 

I0.20  17.20 

15-45 

14.00 

55 

11 

47-46  37-95 

3!-79 

27-33 

23.92 

21.17  20.02 

18.92 

16.99 

15-40 

60 

II 

51.78  41.40  34.68 

29.82  26.10 

23.10  21.84 

20.64 

18.54 

16.80 

65 

(< 

56.0944.85 

37-57 

32.30  28.27 

25.02 

23.66 

22.36 

20.08 

18.20 

70 

<« 

60.41 

48.30  40.46|34.79'30.45 

26.95 

25.48 

24.08 

21.63 

19.60 

75 

(< 

64.71 

51-75 

43-35 

37.26  32.61 

28.86 

27.30 

25.80 

2317 

21.00 

80 

(1 

69-°4  55-20 

46.24 

39.76  34.80 

30.80 

29.12 

27.52 

24.72 

22.40 

S5 

C4 

73-35  58-65l49-I3  42.24 

36.97 

32.72 

30.94 

29.24 

26.26  23.80 

90 

II 

77.67  62.10  52.02 

44-73 

39-15 

34-65 

32.76 

30.96 

27.81 

25.20 

95 

it 

81.9865.55 

54-91 

47.21 

4i-32 

36.57 

34o8 

32.68 

29-35 

26.60 

too 

IC 

86  30,69.00 

57.80  49.7043.50 

38.50 

36.40 

34-4o 

30.90  28.00 

"N.  B.--For  any  intermediate  rate  combine  two  of  above;  for 
example,  the  rate  of  31  cents  would  be  that  for  15  cents  and  10 
added;  the  rate  for  32  would  be  double  that  for  10. 

For  example,  if  the  rate  be  SO  cents  and  the  percentage  of  in- 
surance carried  (percentage  co-insurance  claxise  in  the  policy)  is 
50%  the  rate  will  be  50%  of  80,  or  30.70  cents.  If  the  rate  at 
No.  324  be  50  cents,  for  00%  co-insurance  the  rate  would  be  44% 
©f  50  cents,  or  21.75  cents,  etc.,  etc, 


691 


7i 

TO  OBTAIN  RATE  ON  STOCK  IN  FIRE-PROOF 

BUILDING.  cts. 

Unoccupied  Building  Rate,  No.  320  

Add  the  sum  named  in  the  second  column  of  the  table 
of  occupancies,  page  WW  

Add  one-half  the  amount  named  in  the  first  column 
for  the  slock  to  be  rated   

Add,  in  case  there  be  any  other  occupancy  of  building 
which  increases  the  rate  of  the  building  by  a  greater 
amount  named  for  the  first  column  of  the  occupancy 
table  than  the  risk  to  be  rated,  one-half  the  difference 
between  such  higher  figure  and  that  named  for  the 
risk  (for  example,  retail  drugs  adding  10  cents  to 
building,  and  a  cigar  store  adding  5  cents,  half  the 
difference,  iVz  cents,  should  be  added  to  the  stock 
rate  on  cigars)  

If  the  higher  rated  or  excess  hazard  be  separated 
from  the  stock  to  be  rated  by  fire-proof  partitions  or 
floors,  deduct  io','  of  the  excess  charge  for  each  sepa- 
rating fire-proof  floor  or  partition  not  exceeding  fifty 
per  cent,  in  all  of  such  excess.  For  example,  in  the 
case  cited,  if  five  such  separations  occur,  50,,'  of  the 
lYi  cents  excess  of  retail  drugs,  or  \%  cents  only, 
should  be  added  to  the  cigar  rate. 

Note.— The  final  charge  under  this  item  should  be  made  for 
Hint  occupancy 'Which  gives  tlie  highest  result,  and  not  lor 
each,  occupancy  whose  first  column  charge  is  greater  than 
stock  to  be  rated  (the  higher  charge  includes  the  less). 

If  Merchandise  is  stored  above  the  7th  Floor, 

add  to  the  rate  of  each  slock  in  the  building,  no  mailer 
on  what  floor  located,  as  many  times  three  cents  as 
the  building  has  stories  in  height  

(For  example,  in  a  10-story  building  occupied 
throughout  for  mercantile  purposes,  30  cents  would 
be  added;  in  an  11-story  building,  33  cents,  etc.) 

Merchandise  should  not  be  stored  at  a  greater 
height  from  the  street  grade  than  85  feet,  even  with 
the  best  fire  department.  At  that  height  it  is  liable 
to  wreck  the  building  and  affect  every  stock  in  the 
building,  as  well  as  the  building  itself,  see  Note  297  a. 

Stocks  Above  or  Below  Grade  Floors. — Charge  as 
many  times  5  cents  as  the  floor  on  which  stock  is 
located  is  stories  above  the  fourth  or  bei.ow  the 
grade.  If  distributed  over  two  or  more  floors  for 
same  assured,  and  with  80^  co-ins.,  and  cut  off  each 
story,  three-fourths  of  average  charge. 

For  example,  merchandise  on  the  fifth  floor 
should  pay  5  cents;  on  the  sixth  floor,  10  cents; 
seventh  floor,  15  cents;  on  all,  30  cents;  average  10 
cents,  three-fourths  of  which,  7^  cents  (if  cut  off 
each  story),  is  the  proper  charge  for  same  stock  cover- 
ing these  three  floors. 

5rade  Floor  Stocks.— Deduct  for  stock  entirely  on 
grade  floor,  2or;;  if  on  second,  deduct  lo#;  if  stock 
extends  over  grade  and  second,  deduct  I5<;  if  on 
:rade  and  also  floors  below  grade,  deduct  5  %.   


Forward '. 


72 


RATE  ON  STOCK  IN     FIUE-PROOF  BUILDINGS. 


Brought  forzvard.  

Public  Warehouses  and  Storage  Stores  Bonded, 
complying  with  rules  of  Local  Board,  deduct  33%#. 

Public  Warehouses  and  Storage  Stores  Free,  25 . . 

Private  Warehouses. — Original  unbroken  packages 
only,  20,e.  Sales  by  sample  only,  15^.  Delivery  of 
broken  packages,  io^  

327  

Subject  at  this  point  to  any  deductions  to  which  risk 

may  be  entitled,  No.  357,  &c. ,  page  74  

Deduct  for   Exceptional  Fire   Department,    if  any, 

page  50  

Add  for  Exposure  according  to  hazard  

329.  Result. — Kate  of  Stock,  subject  to  Sprinklers  and 

Co-Insurance  

329a.  Automatic  Sprinklers. — See  rule,  page  51. 

330.  Co-Insurance  on  Stocks  in  fire-proof  buildings,  if 

policy  covers  only  one  floor,  or  more  than  one  but 
not  cut  off  at  each  story,  %  of  1%  for  each  T%  of  co- 
insurance in  excess  of  20;,'  of  value  (1558  for  80C).  If 
policy  covers  two  floors  cut  off  at  each  story,  20^; 
three  floors  cut  off  each  story  25^;  four  or  more 
cut  off  a.1  each  story  30^  for  8o£. 

In  order  to  entitle  a  stock  to  the  deductions  above 
15$  for  co-insurance  for  floors  cut  off  at  each  story 
the  enclosure  must  be  of  fire-proof  material,  with 
self-closing  doors.  If  with  heavy  wood  doors  and 
heavy  glass  sashes,  increase  the  15^  allowance  one- 
third  of  the  difference  between  1 5^  and  the  maxi- 
mum credit  for  standard  cut-offs,  to  which  stock 
might  be  entitled  according  to  the  number  of  floors 
upon  which  it  is  located.  If  the  doors  be  metal  cov- 
ered or  kalameined,  but  are  not  thoroughly  standard, 
or  have  wood  sills,  or  do  not  fit  openings  closely,  in- 
crease the  15^  allowance  two-thirds  of  the  difference. 
Deductions  for  80^  co-insurance  clause  by  above 


rules  are  as  follows  : 

Stock                         Wood  Non-Standard  Standard 

Distributed  Over                Doors.  Fire  Doors.  Doors. 

2  floors                    l6§^  iS^  20$ 

3  "                         18^  2I§2  25# 

4  "      or  more       20^  25^  30^ 


No  stock  to  be  rated  below  15  cents. 

Note. — In  rating  stocks  in  fire-proof  buildings,  it 
shouldbeborneinmindthat.nomatterhow  fire  - proof 
a  building  may  be,  there  is  no  more  reason  why  the 
combustible  merchandise  or  contents  of  any  one  of 
its  stories,  once  ignited,  should  not  be  effectually  de- 
stroyed than  there  is  why  the  fuel  in  a  stove  should 
not  be  consumed.  So  far,  therefore,  as  stocks  in 
fire-proof  buildings  are  concerned,  the  only  advan- 
tage of  a  fire-proof  building  over  one  of  ordinary 
construction  is  to  protect  its  contents  against  outside 
exposures  and  to  confine  a  fire  to  a  single  floor  or 
room — a  consideration  which  makes  it  exceedingly 
important  to  insist  upon  co-insurance,  especially 


Forward. 


BATE  ON  STOCK  IN     FIRE-PROOF  BUILDINGS. 

Brought  forward .  

where  the  policy  covers  throughout  the  entire  struct- 
ure. Otherwise  a  company  may  be  as  effectually 
carrying  a  numberof  separate  risks  for  one  premium 
as  if  insuring  the  contents  of  a  number  of  separate 
brick  stores  under  one  sum.  Under  some  circum- 
stances, merchandise  in  the  upper  stories  of  a  fire- 
proof building  might  be  a  poorer  fire  risk  than  on 
the  grade  floor  of  an  ordinary  building. 

331.  Result.— Rate  011  Stock  with  ..     Co  Insurance  

Add  for  Faults  of  Management,  page  76  

Minimum  Rates. — No  office  building  to  be  rated  below 

5  cents  and  no  mercantile  building  below  10  cents, 
and  no  stock  below  15  cents,  after  deducting  for  co- 
insurance and  sprinklers. 

332.  Jewelry  in  Safes  with  full  co-insurance  in  fire-proof 

buildings  may  be  insured  at  25  %  more  than  the  rate 
of  building  occupied. 

DEDUCTIONS  FOR  FIRE-PROOF  BUILDINGS. 

340.  Hydrants,  Etc.— If  building  within  300 

feet  of  one  post  or  flush  hydrant,  sup- 
plied by  8-inch  or  larger  water-pipe, 

deduct  4?of  final  bldg 

rate.  (322  ) 

341.  "  If  within  300  feet  of  two  or  more  hy- 

drants, supplied  by  8-inch  or  larger 

water-pipe,  deduct  6%      "  " 

342.  "  If  said  water-pipe  be  fed  at  both  ends 

by  mains  or  sub-mains,  deduct  an 

additional  4#      "  " 

343.  Automatic    Fire    Alarm.— For  ap- 

proved telegraph  signal  to  a  central 
or  fire  department  station,  with  ther- 
mostats, deduct  5Jo      "  " 

343a.  Special  Building  Call  Direct  to  Fire 
Department,  with  approved  tele- 
graphic call  box  each  floor,  deduct  2  %      "  " 

(One-half  allowance  if  no  watch- 
man ) 

344.  Stand-Pipes — External,  for  use  of  fire 

department,  with  Siamese  or  double 

connections,  deduct  2%      "  " 

Note  — This  provision  important, 
as  it  saves  time  of  carrying  hose  to 
the  top  of  a  high  building. 

345.  Stand-Ripes— Internal,  supplied  from 

tank,  with  hydrants  and  hose  attached 

at  each  floor  at  landings,  deduct  1%      "  " 

346.  Basement  and  Sub-Cellar  Sprinklers. 

If  perforated  2%  inch  pipe  be  provided 
in  basement  and  sub  cellar,  with 
attachment  at  street  grade  for  fire  de- 
partment, standard  size  of  thread  and 
coupling,  and  standard  butt  and  with 
waste-ways  to  sewer,  deduct  2^      "  '* 


Forward . 


694 

74  DEDUCTIONS  FROM  BUILDING  RATI:,  NO  322. 

Brought  forward  

347.  Automatic  Sprinklers  in  Basement 

and  sub-celars.  If  approved  instal- 
lation, deduct  (no  deduction  if  allow- 
ance has  been  made  for  sprinklers 

throughout  building)   5  £  of  final  bldg. 

rate  (322.) 

348.  Office  Occupancy.—  If  building  occupied 

throughout  exclusively  for  offices,  de- 
duct 20%     "  " 

349.  "  If  building  occupied  above  grade  floor 

exclusively  for  offices,  deduct  10^     "  " 

350.  Roof  Hydrants,  protected  from  freez- 

ing, deduct    1  £     "  " 

351.  Casks  of  Water  or  filled  pails  (at  least 

six  filled  pails  to  each  2,500  square 

feet  of  floor  area),  deduct  5  %      "  " 

352.  Watchman. — Tf  watchman  (on  prem- 

ises) with  watch  clock,  deduct  10  £     "  " 

N.  B.  —  I  f  automatics.  No.  343  only 
one-half  deduction  for  watchman. 

353.  Auxiliary  Private  Fire  Plant,  Force 

Pump,  Etc. ,  available  for  day,  night 
and  holidays  ;  stand-pipe,  hose  at- 
tached at  each  floor;  competent  en- 
gineer on  hand  at  all  times,  deduct. ...  10  £     "  " 
(This  In  addition  to  344,  345  and  352.) 


Deduct 
cts. 


TOTAI 


DEDUCTIONS  FROM  STOCK  RATES,  FIRE-PROOF 
BUILDINGS. 

The  following  deductions  for  exceptional  features  may 
be  made  from  the  rate  on  stocks  obtained  by  the  rule  ex- 
plained on  page  71.  The  percentage  to  be  deducted  is  the 
percentage  of  the  said  total  stock  rate  (No.  327): 

357.  Hydrants,  Etc. —  If  building  within  300 
feet  of  one  post  or  flush  hydrant,  sup- 
plied by  8-inch  or  larger  water-pipe, 

deduct  4  %  of  final  stock 

rate  (327.) 

35S.  "  If  within  300  feet  of  two  or  more 
hydrants,  supplied  by  8-inch  or  larger 
water-pipe,  deduct   i>%      "  " 

359.  "  If  said  water-pipe  is  fed  at  both  ends 

by  mains  or  sub-mains,  deduct  an  ad- 
ditional 4  %      "  " 

360.  Fire  Patrol. — For  salvage  corps  or  fire 

patrol,  if  supported  by  city,  deduct...  3%      "  " 

If  supported  by  the  Insurance  Com- 
panies, no  deduction.  (Having  paid 
for  it  they  are  entitled  to  it.) 


Forward , 


G95 

DEDUCTIONS  FROM  STOCK  RATE,  NO.  327.  75 

Deduct 

Brought  forward   cts. 

361.  Covers,  Tarpaulins. — If  merchandise 

covered  by  tarpaulins  or  other  water- 
proof covers  each  night,  deduct   5  %  of  final  stock 

(These  covers   may  be  made  fire-       rate  (327. ) 
resisting  by  fire-proofing  processes.) 

362.  Proximity  to  Fire  Engine  House, 

Etc. — If  risk  to  be  rated  is  within  300 

feet  of  a  fire  engine  house  or  hose  house, 

which  should  insure  prompt  response 

of  skilled  men  to  any  fire  alarm,  deduct,  2%      "  " 

If  next  door  or  opposite  side  street.. . .  5$  " 

363.  Basement  and  Sub-Cellar  Sprink- 

lers.— If  perforated  2^2-inch  pipe  be 
provided  in  basement  and  sub-cellar, 
with  attachment  at  street  grade  for  fire 
departmen  t  with  standard  size  of  thread 
and  coupling,  and  standard  butt  and 
with  water-ways  to  sewer,  and  mer- 
chandise be  on  skids,  deduct   2  <?<,      "  " 

364.  Automatic  Sprinklers  in  Basement 

and  sub-cellars.    If  approved  installa- 
tion, deduct   5  %     "  " 

(Unless  deduction  has  been  made  fur 
sprinklers  throughout  building,  in 
which  case  no  allowance  for  this.)  .. 

365.  Casks  of  Water  or  filled  pails  on  each 


floor,  deduct   5  % 

Note. — To  receive  above  deduction 
there  must  be  at  least  6  filled  pails  for 
each  2,500  square  feet  of  floor  area. 

366.  Tin-Covered  Cases. — If  merchandise  be 

kept  in  tin-covered,  wooden  side-wall 
and  other  cases,  deduct    5  % 

367.  Office  OccnpailC}'. — If  building  above 

grade  floor  is  occupied  entirely  for 
offices,  deduct   5  % 

368.  "  If  offices  and  dwelling  10% 

369.  Watchman. — If  watchman  on  piemises 

but  no  watch-clock,  deduct   5  % 

370.  "  If  watchman  on  premises  with  watch 

clock  or  electric  detector,  deduct  io% 

Note. — One-half  deduction  if  auto- 
matic alarm  No.  374. 

371.  Stand -Pipes — Internal,  supplied  from 

tank,  with  hydrants  and  hose  attached 

at  each  floor  at  landings,  deduct   r  % 

372.  Stand-Pipes— External,  for  use  of  fire 

department,  with  Siamese  connections, 
deduct   2  % 

373.  Chemical  Engines  on  Wheels.— If  one 

or  more  chemical  engines  are  available 
in  case  of  fire,  deduct   5  % 


Forward. 


696 

7  6  DEDUCTIONS  FROM  STOCK  RATE,  NO.  327 

Brought  forward    

37-4.  Automatic  Alarm. — For  approved 
automatic  fire  alarm  telegraph  signal 
to  a  central  station  or  lire  dept.  station 

with  thermostats,  deduct   5  £of  final  stock 

(rate  327.) 

374a.  Special  Building  Call  Direct  to  Fire 
Department,    with    approved  tele- 
graphic call  box  each  floor,  deduct...  2  %      "  " 
lOne-half  allowance  if  no  watchman.) 

375.  Skids. — If  merchandise  on  skids  or  plat- 
forms, deduct  2^      "  " 

370.  Auxiliary  Private  Fire  Plant.  Force 
Pump,  Etc.,  available  for  day,  night, 
and  holidays  ;  6tand-pipe,  hose  at- 
tached at  each  floor;  competent  en- 
gineer on  hand  at  all  times,  deducts,^  "  " 
(This  in  addition  to  339,  871  and  372.) 

377.  Floors  arranged  for  carrying  off  water 

with  scuppers   5^       "  " 

Total.  . . 

ADD  FOR  FAULTS  OF  MANAGEMENT,  IF  ANY. 

380.  If  bottom  of  elevator-shaft  is  used  for  store- 

room, coat  closets  or  lamp  and  oil  closets, 
charge  10  cts. 

381.  Swinging  gas  brackets  unprovided  with  stops, 

or  within  36  inches  of  wood  work  overhead, 
or  otherwise   unsafe    (ditto  as   to  bracket 

lamps),  for  one,  add  not  less  than   5  " 

For  each  additional  one  add  1  cent. 

382.  Untidiness,  as  to  rubbish,  ashes,  etc.,  especially 

in  cellar,  charge  not  less  than  10  " 

383.  Empty  boxes,  rubbish  and  barrels  in  rear  yards 

or  alleys    2  *' 

384.  Lights  in  show  windows,  open  or  unprotected..  5  " 

385.  Sawdust  spittoons  or  sawdust  on  floors,  espe- 

cially in  drug  and  oil  stores   5  " 

356.  If  kerosene  is  used  on  floors  when  sweeping  10  " 

357.  Ash  and  waste  cans  to  be  of  metal.    If  not, 

charge  10  " 

388.  If  lighted  by  electricity,  with  system  and  instal- 

lation not  in  compliance  with  board  rules,  or 
in  unsafe  condition,  or  if  arc  lights  be  not  pro- 
vided with  wire  or  metallic  screens  above  and 
below,  or  tight  globes  to  prevent  fall  of 
carbons,  charge  25  " 

389.  Crowded  Mdse.  without  proper  aisles  opposite 

or  too  near  windows,  not  less  than   5  " 

FOR  RATING  COMBINED  FIRE-PROOF 
AND  NOM  -  FIRE  -  PROOF  BUILDINGS 
WITHOUT  STANDARD  CUT-OFFS.  See 
rule,  page  94. 


Deduct 
cts. 


RATING  SLIP.-FIRE-PROOF  BUILDINGS. 

Inspected  by  


UNIVERSAL  MERCANTILE  SCHEDULE. 


Stock  of  in.  JStory.„. 

Ins.  Map,  Page  ...  Block   City  of  __. 


-Street, 
—Bld£. 


KEV-RATE  OF  CITY  See  page  13)  

WALLS  -  2«6  Pkei.eto*  Co  same  en  on,  wrought  Iron  or  steel  columns  or 

TertlC&l  Supports  {nt  i\argt  fe*  tail  ircn),  c bar «c     .  .   OS 

287    If  average  thickness  of  two  side  or  hearing  (or  either  of  them) 

less  Iban  iYi  Inch.  -  charge  for  r*.  11  rsrn  ■!>  fluency  09 

If  any  portion  of  wnll  leis  tlntri  Vi  inch.-,  double t he  charge   

*"°   Stume  Fuonth  on  Side  Wamj,  or  veneered  with  stone  ashler,  charge 


ed"  finish  .01;lf  c 


so.,  fi 


for  each  if  ,  

2S9  Poon  Buicks  or  po_. 
UNPROTECTED  IRON— 290    I'lmriju  as  follows,  for  u 
umns  .10;  unprotected  w  n.iiL'ht  iron  or  ateel  co 

lower  flanges  of  tennis  

CEILING  OR  SHEATHING'   iVu  '  '  \'\  ".1J".'r"Ur^'l^  ,',?]' 

less  than  .01;  each  additional  story  'j  cent  

20i    Wood  or  stravvUiitnl  sililMi.unr'turv  ul;  inch  additional  story  W 

ARE* — (Ground  floor  )  ft.  X  ft-  Total 

2118   5.000  s.)  fi  to  lii.ooo.  .  tiF,rL-..-  f„r  n„  h  1.000  in  ckccss  i 
204    If  over  10.000  Bq   ft  charge  for  each  1,000  Id  excess  or  iu.wu(not 

ei  coed  log  a  total  of  .40)   04 

If  mercantile  building  i  m ■.  uls  |.  n  stories,  double  area  charge, 
^    If  building  octupl«l  oicluiivelv  iboto  grade  floor  Tar  officii*  or  dwelling*  no  efcsigo 

HEIGHT — (  .  ,  .Stories)  205    For  each  story  over  eight  up  to  twelve,  charge  .01 

290    F,  ir  twelfth  and  esi  h  story  river  twelve  up  to  fifteen  03 

297     For  lift.-r  iii.l  ,-■„  h  -ir.ry  in-,  r  fifteen    1(1 

MERCHANDISE  ABOVE  7th  'flOoW— °^iaririUM7o,\ind°  ad'PoS  more  for 
each  floor  over  seventh  up  to  tenth,  sod  .05  more  for  leiiih  mid  each  ilo-.r 
above  tenth.     For  cssmplc-      riWrn-itorr  bonding  would  turs  mtddfd. 

FLOORS— Silt    Wholes  Ki  ...  a  IIoaiu.-  b,id  -..lid  ..n  concrete  wit!  t  nir 

^spaoc  .10;  with  air  space  15    (one-balf  charge  in  office  buildings)  

(such  as  Metropolitan,  Itoebllng,  Expanded 


299a  Floor  i 
Metal.  Fat 


:.  Columbian, 


i  .So.. 


ELEVATORS— 299    N..1  cut  off  according  to  sLimhird.  but  In  hallway  or  en- 
closed court,  or  if  provi.l.  d  "  iilt  itnT. .inai !<■  trip  doors,  charge  00 

800  Opeo  It 

301    Wooden  shaft  of  approved  metal  ctneniJi;  half  charge)  15 

For  each  additional  elevator  not  cut  off,  add  02 

8TAIRWAYS-302  "  Kim  \.,'-"'\  m  \v...Vi  i.it'lV'.oid"  pia-ler"  hallway,  or  provided 

with  unliirnallc  (ran  doors  in  floors  05 

:t«:l    Km  li.-  d  j.,  w.-hI  with  m  lf  i-I.isIiilt  doors  eur-h  floor  10 

804    Open,  charge  1 1 ■  - T   I.      Mem   "I  ,  .  Ii  II. mr,  n..|  evenling  a  total  of  .12 


805    If  at  least  nm 


:,  oolr  uar  ctiSigcTor 
eta  I  treails  under 
charge  fur  hardw.-nl  trends  <  .vcr  iri.ni,  charge  as  many 
ling  has  floors  (one  third  charge  for  office  building).  If 
eJiili  .Mire  proti-L-tiiig  tr.  tuU  fr.iin  heat,  one. 

less  than   08 


stairway  In  fire  proof 
half  final  charge. 
WELL -HOLES— 3011    Arid  f..r  each  floor  pierced. 

CHUTES.  DUMB-WAITERS,  VENT,  SHAFTS ?unles9U<fire" proof  shaft),  and  small 
floor  openings— 307  ^  For  each  floor  pierced,  not  less  in  each  ease  t.ban  .02 

■KYUSriVS— 80S  If  of  thin  glass  (less  tlum  ^-inch;,  orlf  unprotectod  wooden 
frames,  charge  for  inch  0  bii .  ft  In  csccss  of  9  s.j.  ft  (not  exceeding  a 
total  of  .101  01 

STREET— iiii/r'lf  -ir. 


n  which  huildir.L-  InmLi 


-r  unr-bit/cturgc. 
than  60  feet  wlilc  but 


811     If  under  .'H)  fi  et,  add  f..r  earb  .r.  feet  less  02 

WIRES  1112  Uverln-ad  to  iiilerfere  with  Are  df-pt.  not  leas  than  ..  Cent 
TENANTS— HI 8    Each  In  excess  of  one,  exclusive  of  i.ttlce  ami  dwelling 


i  add  .01  for  every  10  operatives  employed  In 


LIGHTING — ;l  14    Electricity,  approved  (if  unsafe  see  No  38S)odd  

STONE  PIERS-Illo    Stone  column*,  pillar*,  or  brick  piers  with  bond  »l 
'  .charge  it 


Total  Dkpk  if-nctes  Plcs  It  kv- Rate  

DEDUCT  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CONSTRUCTION. 

e -proof  [li-,r  surfaces  of  cement,  concrete  or  asphalt .  . .  .St 
carry  off 


'  and  Incllued  with  scuppers  I 


818  Floors  ■ 

819  Fire  proof  wood-work,  trim,  etc  BH 


822    RESULT— RATE  OF  BUILDING  OCCUPIED 


DEDUCTIONS  FOR  FIRE  APPLIANCES,  ETC.  ON  BUILDINGS. 

Tmaln,  within  800  ft.  ii 


342     If  s.-iid  water  pipe  be  fori  nt  both  ends  by  mains  .  41  (10*  in  nil 

843  AutomiiM.  lire  ularui.  ti  ll  trnipiile  aiyaal  to  centrul  station  or  tire 

dcpikrtmeDi  house  6J 

343a  B«eU  building  call  direct  to  Are  department  (one-half  allow. 

844  Stand  pi  j..,'  e.vf.-rrinl  with  -himese  "connection,"  forusoof  'lire 


84S    If  buil.lin-  orcii 

both  

849      If  in.  lipir.l   .  M/l 

ll.'il)  ](.-,(  Iivdmnls  pr.it. Tt.'.l  fr.nn  to.  . -in 
831     fask-o'f  water  or  fill.. I  pill-...,  ,„-|,  ii 

floor 


I  dwellings,  or  i ■'■'I.,  above 


332  If  wal.  Lilian  ... 
833    Auxiliary  priv; 


uvwlnble  at  , 
than  4U  M--  : 

main,  d.-tupt 


(6  j-  ol-  to  2500  sq.  ft. 

 -■  with  rlo.  k  or  electric  del  - dor.  .  K1 

fin-  plant,  force  pump,  etc  


r  r  ,       |...  ;,ri 


322 


e  of  buil.llng  occupied,  unexposed 
■y,  add  according  to  haxan)  


323  EXPOSURE-If. 
328*  AUTOMATIC  SPR1NKERS— See  rule  page  81  

324  RESULT— Net  rate  building,  occupied  and  exposed.  FoirwajiD.. 


824    NET  RATE  OF  BUILDING  OCCUPIED  AND  EXPOSED.    Bi.oooht  FonwABD 
825   CO-INSURANCE  ON  "FIRE. PROOF"  BUILOINGS. 

L"c.^I.n^1?*  °'.,.ho  Taluo  °r  building,  charge 


A  INL-  J.-l 


f.ill  uUl.,li„-i  l.y  H„..  S,  InO,,!,  „ 
of  value  ia  excess  of  lOi  take  the  (o 

v,  ■  f.,r  2^1  •  <>i  viii ut.  .„:  „,  ,,„.  rJ: ;  f„r  ;,v:        nt  4— 

(-  Ml-.  .I  T.  f,,r  (III;  i)M.  f,,r  ,mj.;  2HT  -,-,,„  fll„„wil  , , 
will  snow  the  proper  rut*  fur  any  percentage  of  co-insurance8 


l'f 


UN  TAG 


;iLjL 

4o*|  50  « 

'-  55 

7, 

etuis' 

"cVr.r." 

r  nr." 

'.V-  '■ 

>°  35 

7-45 

u  5. 

5-75 

5-4<S 

"nio 

[3  Si 
14.6) 

1  1  04 

7-95 

6.96 

6.16 

5.82 

5-sC 

49' 

4.4S 

17  II 

H-73 

9..>. 

B  44 

7-39 

fi-54 

6.18 

5.84 

5-aS 

4.76 

'5-53 
ifi.39 

8.94 

7-83 

6-93 

fi-55 

6.19 

S 

5  "4 

19  II 

13.11 

10.9I 

9.44 

S..H 

7-3' 

6.91 

6  5 

5  s; 

1  T.3( 

13.8c 

[I.5< 

9.94 

8.70 

7.70 

7.28 

6  .  v- 

6.18 

5.60 
5  SS 

14.49 

1  2. 1 

10.43 

9  13 

8.08 

7.64 

7.22 

6.4> 

18,98 
10.54 

15.18 

10.93 

9-57 

8-47 

8.00 

7.56 

6.79 

6  16 

23  1. 

•5-S7 
1656 

1  -'  :' 

11.43 

8.8 j 

8.37 

7.91 
8  J5 

7  10 

6,44 

20.71 
"-57 

11.93 

10,44 

9.34 

8-73 

7-41 

6.7; 

»5 

36  " 

17.35 

10.87 

9.10 

S.60 

7.7  a 

7.00 

"■43 

"7  94 

1 5.0  j 

& 

11.31 

9.46 

8-94 

8.05 

7.28 

27  " 

? ;  V: 

18.63 

n.74 

10.39 

9.82 

9.28 

8-34 

7-56 

38  " 

24.16 

19-3' 

1 

13-9" 

10.78 

10.19 

963 

8,65 

7.84 

8.12 

39  j 

o-o: 

14.41 

I2.6l 

10.55 

8.96 

^°  , 

25  «<) 

30.70 

14.91 

13-05 

"t 

10.92 

10.32 

9.37 

S.40 

3S  (" 

30.20 

24.15 

17-39 

15.22 

13-47 

12.74 

13.04 

10.8] 

9.80 

34  5* 

23." 
■&OI 

19.88 

17-40 

154- 

14.56 

13.76 

'2.36 

45  " 

3105 

".3° 

19.57 

10.3*. 

15.48 
17.30 

13.90 

12.60 

50  J! 

43<  >i 

34-5° 

34.85 

"-75 

s 

1545 

60  " 

47.46 

37-95 

31-79 

37-33 

'.5.5  J 

18.92 

16.99 

15.40 

51-78 

;L  0-; 

41.40 

34-68 

39.83 

6,io 

21  S.) 

20.64 

18-54 

ib  A So 

fis  " 

H.Sj 

37-57 

5  -'-30 

Z8.27 

-'300 

22.36 

18.20 

70 

60.41 

|8  ia 

34-79  30.45 

26.95  as.48 

.4  06 

"63 

75  " 
So  " 

6-t  71 

5i-75 

43-35 

37. 2632.6! 

27.30 
29,12 

: 5  So 

»3  i? 

69.04-55.20 

46.34 

39-76  34  «o 

30.80 

27.52 

=4-7  = 
26.1  (, 

22,40 

85  " 

is 

■s"5 

19.  T  3 

43.24 

94 

29.34 

'3  80 
25-ao 

90 

-7-67  62.10 

44-73 

30.96 

27.81 

95  " 

Bl-98,65-55  54-9J 
36.30I69, 00  57.80 

49  7^ 

ja.68 
14-49 

39.35 
30.90 

26.60 
28.00 

82«  RESULT-Kaii: 


Bdtldino  Occupied  With.  . 
ADO  FOR  FAULTS  OF  MANAGEMENT  I 


i  Co -Insurance.  . 


.  h  additional. . . . 
Untidiness,  rubbish,  ash. 
Empty  boxes,  rubblsb,  el 

:_  '"■  Id  show -«  mili.iws, 


.'(Ho  Sawdust 


Afti  iiinl  wnilc  rung  not  metal  

Ltoctrie  lighl  swem  fiml  inslidlalion  not  : 

writers'  rules,  or  urc  lights  unprotciiid 
(  nm. lid   ni.  riliiii.il-,.    without    proper  ni 


cents  after  all  dd  in  m.i,-  n,  i",  j  j,  -      in.','"  ,]     J        ,         " '^antili-  building  below  1 


TO  OBTAIN  RATE  ON  STOCK  IN  FIRE-PROOF  BUILDING. 

RATE  OF  BUILDING  UNOCCUPIED,  No,  320... 


to  of  the  buiklinp 
i  tban  the  risk  to 
it  named  for  the 
ar  itoro  adding  6 
a  cigars)... 
.ml  by  lir.  1 


in.c  Mr, 


.,  _  .jo  ea~v 
druga,  or  l'f 


STOCKS  ABOVE  OR  BELOW  GRADE  FLOORS— 


If  distributed  ov» 
'  each  story,  three- 


PUBLIC  WAREHOUSES  ai 
PUBLIC  WAREHOUSES  ai 
PRIVATE  WAREHOUSES- 


IMS  T' 


DEDUCTIONS  FOR  FIRE  APPLIANCES,  ETC.  ON  STOCKS. 

Hydrants;  if  one,  supplied  by  fvinch  water  main,  within  300  fl 


)fl.. 


W'au  r  pipe  fi  ll  ill  tii'lh  ends  by  mains  ml.  1 11'h  >n 
ISIJO  Kir.  (.■1ii..l,upp.'ri,,ll.y,.„y,ul  by  insurance  companies,  nothing),  81 
1101  If  nicrehuuiliM'  ,.>v.rod  by  tarpaulin  covers,  ea.  h  iiiirln  OX 
3(12  Proximity  lo  lire  ib-purl  lu.  nl  (.toti-.n,  li„-e  .'.r  book  mid  linliler  ixrilse ■  it 
o«o    1.  ""h"' f'''!;  n,'xl  'l""r  "r  '"'  "PI>"-'<-  M.le  r.f  sired  'fi? 

.1.1     J.^,m.  nt  riinl  -ul.  i-.-lbir  p.  rf..r..t..l  pip,-  sprinklers,  if  ^...N ....  skids  « 
8«4    Auioioiilio  simrikk-rs  111  l.,es,u,„„r  ,,„,  ,i,d„,  ti..n  if  al],,«ilhl-,.        u,  n 
mude  f..r  s|irinkli  rs  dir.. , rein, ul  building)  5* 
H(i,>    tasks. ,f  wnler  or  lilbd  puils  u.t  1,  ust  six  lillnl  V„A,  lo  eaeb  V  oou  Si  ,,ltii  e 

feet  of  floor  area)   H  » 

IIIHI    Mi  r.  l,:i,,.li-..-  in  iin  covered  cases   M 

8(17    If  building  occupied  enUuly^bove  gr,„|o  lioor  for  offlceg.  M 


Ulill    VViiK  li iiuiij  but  no  watcil -clock, 

870  Wtttchiuan  ivilb  wmeli  .  loek  or  electric  del 

allow  only  ,!,  deduelion  for  walcliman). 

871  Standpipe,  int,  riuil,  will,  l  ink  supply 

872  "  external  with  sinm.-se  coi.iiwtioi 
1(78    If  one  or  mure  elioriiicul  engiac-B  on  wheels. 
U'.i     A,H,,i,,iilie  lire  alarm  li>  lire  depuniui-iii 
Ill-la  Spei-l.il  bnil.lii.i;  t-ill  direct  to  tire  deprirlun 

watcliruan)  

875    Ifraerehan.il,..  on  wki.ls  or  platforms  I)  inch', 
siiiary  private  fire  plant,  foreo  ptiniyi 


III,-.  . 


877   Floors  arranged  \ 


t    balf  rdlowniice  If  11 

 a 

hicli,  deduct  2 

scuppera  for  carrlng  off  water. ! ! ! ', '. 5 
Total  


EXCEPTIONAL  CITY  FIRE  DEPARTMENT — 210   Extra  steamers, 
each  one  In  excess  of  Ave  (not  excoc  " 
Water-to wi  r.  H  one,  a1.*;  it  two,  6%. 

221n  Gravity  Procure;  for.neli  etleetive  tire  stream  available  ..  1,. 
supplied  by  u  L'ravu,   |,r,-a„ir,-  of  not  1,-ss  tban  40  lbs.  at  base  of 
by  hydrant  on  «-ineb  or  lare-  r  main,  deduct  K  of  If  (not 


Extra  steamers,  if  of  if  f„r 
tag  a  total  of  mi  la  all).  220 
221    Fire  boat,  available,  6< 


If  0  inch  ^ 


1  one-half  deduct  io 


RESULT— RATE  OlJ  STOCK  EXPOSED! 


INSURANCE— I  f'po^cy 
ory.  '4  of  1<  for  each  1*  of  c 
y  covers  two  floors  cut  oj?  at  1 
mure  tut  e/fat  each  story  80% 


ily  one  floor,  or  more  thaji  "one  bi 

i-unuice  >i,  e.veeis  „l  Jll:[  of  value-  iio> 
li  ^ry,20<;  thret.  floor.  <u, 


331  RESULT— Net  IUtb  on  Stock  With  %  Co-ljfsrjiuacB. . 

ADO  FOR  FAULTS  OF  MANAGEMENT,  tF  ANY.   B80  etc  above 
E»«LBATE  ON  STOCK-.  Including  eo-im.  .  charges  for  faults  of  maaaWnwot.  < 


1  after  all  deduction's  Including '  ( 


HISTORY  AND  ANALYSIS 

OF  THE 

Universal  Mercantile  Schedule. 

By   F.  C.  MOORE, 

Chairman  of  the  Universal  Schedule  Committee. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  explain  to  Underwriters  that  by 
"  schedule  rating"  is  meant  a  specific,  accurate  measure 
from  the  view-point  of  advantage  or  disadvantage,  by  a 
scale  of  insurance  rates  or  prices,  for  every  feature  of  a 
building  and  its  contents,  of  construction,  occupancy,  fire 
resisting  or  extinguishing  provisions,  and  also  of  its  environ- 
ment or  surroundings  ;  involving  in  the  latter,  consideration 
of  such  features  as  the  liability  of  the  city  in  which  the 
building  is  located  to  conflagrations  ;  the  width  and  grade 
of  its  streets  ;  its  previous  fire  record  ;  its  Police  and  Fire 
Departments,  and,  in  fact,  every  consideration  which  an 
ideal  underwriter,  supposedly  possessed  of  the  knowledge 
and  experience  combined  of  all  engaged  in  the  business, 
would  take  into  account  in  fixing  a  rate. 

Inasmuch  as  natural  sectional  jealousies  exist  between 
citizens  of  one  city  or  State  as  compared  with  another,  and 
between  different  citizens  of  the  same  city,  and  inasmuch 
as  such  jealousies  lead  frequently  to  adverse  legislation,  it 
is  obviously  expedient  that  rates  throughout  the  United 
States  should  be  made  upon  one  and  the  same  basis,  to 
say  nothing  of  the  honest  duty,  paramount  to  the  rule  of 
business  expediency,  which  devolves  upon  underwriters,  to 
treat  all  of  their  customers  equitably  and  alike,  in  no  case 
placing  the  burden  of  one  class  on  the  shoulders  of  another, 
by  a  system  of  "  robbing  Peter  to  pay  Paul." 

CAN  AN  INSURANCE  SCHEDULE  BE  UNIVERSAL 
IN  ITS  APPLICATION  ? 

If  it  be  a  fact — and  probably  no  one  will  gainsay  it — that 
a  risk  located  in  a  section  where  the  most  favorable  con- 
ditions and  loss  ratio  justify  low  rates  of  premium — trans- 


608 


ported  bodily  by  some  process  to  a  locality  of  the  worst  loss 

ratio  and  conditions,  would  still  be  a  risk  deserving  of  as 
low  a  rate  except  for  hazards  of  its  new  environment  and 
such  local  conditions  as  ought  easily  to  be  discovered  by  an 
intelligent  observer  on  the  ground  and  charged  for,  then  it 
must  follow  that  if  a  thousand  risks  transported  in  this 
manner  to  a  new  location  should  be  found  to  show  a  greater 
mortality  than  in  the  old,  the  cause  for  the  excess  loss 
should  be  looked  for  in  the  new  location  and  would  be 
clearly  outside  of  the  hazards  themselves.  If,  however,  the 
mortality  should  remain  the  same,  but  a  thousand  risks 
constructed  in  the  new  location  after  the  same  model  should 
show  a  greater  mortality  than  the  transported  risks,  any 
intelligent  investigator  would  look  for  the  cause  in  the  new 
risks  themselves,  and  would  probably  discover  it  in  defective 
bricks  and  mortar  or  other  faults  peculiar  to  the  place  and 
therefore  endemic  or  purely  local. 

No  small  portion  of  the  adverse  legislation  in  force 
to-day  on  the  statute  books  of  the  various  States  has 
grown  out  of  real  or  suspected  invidious  discrimination  as 
to  localities.  If  the  man  in  Texas  is  rated  by  the  same  rule 
as  the  man  in  New  York  or  New  England  he  is  satisfied. 
It  has  been  wisely  said  that  the  average  man  is  not  so  much 
exercised  as  to  what  rate  he  has  himself  to  pay  for  insur- 
ance as  to  what  "  the  other  fellow  "  pays.  A  business  man 
does  not  like  to  make  a  poor  bargain  ;  he  feels  especially 
dissatisfied  if  a  rival  in  his  own  line  of  trade  makes  a  better 
one  ;  and  if  his  rate  is  higher  than  that  of  his  business 
competitor  he  must  be  convinced  that  there  is  a  good  reason 
for  it.  A  dry-goods  merchant  in  St.  Louis,  for  example, 
visits  Chicago  or  New  York,  and  returns  to  his  fellow- 
citizens  with  a  statement  that  he  finds  a  dry-goods  stock  in 
a  brick,  metal  roof  building  in  the  city  visited  is  rated  at 
one-half  the  rate  which  he  himself  pays  ;  the  fact  so  briefly 
stated,  is  regarded  as  sufficient  evidence  of  the  need  of 
interference  by  the  Missouri  legislature. 

The  description  "a  brick,  metal  roof  building"  is  as  far 
as  the  average  layman  usually  gets  into  those  features  oi  a 
risk  which  enter  into  the  consideration  of  rate.  If,  when  he 
complains  of  unequal  rating,  he  can  be  shown  the  items 
which  make  not  only  his  own  rate,  but  his  own  city,  differ 
from  the  one  with  which  he  has  compared  his  risk,  he  will 
be  answered,  if  not  convinced 


699 


It  was  claimed  by  some  critics  that  a  schedule  could  not 
be  prepared  which  would  properly  rate  risks  in  all  parts  of 
the  country.  The  Committee  believed  otherwise,  holding 
that  local  reasons  could  be  found  everywhere  for  abnormal 
losses,  either  in  faults  of  construction,  defective  materials, 
deficiencies  in  fire  departments,  or  other  physical  features. 

Said  a  critic  on  one  occasion,  who  had  not  read  the 
schedule,  "  You  cannot  make  a  schedule  which  will  rate  in 
Connecticut  and  also  in  the  South,  where  we  lose  two 
dollars  for  every  dollar  lost  in  the  North." 

"  But  why  ?  "  was  the  answer. 

"  Because  the  construction  and  other  features  in  the 
South  are  so  inferior  to  those  of  the  North." 
"  Name  them,"  was  the  reply. 

"  Well,  in  the  South  it  is  customary  to  sheathe  side 
walls  and  ceilings  with  wood,  generally  inflammable  yellow 
pine,  in  place  of  the  old-fashioned  and  safer  plaster  of  the 
Northern  building.  A  fire  is  not  only  more  likely  to  start 
with  so  much  wood-work,  but  more  likely  to  get  beyond 
control.    It  is  a  bad  feature  of  Southern  risks." 

"  Granted,"  was  the  reply.    "  What  else  ?  " 

"Well,  in  many  portions  of  the  South  the  bricks  and 
mortar  are  of  poor  quality,  causing  the  spread  of  fires  from 
building  to  building." 

"  Granted  ;  what  else  ?  " 

"  Well,  on  account  of  the  heat  of  the  climate  the  build- 
ings in  the  South  are  constructed,  as  a  rule,  with  air  spaces 
or  blind  attics  next  the  roof,  which  are  objectionable, 
because  if  a  fire  gets  into  them  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
extinguish  it." 

"  Granted  ;  what  else  ?  " 

"  Well,  I  think,  the  colored  servants  in  many  localities 
are  careless  with  ashes  in  wooden  boxes  and  barrels." 

"  Granted  ;  the  same  fault  is  to  be  found  in  the  North, 
however.    Do  you  think  of  anything  else  ?" 

"  No,  not  at  this  moment." 

"Well,  the  Schedule  treats  of  each  of  the  faults  you 
have  mentioned,  which  ought  to  be  charged  for  wherever  met 
with — North  or  South — and  it  provides  for  some  others 
cpiite  as  important.  Let  us  see.  Take,  for  example,  a  good 
brick  building  which  would  rate  at,  say,  50  cents  in  Con- 
necticut or  Massachusetts,  with  none  of  the  faults  referred 
to.     Let  us  take  a  similar  building  in  the  South  and  see 


how  the  schedule  would  handle  it.  If  it  has  wooden  sheath- 
ing on  side  walls  and  ceiling,  for  one  story  the  charge 
would  be  10  cents,  and  for  each  additional  story  6  cents,  so 
that  if  only  two  stories  were  so  finished  the  rate  instead  of 
being  50  cents  would  be  66  cents,  quite  an  increase — nearly 
a  third  more — but  not  more  than  it  is  worth.  The  charge 
is  the  same  for  this  feature  everywhere,  however,  North  as 
well  as  South,  and  the  fault  is  to  be  found  in  the  North, 
although  not  so  frequently  as  in  the  South. 

"  If,  to  proceed  with  the  illustration,  the  building  has 
defective  bricks  and  mortar  in  the  walls  the  charge  is  20 
cents,  but,  if  in  its  flues,  20  cents  more  ;  the  rate  is  now 
106.  If  there  is  an  air  space  of  say  3  feet  next  the  roof,  9 
cents  is  added,  making  115,  and  if  the  elevator  shaft  or 
stairway  opens  into  this  roof  space  making  it  worse  in  case 
a  fire  starts  below  (a  fault  you  did  not  mention)  25  cents 
more  is  added.  If  ashes  are  kept  in  wooden  boxes  or 
barrels  25  cents  is  charged.  So  that  without  going  further, 
the  Schedule  has  increased  the  original  rate  of  50  cents 
materially  but  not  more  than  it  should,  no  matter  where  the 
risk  is  located.  In  a  certain  Southern  town  a  property 
owner  erected  a  building  of  the  best  burned  brick,  bringing 
a  vessel  load  of  them  from  the  North  for  the  purpose. 
Why  should  his  rate  not  be  40  cents  lower  than  that  of  his 
neighbors  whose  structures  would  hardly  stand  a  good  rain 
storm  ?  If  his  carefulness  is  not  recognized  not  only  will 
injustice  be  done  him  but  his  example  will  not  be  followed." 

NECESSITY   FOR  A   PRINTED   LIST  OR 
SCHEDULE  OF  CHARGES. 

The  mere  fact  that  there  are  more  than  a  hundred 
features  of  construction  in  a  single  building  which  should 
enter  into  the  consideration  of  its  rate,  irrespective  of  nearly 
forty  features  of  its  city  or  environment,  nearly  forty  more 
different  features  of  fire  appliances,  to  say  nothing  of  more 
than  a  thousand  possible  hazards  of  occupancy;  and  the 
further  fact  that  no  individual  knowledge  is  equal  to  the 
task  of  putting  a  price  upon  so  many  items,  nor  any  indi- 
vidual memory  capable  of  remembering  them,  proves, 
without  further  demonstration,  the  necessity  not  only  of 
conference  to  secure  combined  knowledge  for  fixing  prices 
but,  also,  a  printed  record  or  schedule,  to  prevent  omissions 
or  mistakes. 


701 


In  1891  a  committee  of  four  underwriters  was  appointed 
to  prepare  a  schedule  for  rating  mercantile  risks  which 
should  be  universal  in  its  application  throughout  the 
country.  Early  in  their  deliberations  they  reached  the 
conclusion  that  such  a  schedule  should  be  formulated  upon 
the  following  lines,  and  that  it  should  recognize  : 

First.    A  standard  of  environment — the  city. 

Second.    A  standard  of  construction — the  building. 

Third.  An  addition  for  the  ignitibility  and  combustibility 
features  of  occupancy. 

Fourth.  An  addition  to  all  three  of  these  to  get  the  rate 
of  any  damageable  contents  {incidentally  this  latter  to  be 
varied  in  buildings  which  are  not  standard,  because  there 
should  be  less  difference  between  the  rate  of  the  building 
and  of  its  contents  in  buildings  of  poor  construction  than  in 
buildings  of  standard  construction?) 

Fifth.  An  allowance  on  both  building  and  stock  for  excep- 
tional features  of  fire  extinction,  proximity  to  hydrants, 
engine  houses,  automatic  fire  alarms,  etc.,  this  being  necessary 
to  recognize  the  obvious  difference  between  two  risks  of  the 
same  construction  and  occupancy  even  in  the  satne  city. 

They  decided,  further,  that  those  faults  of  management 
which  lead  to  fires  (more  than  50  per  cent,  of  the  amount 
paid  by  Insurance  Companies  in  each  year  being  due  to 
preventable  causes)  should  be  penalized — in  most  instances 
to  the  point  of  prohibition — and,  in  order  to  save  the  labor 
of  computing  net  deductions  in  case  these  faults  should  be 
afterwards  corrected  or  removed  (as  in  99  cases  out  of  100 
they  would  promptly  be  if  roundly  charged  for)  they  placed 
these  charges  outside  of  the  schedule  proper  as  final  addi- 
tions to  the  rate,  after  all  deductions  for  fire-extinguishing 
appliances,  co-insurance,  etc.,  had  been  computed. 

The  Schedule  prepared  by  this  Committee,  now  known 
as  the  "  Universal  Mercantile  Schedule,"  thus  recognizes 
in  its  plan  of  arrangement  : 

First.  A  key-rate — as  to  which  various  cities  and  towns 
differ. 

Second.  Charges  for  variations  from  standards  of  con- 
s-t-ruction — which  ought  to  be  the  same  everywhere. 

Third.  Charges  for  hazards  of  occupancy — which  ought 
to  be  the  same  everywhere. 


702 


Fourth.  Charges  for  insuring  contents  according  to  their 
susceptibility  to  damage — which  ought  to  be  the  same  every- 
where. 

Fifth.  The  variation  of  these  charges,  according  to  the 
construction  of  the  building.  Clearly  the  same  amoutit  should 
not  be  added,  even  for  the  same  stock,  to  two  different  build- 
ings where  one  is  an  exceptionally  good  building  and  the 
other  an  exceptionally  poor  one  ;  there  should  be  more  differ- 
ence between  the  building  and  stock  rate  in  the  one  case  than 
in  the  other. 

Sixth.  The  treatment  of  fire  extinguishing  facilities, 
proximity  to  hydrants,  etc.,  for  the  particular  risk  rated, 
according  to  circumstances  ;  it  being  clear  that  if  the  risk  is 
within  reach  of  hydrants,  steam  engines,  etc.,  and  on  an  eight- 
inch  or  larger  water  main,  it  should  rale  differe?itly  from 
another  of  like  kind,  even  in  the  same  to7vn,  if  the  other  risk 
be  not  so  fortunately  located. 

The  preparation  of  this  Schedule  occupied  the  constant 
labor  of  the  Committee  for  nearly  two  years,  and  it  was 
not  finally  promulgated  until  after  it  had  been  submitted,  in 
six  successive  proofs,  issued  months  apart,  to  underwriters 
throughout  the  United  States,  Canada  and  England,  whose 
suggestions  were  finally  considered  in  two  conventions,  one 
held  in  Hartford  and  the  other  in  New  York,  the  latter 
being  largely  attended  by  underwriters  from  various  sections 
of  the  country. 

Their  first  "proof"  of  the  schedule  was  a  short  form 
intended  to  facilitate  the  easy  rating  of  risks,  without  much 
detail,  but  they  soon  found  lhat  any  schedule  which  did  not 
penalize  every  fault  of  construction  and  encourage  each 
meritorious  feature  of  construction,  fire  prevention,  and 
extinction  would  not  only  fail  to  secure  improvements  but 
would,  in  effect,  penalize  the  good  by  encouraging  and  pro- 
tecting the  bad,  and  prove  detrimental  to  the  best  interests 
of  the  insurance  business  and  of  the  public  as  well.  Faulty 
architecture  is  clearly  encouraged  by  any  system  of  insur- 
ance which  does  not  charge  for  every  fault  and  recognize 
every  good  point. 

The  Committee  became  convinced,  moreover,  that  what- 
ever time  was  saved  in  studying  a  short  schedule  would  be 
more  than  lost  afterwards  in'  applying  it,  as  the  rating 
expert  would  certainly  be  delayed  at  every  stage  which 


703 


required  consideration  or  thought.  In  the  one  item  of 
area,  for  example,  the  first  proof  contained  a  charge  for 
various  areas  without  reference  to  the  height  of  the  build- 
ing— an  important  factor  in  area — and  without  reference  to 
whether  or  not  a  building  was  divided  by  cross  or  curtain 
walls,  which  not  only  strengthen  structures  but  enable  fire- 
men to  fight  fires  into  corners,  thus  preventing  the  cumu- 
lative force  of  fires  incidental  to  large,  unbroken  areas 
whose  intense  combustion  is  seldom  extinguished.  They 
found  it  necessary,  also,  to  charge  less  for  area  in  a  single 
occupancy  risk  than  in  one  of  omnibus  occupancy,  where 
tenants,  crowded  upon  single  floors,  have  usually  larger 
volumes  of  merchandise  piled  or  tiered  from  floor  to  ceiling 
and  where  the  rules  of  cleanliness  are  less  likely  to  be 
observed. 

So  in  other  items  or  features  of  the  schedule,  the  Com- 
mittee found  it  necessary  to  go  into  every  detail  of  hazard, 
leaving  as  little  as  possible  to  the  judgment  of  a  rating 
expert,  so  as  not  only  to  save  his  time  in  thought  at  every 
stage  of  the  rating  process,  but  to  prevent,  also,  those  in- 
consistencies of  rating  in  risks  of  one  and  the  same  hazard, 
resulting  from  fluctuations  of  judgment,  which  so  often 
produce  dissatisfaction  on  the  part  of  owners  and  result  in 
appeals  for  legislative  interference  with  rating  organizations. 

Before  the  Committee  had  issued  their  third  "  proof  " 
they  had  abandoned  all  idea  of  a  so-called  short  schedule, 
and  had  addressed  themselves  assiduously  to  the  task  of 
preparing  one  which  should  recognize  every  feature  of  a 
risk  which  ought  to  be  considered,  either  in  fixing  a  rate  or 
determining  a  line.  They  now  submit  that  the  only  test 
which  should  be  applied  to  determine  the  question  as  to 
whether  or  not  it  is  unnecessarily  long  is,  that  if  there  be  a 
single  item  in  it  which  ought  not  to  be  considered  by  an 
underwriter  in  fixing  his  rate  or  line,  it  should  have  been 
omitted,  but  if  there  be  no  such  item,  then  the  schedule 
cannot  be  too  long. 

If  the  result  of  their  work  is  not  correct,  it  can  certainly 
be  claimed  for  it  that  there  is  no  other  way  to  approach 
accuracy.  It  must,  of  course,  be  conceded  that  the  work 
will  be  improved  upon  in  coming  years,  but  it  is  doubtful 
if  any  system  of  rating  will  ever  proceed  upon  different  lines 
to  measure  the  varying  hazards  of  varying  localities;  for  it 


;o4 


may  safely  be  asserted  that  a  schedule  to  be  correct  must 
recognize  each  of  the  following  principles  : 

First.  Standards  of  construction  and  standards  of  en- 
vironment or  condition  as  to  fire  departments,  water-works, 
topography,  etc. 

Second.  Fire  Departments  and  extinguishing  appliances 
must  receive  three-fold  treatment  and  be  divided  so  as  to  apply 

a.  For  the  minimum  credit,  to  all  risks  benefited  as 
regards  conflagration  hazard  or  danger  from  sweeping  fires. 

b.  For  the  maximum  credit,  for  f  ull  protection,  only  to 
those  risks  entitled  to  it  by  reason  of  proximity  to  hydrant 
service,  fire-engine  houses,  size  of  street  mains,  accessibility  of 
streets,  etc. 

c.  To  buildings  separately  from  stocks. 

Third.  Exposures  must  receive  separate  treatment  as  to 
buildings  and  stocks. 

Fourth.  Stock  rates  must  differ  from  building  rates 
according  to  construction  and  fire  department. 

It  may  be  well  to  touch  briefly  upon  the  various  points 
of  the  Schedule. 

First. — A  Standard  City  was  conceived  and  described. 
It  involved  level  and  wide  streets,  gravity  water  works, 
adequate  pipe  service  and  other  features  fully  explained. 

Second. — A  Standard  Building  was  described,  which  may 
be  regarded  as  a  model  of  ordinary  construction,  not  fire- 
proof. 

Third. — A  key-rate. 

BASIS  RATE. 

The  Basis  Rate  or  starting  point  for  rating  a  standard 
building  in  a  standard  city  was  fixed  at  25  cents,  after 
careful  consideration  of  the  experience  tables  of  the  Com- 
panies. It  surely  was  not  a  difficult  task  to  fix  this  rate 
for  the  simplest  form  of  risk  under  the  best  conditions  as  a 
starting  point.  It  has  been  criticised  as  being  an  arbitrary 
figure.  Even  if  it  had  been,  it  would  not  differ  in  this 
respect  from  other  standards  of  measure,  the  units  of  which 
were  fixed  in  a  much  more  arbitrary  way.  For  example,  it 
is  well  known  that  the  English  yard  was  the  length  of  the 
arm  of  King  Henry  I.  An  inch  was  three  barley  corns. 
The  letters  of  the  alphabet  and  the  nine  digits  or  numerals 


705 


were  arbitrary.  Even  if  this  25  cents  had  been  a  guess,  it 
should  not  be  overlooked  that  it  is  better  to  have  a  guess 
of  an  inch  than  of  a  mile,  and  that,  under  the  present 
systems  of  rating,  guesses  are  made  as  to  the  entire  rates  of 
buildings  often  without  examining  or  inspecting  them. 

KEY  RATE  OF  CITY. 

From  this  starting  point  or  basis  rate  of  25  cents,  and 
to  obtain  the  Key  Rate  of  any  city,  or  that  figure  at  which  a 
Standard  Building  in  the  city  should  be  rated,  additions 
were  made  according  to  the  deficiencies  of  the  city  as  to 
Water  Works,  Fire  Department,  Building  Laws,  inaccessible 
or  narrow  streets,  etc.,  etc.  This  Key  Rate,  so  determined, 
is  thereafter  used  to  obtain  the  rate  of  any  building  in  the 
city  to  be  rated  by  adding  to  it  charges  for  its  deficiencies 
from  the  specification  of  a  Standard  Building.  The  thick- 
ness of  walls,  the  quality  of  bricks  and  mortar,  character  of 
roofs  and  floors,  and  especially  of  floor  openings,  area, 
height,  skylights,  heating,  lighting,  &c,  have  been  carefully 
charged  for  according  to  their  relative  importance,  in 
determining  which,  the  charges  for  the  various  features 
•>f  buildings,  construction,  etc.,  were  graded  according  to 
aeir  tendency  to  contribute  to  the  destruction  of  the 
ouilding  by  fire,  and  it  will  be  observed  that  the  charges 
for  such  features  as  open  elevators,  staircases,  well-holes, 
air  shafts,  skylights,  etc.,  bear  about  the  same  proportionate 
relation  to  the  total  rate  that  the  features  themselves  bear 
to  the  integrity  or  strength  of  the  structure. 

Certain  features,  also — area  and  height — were  measured 
with  reference  to  each  other  when  in  combination,  for  the 
reason  that  when  combined  they  have  a  cumulative  effect 
of  increasing  the  danger  of  total  destruction.  The  charge 
for  area,  for  instance,  is  greater  in  a  high  building  than  in 
a  low  one. 

THE   BUILDING  STANDARD  EDUCATIONAL. 

It  will  be  observed,  however,  that  the  working  schedule 
does  not  charge  for  all  variations  from  the  standard,  which 
is  ideal  and  educational  ;  being  designed  to  be  handed  to 
a  builder  or  owner  contemplating  the  erection  of  a  building, 
as  an  explanation  of  safe  construction.  Some  of  the 
specifications,  for  example,  cannot  be  examined  or  tested 
afterwards,  such  as  the  filling  in  of  hollow  partitions  at 


Tim; 


each  floor,  but  the  recommendation  may,  nevertheless, 
secure  them  at  the  hands  of  a  conscientious  owner. 

DEDUCTIONS   FOR   EXCEPTIONAL  FEATURES. 

To  avoid  the  labor  of  applying  a  severe  detailed  schedule 
to  the  thousands  of  average  risks,  the  great  majority  of 
buildings  being  of  ordinary  construction,  exceptional 
features  such  as  are  rarely  met  with,  are  provided  for  in 
the  Universal  Schedule  by  a  system  of  deductions.  This 
scheme  practically  makes  the  Schedule  a  short  one  for 
ordinary  risks,  since  one  familiar  with  it  is  enabled  to  pass 
over  whole  paragraphs  of  features  which  he  knows  are  not 
to  be  found  in  the  building  to  be  rated  or,  for  that  matter, 
it  may  be,  in  the  entire  town,  on  the  same  principle  that 
one  using  a  two-foot  rule  would  not  open  it  out  full  length 
to  measure  two  inches.  The  Schedule  treats  by  deductions 
such  exceptional  features  as  metallic  lathing,  water  proof 
floors,  fire  proof  grade  floors,  extra  parapet  walls,  extra 
thickness  of  floor  beams,  self-releasing  floor-joist,  etc.,  etc., 
and  it  has  the  further  advantage  of  providing  for  those 
improvements  which  we  may  well  expect  may  be  devel- 
oped year  by  year,  and  which  can  thus  be  recognized 
without  necessitating  a  rearrangement  of  the  entire  schedule, 
as  would  be  the  case  if  it  were  framed  upon  a  plan 
which  required  a  charge  for  each  variation  of  an  ex- 
ceptional and  infrequent  character  from  a  high  standard. 
Spare  numbers  have  been  left  at  various  points  of  the 
schedule  for  such  new  features.  There  is  a  further 
decided  advantage,  also,  in  a  system  of  deductions  foi 
unusual  features  over  any  system  of  charges  in  the  fact 
that  if  overlooked  by  the  rating  expert — and  even  careful 
experts  are  liable  to  overlook  exceptional  features — the 
Company  will  not  lose  by  the  full  amount  of  the  charge, 
as  it  inevitably  would  under  a  treatment  of  infrequent 
features  by  charges.  It  may  safely  be  assumed  that  the 
property  owner  will  remind  the  rating  expert  of  any  feat- 
ure of  his  risk  which  would  entitle  him  to  a  deduction. 

FIRE  DEPARTMENTS  AND  EXTINGUISHING 
APPLIANCES. 

These  were  treated  separately  for  stocks  and  for  build- 
ings by  a  system  of  deductions,  it  being  obvious  that 
they  should   have   separate  treatment,  inasmuch  as  the 


707 


value  and  efficacy  of  water-throwing  facilities  differ  as 
to  stocks  and  buildings.  Moreover,  certain  features  of 
construction,  such  as  self-releasing  floor  beams,  skids  for 
raising  stocks  above  water  on  floors,  tarpaulin  covers,  &c, 
&c,  which  belong  exclusively  to  either  the  stock  or.  the 
building,  but  not  to  both,  are  and  should  be  separately 
treated. 

Fire  departments  under  the  Universal  Schedule,  receive 
three-fold  treatment.  All  other  systems  of  rating  give  them 
single  treatment,  rating  all  risks  in  a  city  as  if  they  shared 
equally  in  the  benefit  of  a  fire  department,  whereas  acres 
of  buildings  and  stocks  may  be  on  the  lines  of  small  and 
insufficient  water  pipes  and  remote  from  engine  service  and 
therefore  inadequately  rated.  In  an  important  city  it  was 
recently  discovered  that  millions  of  dollars  worth  of  prop- 
erty was  dependent  upon  a  4-inch  water  pipe  and  when  an 
8-inch  pipe  was  laid  the  Underwriters  breathed  more  freely, 
until  they  discovered,  some  months  afterward,  that  the 
hydrants  were  still  connected  with  the  old  4-inch  pipe! 
The  Universal  Schedule  gives  all  risks  in  a  city  the  credit 
of  fire  departments  to  the  minimum  extent,  only  in  the  Key 
Rate.  It  is  of  course  an  advantage  to  a  risk  that  the  city  in 
which  it  is  located  should  have  a  fire  department  and  water 
works  even  though  the  building  may  be  two  miles  from  a 
water  pipe  or  fire  engine  house,  since  if  a  fire  should  start 
two  and  a  half  miles  away  it  might  be  prevented  from 
spreading  to  the  risk.  Only  to  this  minimum  extent,  how- 
ever, in  the  Key  Rate  should  it  get  the  credit  for  a  fire 
department.  There  are,  to-day,  acres  of  buildings  and 
millions  of  values  on  which  the  companies  are  losing  money 
in  low  rates  which  would  be  corrected  by  the  Schedule. 

Second. — A  fire  department  for  the  maximum  benefit 
is  brought  home  to  each  risk  by  deductions  for  proximity 
to  hydrants. 

The  importance  of  not  allowing  credit  for  a  full  city  fire 
department  except  for  hydrant  proximity  and  proper  mains 
was  illustrated  by  the  burning  of  a  risk  worth  several 
hundred  thousand  dollars,  in  a  suburb  of  New  York,  the 
rate  of  which  had  been  based  on  the  assumption  that  fifty 
steamers  and  two  water  towers  could  be  commanded. 
After  the  fire,  underwriters  were  mortified  to  discover  that 
steamers  could  not  get  to  the  risk  owing  to  its  inaccessible 
location.    They  were  comforted  to  learn  later,  however,  that 


even  if  the  steamers  had  gotten  there,  they  would  have 
found  neither  water  mains  nor  hydrants,  so  that  nothing 
was  actually  lost  by  reason  of  the  inaccessibility  of  the 
street  ! 

Under  present  systems  of  rating,  risks  on  the  line  of 
ample  water  mains  are  paying  for  risks  without  water  mains, 
or  on  the  line  of  4-inch  mains,  which  is  unjust.  Aside 
from  the  injustice  of  the  matter  to  property  owners,  no 
company  can  afford  to  belong  to  a  board  which  does  not 
make  proper  discrimination  unless  all  other  companies  are 
in  the  board  and  honest. 

Third. — Fire  departments  are  treated  separately  as  to 
buildings  and  stocks,  a  clear  necessity  if  correct  results  are 
to  be  secured,  for  the  benefits  of  water  throwing  differ  as  to 
both. 

EXPOSURES. 

In  all  other  systems  of  rating,  the  method  of  arriving  at 
a  stock  rate  is  to  build  up  a  building  rate,  including  the 
addition  for  exposure,  when  to  the  final  rate  so  obtained, 
some  fixed  sum  is  added  (usually  ten  cents) — no  matter 
what  the  fire  department  and  no  matter  what  the  character 
of  the  building — to  get  the  stock  rate.  This  has  the  effect 
of  making  the  same  charge  for  exposure  to  both  building 
and  contents.  The  exposure  charge  should  not,  in  all 
cases,  be  the  same  for  building  and  stock.  The  construc- 
tion of  a  building  may  be  of  so  substantial  a  character  as 
to  effectually  protect  its  contents  from  any  outside  fire 
although  itself  liable  to  a  paint  or  glass  damage.  Under 
such  circumstances  to  charge  anything  to  the  stock  for 
exposure  would  be  unjust  to  the  stock  and  result  possibly 
in  the  loss  of  the  risk  at  the  hands  of  some  more  intelligent 
competitor. 

CO-INSURANCE  ON  NON-FIREPROOF 
BUILDINGS. 
No  Schedule  should  be  framed  upon  a  basis  which 
does  not  recognize  a  certain  named  percentage  of  insur- 
ance to  value.  To  fix  rates  without  reference  to  the 
amount  of  insurance  carried  would  be  not  less  foolish 
than  to  sell  dry  goods  without  yard-sticks,  or  to  sell  silks 
and  satins  at  the  same  price  per  yard  as  calico.  It 


requires  no  argument  that  rates  are  based  upon  the  bricks 
and  mortar  of  a  building  as  well  as  upon  the  wooden 
trim,  and  that  if  the  insurance  be  for  only  ten  or  fifteen 
per  cent,  of  the  value  of  both,  the  Company  would  be 
insuring  the  wooden  trim  at  a  rate  based  upon  consider- 
ations of  bricks  and  mortar. 

The  Universal  Schedule,  however,  does  not  enforce  or 
require  any  particular  amount  of  insurance,  but  simply 
adjusts  itself,  by  the  rule  on  page  52,  to  whatever  amount 
the  property  owner  elects  to  carry.  There  is  no  com- 
pulsion. If  the  insurance  is  50  per  cent,  of  value  no 
deduction  is  allowed.  If  the  amount  of  insurance  car- 
ried exceeds  this  percentage,  a  deduction  of  one-half  per 
cent,  of  the  rate  for  each  one  per  cent,  of  insurance  in 
excess  of  50  per  cent,  of  insurance  to  value  is  allowed. 
If  less  than  50  per  cent,  of  insurance  to  value  is  carried, 
1  per  cent,  of  the  rate  is  added  for  each  per  cent,  less 
than  50  per  cent.  It  will  be  conceded  that  there  are  few 
buildings — and  probably  no  stocks — insured  for  less 
than  50  per  cent.,  and  that,  therefore,  this  percentage 
will  cover  all  practical  cases,  and  reduce  to  a  minimum 
the  number  of  risks  that  need  inquiry. 

The  propriety  of  not  insisting  upon  co-insurance  but 
of  grading  the  charge  according  to  the  amount  carried 
will  be  demonstrated  by  the  friction  saved.  The  aver- 
age man  declines  to  be  coerced;  he  rebels  against  being 
dictated  to  as  to  quantity  as  well  as  price,  claiming, 
with  much  reason,  that  he  has  the  right  to  buy  as  much 
or  as  little  of  the  article  purchased  as  he  chooses.  The 
Universal  Schedule  meets  him  upon  this  basis,  and  the 
underwriter  is  enabled  to  say  to  him:  "We  do  not 
care  how  much  or  how  little  of  our  commodity  you  de- 
sire— you  decide  that  for  yourself — our  prices,  of  course, 
are  fixed,  like  your  own,  lower  rates  being  made  for 
wholesale  quantities  than  for  retail  purchases." 

The  reason  for  the  scale  of  reduced  rate  is  based  on 
the  following  fact  :  The  experience  of  companies,  as  to 
the  distribution  of  losses  according  to  percentage  of  value 
in  fire  department  cities,  is  about  as  follows  : 

68  per  cent,  of  the  losses  in  number  are  under  $100  in 
amount;  15  per  cent,  are  over  $100  and  under  25  percent. 


no 


of  the  value  of  the  property;  7  per  cent,  in  number  are 
between  25  percent,  and  50  percent.;  5  percent,  between 
50  per  cent,  and  80  per  cent.,  and  5  per  cent,  total. 
These  percentages,  while  "round  figures,"  are  close  to 
the  exact  percentages. 

Let  us  assume  10,000  risks  of  $1,000  value  each,  carry- 
ing $500  insurance  each  (or  50  per  cent  of  value),  at  a 
rate  of  1  per  cent.,  yielding  a  total  premium  of  $50,000 
and  a  loss  experience  of  200  losses  amounting  to  $27,500, 
or  55  per  cent,  of  the  premiums.  About  63  per  cent,  of 
the  200  losses,  or  say  136  in  number,  would  be  under  $100; 
about  15  per  cent,  of  the  200  losses,  or  30  in  number, 
would  be  over  $100  and  under  25  per  cent.;  about  7  per 
cent.,  or  14  in  number,  would  be  from  25  per  cent,  to  50 
per  cent.;  about  5  per  cent.,  or  10  in  number,  would  be 
from  50  per  cent,  to  80  per  cent.;  and  about  5  per  cent., 
or  10  in  number,  would  be  total. 

The  following  table  would  show  the  distribution  of 
losses  and  premiums:  The  column  headed  ''Value  Loss" 
would  show  the  estimated  amount  of  loss  or  damage  to 
the  property  based  upon  the  tabulated  Company  experi- 
ence. 

„      „  ...      .      Per  Cent  ,r  ,       Ins.  Loss   Ins.  Loss  Ins.  Loss   Ins.  Loss 

No  of  No.  of       of  Loss  \al"e       wi'h         with        Willi  with 

Kisks.    Losses.      to  Value.  Loss-    50  %  Ins.    70  %  Ins.  80  #  Ins.  100  %  Ins. 

10.000     136  under  $100     $3,500  $3,500  $3,500  $3,500  $3,500 

30  $100  to  25  %    7,00)  7,000  7,000  7,000  7,000 

14  25  %  to  50  %    7,000  7,000  7,000  7.000  7,000 

10  50  %  to  80  %    7.500  5,000  7,000  7  503  7.500 

10  Total  or  100  %  10,000  5,000  7,000  8.000  10.000 


10.000     200                    $35,000  §27,500  $31,500  $31,000  $35,000 
Rate  1   %    90  cts.    85  cts.    75  cts. 

abed 
Am't  of  Premiums  (10,000  Risks),  $50,000  $33,000  $f,8,000  $75,000 

a.  10,000  risks  insured  for  50  per  cent,  of  value,  or  $500  each,  at  1  per  cent.,  would 
yield  $50,000  premiums.  On  this  amount  of  premium  the  insurance  loss  ($u'7,50u) 
would  be  just  55  %. 

b.  10,000 risks  insured  for 70  percent,  of  value,  or  $700  each,  at  90  cents  (100  minus 
10  per  cent.,  Leinir  a  reduction  in  rate  of  per  cent,  for  each  1  per  cent  of  insurance 
in  excess  or  60 per  cent.,  f.  20  per  cent.),  would  yield  a  premium  of  $>G3,000.  On 
this  amount  of  premium  the  insurance  lots  ($31,500)  would  be  just  50  %. 

r.  10.000  risks  insured  for  80  per  cent,  of  value,  or  $800  each,  at  85  cents  (100 
minus  15,  bem;;  J4  l,cr  cent,  reduction  for  each  1  per  cent,  of  the 30  per  cent.,  which 
£0  per  cent,  insurance  is  in  excess  of  50  p~r  cent.),  would  yield  $iis,000  premium.  On 
this  amount  of  premium  the  losses  ($33,000)  would  be  safely  within  50  %. 

it.  10.000  risks  insured  for  100  per  cent,  of  value,  or  $1000  each,  at  75  cents  (beinc, 
a  reduction  of  25  per  cent,  or  of  1  per  cent,  for  each  1  per  cent,  of  the  50  per  cent, 
which  1UU  per  cent,  exceeds  50  per  cent.),  would  yield  $75,000  of  premiums. 

This  computation,  on  an  actual  experience  of  the  dis- 
tribution of  partial  and  total  losses,  shows  that  the  rule 


:  ii 


of  deducting  per  cent,  for  each  i  per  cent,  of  co-insur- 
ance in  excess  of  50  per  cent,  would  be  a  safe  one,  the 
amount  of  premium  resulting  being  adjusted  at  a  safe 
multiple  of  the  amount  of  loss  at  each  point,  or  percent- 
age of  insurance  carried  (see  a,  />,     </,  in  preceding  table). 

It  will  be  apparent  that  co-insurauce  or  contribution  is 
of  no  value  whatever,  on  total  losses,  and  of  little  value 
on  those  under  $100  in  amount.  These  two  classes  form 
7S  per  cent,  of  the  entire  number  of  losses.  It  is  practi- 
cally on  the  remaining  one-fourth  (losses  between  $100 
and  total)  that  co-insurance  is  a  benefit,  and  from  this 
benefit  or  salvage  on  partial  losses,  must  be  deducted  the 
increased  insurance  loss  on  the  total  losses  to  get  the  net 
benefit  of  co-insurance  in  connection  with  the  increased 
premium.  The  computation  also  demonstrates  that  the 
value  of  contribution  is  measured  by  the  percentage  of 
rate  proposed,  since  it  will  clearly  make  no  difference  in 
the  percentage  of  loes  to  premium  of  the  company 
whether  it  has  all  of  the  insurance  or  whether  a  portion 
in  excess  cf  its  line  is  carried  by  other  companies.  If, 
for  example,  it  has  one-half  of  the  insurance  it  will  have 
half  of  the  premium  and  incur  one-half  the  loss. 

The  computation  also  shows  that  the  assumptions  fre- 
quently made  that  a  1  per  cent,  deduction  in  rate  can  be 
allowed  for  each  1  percent,  of  co-insurance  in  excess  of  the 
percentage  of  value  on  which  a  rate  is  based  are  incorrect. 
Those  who  have  advocated  such  concessions  for  co-insur- 
ance have  overlooked  the  facts  developed  in  the  above 
distribution  of  losses.  For  example,  if  from  rates  based 
upon  an  insurance  of  50  per  cent,  of  va'.ue  a  deduction  of 
50  per  cent,  should  be  made  for  full  insurance,  the 
premium  on  a  thousand  risks  would  be  only  $50,000, 
whereas  the  losses,  as  shown  in  the  table,  would  be 
v"35>000>  an(l  tne  percentage  of  Idss  to  premium  would 
have  increased  from  55  per  cent.,  in  the  first  example 
given,  to  70  per  cent.  This  shows  that  the  deduction  of 
Yz  of  1  per  cent,  in  the  rule,  is  much  nearer  the  correct 
figure  than  a  deduction  of  1  per  cent,  for  each  1  per 
cent,  of  co-insurance  which  would  result  in  loss  with  full 
insurance.  While  full  insurance  is  an  advantage  in 
partial  losses,  it  increases  the  insurance  loss  on  all  losses 
which  are  total,  the  insurance  loss  being  increased  in 
direct  proportion  as  the  insurance  approaches  the  value. 


;  i-.' 


CO-INSURANCE  ON  FIREPROOF  BUILDINGS. 

HOW  TABLE  WAS  COMPUTED. 
Clearly,  in  no  class  of  buildings  is  a  knowledge  of  the 

amount  of  insurance  carried  more  necessary  for  determin- 
ing rates  and  lines  than  in  the  case  of  fireproof  buildings. 
A  small  percentage  of  their  value,  say  15%,  would  cover  the 
wooden  trim,  window  and  door  frames,  dados,  floor  boards, 
paint  and  fresco  work,  plate  glass,  which  is  as  destructi- 
ble as  a  non-fireproof  building;  and  it' a  fireproof  building 
be  insured  for  only  15%  of  its  value,  the  rate  should 
approximate  that  of  ordinary  wood  and  brick  construction. 
This  small  percentage  of  15%,  therefore,  was  assumed  to  be 
one  extreme,  and  the  full  value,  100%,  the  other  extreme. 

A  building,  supposedly  worth  a  million  of  dollars,  was 
taken  with  estimates  of  rate  for  each  $100,000  insurance 
carried.  The  assumed  rate  for  the  minimum  of  insurance 
was  100  cents,  or  1%,  and,  that  being  so,  the  premium  for 
$150,000,  or  15%  of  value,  would  be  $1,500.  If  $200,000 
should  be  carried,  the  additional  $50,000  could  be  taken 
at  much  less  than  the  rate  for  $150,000.  Clearly,  an  un- 
derwriter having  already  $200,000  on  a  fireproof  building, 
offered  an  additional  $100,000,  would  have  presented  to 
him,  in  fixing  the  rate,  practically  the  same  consideration 
which  determines  the  rate  in  the  case  of  what  is  known  as 
"excess"  insurance.  He  would  be  already  liable  for  all 
partial  losses,  and  his  extra  $100,000  could  not  be  called 
upon  until  his  $200,000  had  been  exhausted.  In  this  view 
he  could  afford  to  write  the  extra  $100,000  at  a  materi- 
ally lower  rate  than  his  $200,000.  The  schedule  table 
fixes  the  rate  for  this  $100,000  at  40%  of  the  rate  for  the 
$200,000.  In  like  manner  each  subsequent  $100,000  would 
be  in  the  nature  of  excess  insurance  and  be  written  at  a  5# 
less  percentage  of  the  rate  than  that  of  the  preceding 
$100,000. 

For  example,  if  $400,000  should  be  carried,  the  extra 
$100,000  could  be  taken  at  35%  of  the  rate  for  $300,000; 
if  $500,000,  the  extra  $100,000  would  be  at  30%  of  the 
rate  for  $400,000;  if  $600,000,  the  extra  $100,000  would 
be  taken  at  25%  of  the  rate  for  $500,000,  and  so  the  last 
$100,000,  making  the  $1,000,000,  could  be  taken  at  5%  of 
the  rate  for  $900,000.  The  following  table  will  illustrate 
more  clearly: 


713 


Percentage  of 

Preceding  Rate 

Percentage 

Charged  lor  Next 

Amount 

I  i    -  i  ,  p  ■  i  ■  i  1 
1  1 1  >  1 1 1  t  At. 

4t1ftn  llfllt  fit  liKnrnnrn 

1  ricll  *•£*!  \ 
1  1  .     U  1  1   1  I  . 

Rate. 

Prpm  i  iiTn 

£  1  '    M  1  1  i  1  1  1  1  . 

15% 

100,1 

$150,000 

100 

cents 

$1,500 

20% 

45% 

200,000 

8G.3 

1 1 

1  725 

30% 

40% 

35% 

300,000 

G9 

M 

2,070 

40# 

400,000 

57.8 

ft 

£,,812 

50% 

30% 

500,000 

49.7 

tc 

2,485 

60% 

25% 

600,000 

43.5 

(C 

2,610 

10% 

20% 

700,000 

38.5 

fl 

2,695 

75% 

n.5% 

750,000 

36.4 

ti 

2,732 

80% 

15% 

800,000 

34.4 

l< 

2,710 

90% 

10% 

900,000 

30.9 

2,785 

100% 

5% 

1,000,000 

28 

it 

2,800 

The  figures  of  the  fourth  column,  hased  as  they  are  upon 
100  cents  per  $100,  upon  a  value  of  $1,000,000  and  upon 
successive  ten  per  centuras  of  such  value,  will  per- 
centages to  be  taken  of  any  rate  for  the  corresponding 
percentage  of  co-insurance. 

For  example,  if  the  rate  of  a  particular  building  worth 
$1,000,000  should  be  25  cents,  and  $300,000  should  be  in- 
sured, G9%  of  25  cents,  or  174,  cents,  would  be  the  rate  with 
a  30%  co-insurance  clause.  If  the  rate  should  be  30  cents 
and  the  amount  of  insurance  $400,000,  57.8%  of  30  cents, 
or  17.31  cents,  would  be  the  rate  with  a  40%  co-insurance 
clause  in  the  policy. 

There  has  been  computed  a  table  (which  see)  which 
gives  the  figure  for  any  per  cent,  of  co-insurance  of  any 
rate. 

As  already  stated,  however,  the  rates  are  promulgated 
at  80$  co-insurance. 

It  will  be  seen  from  an  examination  of  the  second  column 
of  the  table  that  the  decreasing  series  is  45%,  40%,  35%, 
30%,  25%,  etc.,  to  the  minimum  of  5%  for  the  maximum  of 
full  insurance.  The  rates  were  computed  for  each  amount 
of  insurance  in  the  following  manner:  $150,000  at  1%  would 
yield  $1,500  premium;  $200,000  would  yield  $1,725  (the 
extra  $50,000  at  45%  of  100  cents,  the  rate  for  $150,000, 
or  45  cents,  would  yield  $225  premi-um,  which  added  to 
$1,500  for  the  first  150,000  would  make  $1,725.)  Dividing 
this  by  200,000,  the  average  rate  is  seen  to  be  86.3.  The 
rate  for  $300,000  would  be  computed  by  adding  to  the  pre- 
mium for  the  $200,000  ($1,725)  40%  of  the  rate  (86.3)  for 
$200,000,  yielding  34.5  cents  for  the  extra  $100,000,  or 
$345,  making  $2,070  for  the  $300,000— an  average  rate  of 


714 


69  cents.  Clearly,  as  already  stated,  therefore,  the  rates 
thus  obtained  for  each  $100,000  or  each  10  percent,  of 
insurance  carried  (the  value;  of  the  building  being  a  mil- 
lion dollars  and  the  starting  rate  LOO  cents)  would  be 
figures  which  could  be  used  as  percentages  of  the  actual 
rate  of  any  building. 

Excluding  Foundations. — The  practice  has  been  grow- 
ing of  late  to  exclude  foundations  of  fireproof  buildings 
from  the  protection  of  the  policy  and  from  the  operation 
of  the  co-insurance  clause,  by  some  such  clause  as  follows, 
for  example: 

"  This  policy  does  not  cover,  attach  or  apply  to  the 
foundations  or  any  portion  of  the  building  below  the 
street  grade  line,  and  the  value  of  such  portion  of  the 
structure  is  excluded,  cdso,  from  the  operation  of  the  co- 
insurance clause." 

Where  this  practice  obtains  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  table  of  rates  for  co-insurance  in  theschedule hav- 
ing been  calculated  for  the  full  co-insurance,  including 
the  foundations,  the  same  rate  must  be  taken  as  would  be 
required  for  the  amount  of  insurance  actually  carried  as 
compared  tvith  the  full  value  of  the  building,  including 
foundations. 

For  example,  if  it  is  estimated,  in  the  case  of  a  building 
worth  ?500,000,  that  the  foundations  and  the  portion  be- 
low the  street  grade  are  worth  $100,000,  and  that  the  value 
of  the  building  for  purposes  of  insurance  and  the  opera- 
tion of  the  co-insurance  clause  is  fixed  at  $400,000,  an 
owner,  with  a  75$  co-insurance  clause  in  his  policy,  would 
be  required  to  carry  only  $300,000 ;  the  rate  in  such  case, 
however,  should  be  that  fixed  in  the  table  for  60$  co-insur- 
ance—$300,000  being  60$  of  $500,000,  the  actual  value  of 
the  building,  including  foundations.  In  the  example 
taken,  therefore,  if  the  rate  of  the  building  without  the  co- 
insurance clause  be  65  cents  the  rate  with  a  75$  co-insur- 
ance clause  should  not  be  23.66  but  28.27,  the  rate  named 
in  the  table  for  60$ 

It  may  be  well  to  suggest  in  this  connection  that  it  is 
not  to  the  interest  of  a  property  owner  to  exclude  foun- 
dations or  the  more  solid  portions  of  the  building  below 
the  street  grade.    Under  the  operation  of  the  universal 


schedule  system  of  charging  for  co  insurance  the  rate  for 
this  portion  of  the  building  is  exceedingly  low,  and  it 
costs  but  little  more  (as  in  the  case  above  cited)  to  insure 
these  portions.  The  table  is  equitable,  and  the  charge  for 
insuring  these  safer  portions  of  the  structure  will  be 
found  low  enough  to  measure  fairly  and  equitably  their 
average  exemption  from  damage.  It  sometimes  happens, 
however,  that  the  damage  to  the  foundations  of  a  build- 
ing, owing  to  fires  in  stored  combustible  material,  fuel, 
old  furniture,  etc.,  etc.,  is  serious,  especially  where  gran- 
ite blocks  are  employed  instead  of  bricks  ;  and  taking 
everything  into  accounf,  it  will  be  found  that  the  prop- 
erty owner  would  more  wisely  pay  the  small  charge 
exacted,  than  run  the  risk  of  a  serious  loss  for  so  small 
a  premium.  To  carry  his  own  foundations  himself  when 
he  can  so  cheaply  have  it  done  by  an  insurance  company 
is,  in  fact,  gambling  at  heavy  odds. 

STOCKS  AS  COMPARED  WITH  BUILDINGS. 

An  important  feature  of  the  Universal  Schedule  is 
the  treatment  of  stocks  as  compared  with  buildings,  and 
this,  in  view  of  the  astounding  inconsistencies  of  rating 
throughout  the  country,  may  well  be  considered  the  most 
important  of  all.  The  Committee  find  there  are,  at  present, 
four  ways  of  rating  stocks  throughout  the  United  States. 
One  is  to  add  to  the  final  building  rate,  including  the 
charge  for  exposure,  a  fixed  sum  of  thirty  cents — no 
matter  what  the  character  of  the  building  and  no  matter 
what  the  character  of  the  fire  department — to  get  the  stock 
rate.  A  second  plan  is  to  add  20  cents,  a  third  to  add  10 
cents  and  a  fourth  to  add  nothing,  the  stock  rate  being,  in 
some  cases,  the  same  as  the  building  rate,  while  in  others 
it  is  actually  less,  even  in  fire  department  towns.  In  two 
instances  coming  to  the  attention  of  the  Committee,  stocks 
of  cutlery  were  rated  lower  than  good,  brick,  metal-roofed 
buildings  containing  them,  and  this  in  fire  department 
towns  !  It  is  unnecessary  to  suggest  that,  with  such  rates, 
companies  held  by  membership  in  tariff  organizations  are 
not  likely  to  get  the  buildings  while  there  are  any  com- 
panies not  in  the  Board  who  know  the  difference  between 
buildings  and  stocks. 

Such  unequal  and  inconsistent  rating  as  this  puts  a 
premium  on  remaining  out  of  local  boards  and  commission 


716 


agreements,  and  accounts  for  the  competition  of  companies 
who  decline  to  be  tied  where  so  much  is  to  be  made  by 
discrimination.  If  the  Universal  Schedule  should  never  be 
adopted  as  an  entirety,  it  could  not  fail,  in  correcting 
ratings  of  this  character,  to  be  worth  to  the  insurance 
fraternity  all  and  more  than  it  has  cost  in  the  labor  and 
time  expended  upon  it. 

Any  underwriter  who  understands  his  business  knows 
that,  as  a  rule,  bricks  and  mortar  are  better  for  insurance 
than  cutlery,  dry  goods,  millinery  or  groceries,  especially 
if  there  be  a  fire  department.  The  degree  of  difference 
depending  upon  the  character  of  the  building  and  the 
efficiency  of  the  fire  department.  Where  these  are  of  the 
best,  the  building  should  be  materially  lower  than  the 
stock,  even  to  the  extent  of  being  in  some  cases  possibly 
one-third  the  stock  rate.  A  damage  of  a  few  thousand 
dollars  to  a  strong  building  would  involve  three  times  the 
amount  of.  damage  to  a  stock  of  merchandise  from  water 
alone. 

In  a  fire  department  town,  a  building  whose  floor-joist 
and  story  posts  are  1 2  inches  square,  with  3-inch  plank 
flooring,  &c,  or  constructed  in  accordance  with  the 
Schedule  standard,  has  the  probabilities  largely  in  its  favor 
of  a  fire  being  extinguished  with  a  damage  to  the  build- 
ing of  not  one-fourth  the  amount  which  would  be  lost 
on  the  stock.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  only 
advantage  afforded  to  a  stock  by  a  building  of  the  best 
construction  is  the  advantage  of  protecting  it  from  an  out- 
side fire,  or  of  preventing  a  fire  from  spreading  from  one 
floor  to  another.  Even  a  fire-proof  building  is  of  no  other 
advantage  than  this  to  its  stock,  which  may  be  effectually 
consumed  within  its  fire-proof  walls  like  the  contents  of  a 
stove.  A  stove  is  fire-proof  but  its  contents  are  not.  In- 
deed, fire-proof  buildings,  with  airshafts,  elevators,  stair- 
ways, etc.,  to  insure  drafts  from  cellar  to  roof,  may  act  like 
stoves,  for  the  effectual  cremation  of  their  contents.  The 
advantages  of  construction  to  stocks  are  overestimated. 

Clearly,  therefore,  the  better  the  fire  department  and 
building  the  greater  should  be  the  difference  between  the 
building  and  stock  rate  and  vice  versa. 


METHOD  OF  RATING  STOCKS. 

The  Universal  Schedule  obtains  the  unoccupied  build- 
.ng  rate  (item  No.  127)  by  charging  for  each  variation  of 
the  city  in  fire  department  and  water  supply  from  standard 
and  for  each  fault  of  construction  of  the  building  so  that 
the  deficiencies  of  the  building,  viz.:  The  excess  of  its  rate 
(item  127)  over  that  of  a  Standard  building  in  a  Standard 
city  (25  cents)  indicates  clearly  whether  a  smaller  or  larger 
sum  should  lie  added  to  the  building  rate  to  get  the  stock 
rate.  It  will  be  found  that  the  rule  of  the  Schedule  requir- 
ing that  25  per  cent,  of  the  deficiencies  of  the  building  be 
deducted  before  making  the  addition  for  the  stock  rate,  will 
adjust  the  rate  properly  to  conditions  of  construction  and 
fire  department.  This  rule  will  be  uniform  and  auto- 
matic. The  adjustment  of  the  matter  should  not  be  left 
to  the  varying  judgments  of  rating  experts. 

For  example,  the  addition  for  retail  dry  goods  to  a 
Standard  building  being  50  cents,  25  per  cent,  of  the 
deficiencies  of  a  building  not  Standard  deducted  from  50 
cents  would  give  the  amount  to  be  added  for  the  stock  so 
that  while,  if  the  building  be  Standard  (25  cents)  the  rate  on 
dry  goods  should  be  75  cents,  but  if  the  building  rate  should 
be  41  cents  (16  cents  worse)  25$  of  16  cents,  or  4  cents, 
should  be  deducted  from  50  cents,  leaving  46  cents  to  be 
added  to  the  rate  of  the  building  (41  cents)  making  87 
cents  for  the  stock  rate.  If  the  rate  of  the  building  be  185 
(a  poor  building)  25  fo  of  its  deficiencies  (160)  or  40  cents 
should  be  deducted  from  the  dry  goods  rate,  leaving  10 
cents  to  be  added  to  185  making  the  rate  on  stock  195. 

All  stocks  are  arranged  in  a  table  of  two  columns. 
The  first  column  contains  the  measure,  in  cents,  of  those 
features  of  a  stock  which  cause  fires,  and  when  once 
started,  bad  or  intense  fires — liable  to  destroy  both  build- 
ing and  contents.  The  second  column  contains  that 
feature  of  the  stock  which  may  be  termed  its  susceptibility 
to  damage  by  water,  smoke,  etc. 

All  stocks,  for  insurance  purposes,  should  be  regarded 
from  these  three  standpoints.  Those,  which  like  wholesale 
drugs,  stocks  of  furniture,  oils,  etc.,  are  liable  to  cause  fires 
and  to  furnish  fuel  for  intense  combustion,  should  increase 
the  rate  of  any  building  into  which  they  enter,  and  also  the 
rate  of  all  other  stocks  under  the  same  roof.  The  suscepti- 
bility to  damage  feature,  however,  is  not  one  which  makes 


;  is 

the  building  worse.  A  stock  of  cutlery,  for  example,  is 
peculiarity  liable  to  damage  by  water  or  smoke,  and  this 
fact  should  be  taken  into  account  in  fixing  the  rate  upon  it, 
but  it  does  not  add  anything  to  the  hazard  of  the  building 
containing  it. 

In  the  second  column  of  the  table,  is  the  sum  to  be  added 
to  the  rate  of  a  Standard  building  in  a  Standard  city  (25 
cents)  to  get  the  rate  of  a  stock  in  such  building.  For 
example,  stock  No.  Si  1,  retail  dry  goods,  would  be  rated  at 
75  cents  (25  -f-  50)  in  a  Standard  building  in  a  Standard  city. 
A  stock  of  wholesale  drugs  in  the  same  building  would  rate 
at  210  (25  plus  185).  At  this  point  both  building  and  stock 
would  be  entitled  to  the  deductions  for  hydrant  proximity, 
water  pails,  &c,  provided  for  Nos.  155,  190,  etc. 

The  following  example  will  more  fully  explain  the  plan 
upon  which  the  Schedule  is  framed  : 

Let  us  suppose  a  building  contains  an  apothecary  stock, 
No.  423,  which  adds  10  cents  to  the  building  ;  a  cabinetware 
stock,  No.  604,  which  adds  50  cents  to  the  building  ;  a 
stock  of  artists'  materials,  No.  435,  which  adds  10  cents  to 
the  building,  and  a  wholesale  drug  stock,  No.  806,  which 
adds  100  cents  to  the  building  ;  the  building  and  respective 
stocks  would  be  rated  as  follows  : 

Having  ascertained  the  key-rate  of  the  city  in  which  the 
building  is  located  and  having  found  that  the  unoccupied 
rate  of  the  building  itself  based  upon  it  (No.  127,  page  38) 
is,  let  us  say  85  cents,  the  occupied  building  rate  would  be  85 
plus  100,  equals  185 — the  highest  rate,  or  that  of  the  most 
hazardous  stock  in  the  building,  wholesale  drugs  (100  cents) 
being  taken  as  the  addition  to  the  building. 

To  get  the  rate  of  the  wholesale  drug  stock,  there 
should  be  added  to  the  occupied  bdg.  rate,  No.  128,  its  figure 
in  the  second  column  of  the  table,  85,  first  deducting  25  per 
cent,  of  the  deficiencies  of  the  building  from  Standard. 
Inasmuch  as  the  building  rate  is  85  cents,  the  excess  of  this 
figure  (60  cents)  over  that  of  a  Standard  building  in  a 
Standard  city,  (25  cents),  would  be  its  deficiencies,  25  per 
cent,  of  which,  or  15  cents,  should  be  deducted  for  each 
stock  in  the  building.  The  rate  on  wholesale  drugs,  there- 
fore, would  be  185,  minus  15,  plus  85,  equals  255. 

The  rate  on  the  Apothecary  Stock  would  be  as  follows  : 
185,  minus  15,  plus  50,  equals  220. 

The  rate  on  the  stock  of  Artists'  Materials  would  be  as 


719 


follows:  185,  minus  15,  plus  75  (the  rate  named  in  the 
second  column  of  the  table),  equals  245. 

The  rate  on  the  stock  of  Cabinetware  would  be  as  fol- 
lows :  185,  minus  15,  plus  75  (the  amount  named  in  the 
second  column  of  the  table),  equals  245. 

The  rate  on  a  stock  of  Retail  Dry  Goods  would  be  as 
follows:    1S5,  minus  15,  plus  50,  equals  220. 

The  summing  up  of  the  foregoing  ratings  would  be  as 


follows 

128. 

Building  rate  occu 

pied 

85  + 

100,  -= 

185 

423- 

Retail  Drugs  .... 

185  — 

*S  + 

5°,  = 

220 

435- 

Artists'  Materials.. 

185  - 

15  + 

75,  = 

245 

604. 

Cabinetware  

185  - 

*5  + 

75,  = 

245 

806. 

Wholesale  Drugs. . 

185- 

15  + 

85,= 

255 

811. 

Retail  Dry  Goods. 

1S5- 

15  + 

5°,  = 

220 

By  adding  the  first  column  charge  of  the  most  hazardous 
stock  in  the  building  (in  this  case,  Wholesale  Drugs),  all  the 
first  column  charges  of  other  less  hazardous  stocks  are  thus 
included  and  provided  for. 

There  could  be  no  plainer  illustration  of  the  propriety  of 
this  method  of  ascertaining  the  rates  of  various  stocks  in  the 
same  building,  than  in  the  case  of  Retail  Drugs  and  Whole- 
sale Drugs.  Clearly  those  features  of  a  retail  drug  stock 
which  make  the  building  worse  to  the  extent  of  10  cents, 
are  all  to  be  found  in  wholesale  drugs,  and,  therefore,  con- 
tained in  the  100  cents  which  measure  these  two  features 
in  the  wholesale  drug  rate.  The  10  cents  being  already  con- 
tained, therefore,  in  the  100  cents  named  in  the  first  column 
for  wholesale  drugs,  does  not  need  to  be  added  to  bring 
the  retail  drugs  up  to  the  hazard  of  wholesale  drugs. 

Especially  in  the  case  of  buildings  containing  a  number 
of  tenants,  and  in  order  to  save  the  deduction  of  one-fourth 
of  the  deficiencies  of  building,  for  each  stock  at  rate,  No.  127, 
and  of  adding  the  excess  of  any  more  hazardous  stock  in 
the  building,  the  rate  No.  128  (that  for  the  building  occu- 
pied) is  taken,  instead  of  No.  127.  No.  128,  as  already 
explained,  includes  not  only  the  first  column  charge  of  the 
stock  to  be  rated,  but  also  the  excess  of  any  more  hazardous 
stock,  because  it  contains  the  first  column  charge  of  the 
most  hazardous  stock.  By  deducting  one-fourth  of  the 
deficiencies  of  the  building  at  ihis  point,  a  base  or  key-rate 
is  obtained  for  all  contents  to  which  it  is  only  necessary  to 


7 -Hi 


add  the  susceptibility  to  damage  or  second  column  charge 
of  any  stock  to  get  the  rate  of  such  stock,  which  will  then 
be  subject,  of  course,  to  the  Fire  Department  deductions, 
Nos.  190,  191,  &c.j  and  for  co-insurance. 

In  the  Table,  it  should  be  remembered,  the  second 
column  charge  contains  only  the  susceptibility  to  damage 
feature. 

To  recapitulate,  let  us  suppose  a  building  whose  rate  at 
No.  127  is  85  cents,  under  the  U.  M.  S.  The  charges  in  the 
Table  would  be  for 

Wholesale  Drugs,  100  85 

Retail  Dry  Goods,  o  50 

Millinery,  o  75 

Baskets,  15  60 

The  rate  of  the  building  occupied  at  No.  128  is  taken, 
viz.,  185  ;  from  this  would  be  deducted  one-fourth  of  the 
deficiencies  (15  cts.),  giving  170,  which  would  be  the  base 
or  key-rate  for  all  stocks  in  the  building,  to  which  it  would 
only  be  necessary  to  add  the  second  column  figure  of  the 
table — 85  cents  for  wholesale  drugs,  50  cts.  for  dry  goods, 
75  cts.  for  millinery,  60  cts.  for  baskets — thus  saving  a  repe- 
tition in  each  case  of  the  deduction  for  deficiencies,  and  also 
the  excess  hazard  above  the  first  column  charge  of  the 
most  hazardous  stock — an  important  saving  of  time  in  a 
building  of  omnibus  occupancy. 

In  some  of  the  systems  of  rating  now  prevailing  through- 
out the  country,  all  stocks  under  the  same  roof  are  made 
to  rate  as  high  as  the  worst  stock  in  the  building  and, 
in  the  example  above  cited,  all  rates  would  be  brought  to 
the  wholesale  drug  rate  (255).  This  clearly  would  not 
be  right.  The  mere  susceptibility  to  damage  feature  of 
wholesale  drugs  is  one  which  ought  not,  in  any  way,  to 
increase  the  rate  of  any  other  stock  in  the  building,  and  to 
add  any  part  of  the  85  cents  of  the  wholesale  drug  rate 
which  measures  this  feature,  in  addition  to  the  100  cents  in 
the  first  column  of  the  table,  which  measures  the  liability  to 
cause  fires  and  those  of  destructive  character,  would  be 
radically  wrong.  It  is  only  these  two  latter  features  which 
should  be  taken  into  account  in  rating  any  other  stock  in 
the  building.  Ninety-five  per  cent,  of  the  losses  in  a  fire 
department  city  are  partial.  In  case  of  a  fire  in  a  standard 
building,  in  a  standard  city,  the  various  kinds  of  contents 
would  be  found  to  show  a  salvage,  it  is  believed,  in  the  ratio 


721 


of  their  respective  second  column  figures  in  the  table  :  and 
the  salvage  on  the  building  would  be  in  the  ratio  of  the 
building  rate  to  the  respective  stock  rates. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  RATING  BY  SCHEDULE. 

It  would  be  a  mistake  to  assume  that  the  only  advantage 
of  rating  by  schedule  is  that  of  accurate  measurement  of 
conditions,  resulting  in  rates  which  would  be  adequate  or 
profitable  to  the  Insurance  company  and,  at  the  same  time, 
equitable  or  just  to  the  property  owner. 

If  a  system  of  rating  would  tend  to  prevent  fires  from 
starting  and  limit  their  dimensions  by  preventing  their 
spread,  it  would,  by  the  reduction  of  loss,  yield  a  not  less 
certain  profit  to  the  Company  than  would  an  increase  of 
premium,  while  it  would,  at  the  same  time,  reduce  the  ulti- 
mate cost  of  insurance  to  the  property  owner  and  lessen 
the  fire  waste  of  the  country.  In  fact,  a  reduction  of  one 
dollar  in  the  loss  account  is  of  more  importance  than  an 
increase  of  two  dollars  in  premium.  The  one  is  all  of  it 
net  profit;  the  other  a  gross  income,  which  includes  a  cer- 
tain expense  and  a  possible  loss. 

PREVENTABLE  FIRES. 

A  system  of  rating  which  places  a  penalty  upon  defects 
of  construction  and  faults  of  management  such  as  the 
accumulation  of  rubbish  in  cellars,  garrets,  rear  yards  and 
alleys,  swinging  gas  brackets,  sawdust  on  floors,  ashes  in 
wooden  boxes  and  barrels,  open  lights  in  show  windows, 
etc.,  etc.,  would  tend  directly  to  reduce  the  fire  loss.  Such 
faults  will  never  be  corrected  by  preaching  sermons. 

They  should  be  charged  for  and  followed  up  by  inspec- 
tion at  whatever  cost.    It  is  setter  to  pay   for  man's 

WORK  THAN  FOR  FIRE'S  WORK. 

It  was  the  accumulation  of  rubbish  in  a  rear  yard  which 
led  to  the  destruction  of  the  City  of  Fargo,  Dakota,  and 
if  the  owner  of  the  premises  had  been  charged  a  higher 
rate  of  insurance  for  such  fault  it  may  safely  be  assumed 
that  the  destruction  of  that  city  would  have  been  prevented. 

In  an  ordinary  city  of  twenty  millions  of  mercantile 
values  (and  this  would  be  a  large  estimate  for  many  cities 
of  the  country)  a  single  fire  costing  a  hundred  thousand 
dollars  means  a  50  per  cent,  loss  ratio  on  an  average  rate 
of  1  per  cent.,  which,  even  with  full  insurance,  would  yield 


722 


an  annual  premium  of  only  $200,000.  One  additional  fire 
of  tliis  size  would  mean  a  one  hundred  per  cent,  loss  ratio, 
leaving  nothing  for  expenses  or  profit. 

PREVENTING  CONFLAGRATIONS. 

A  discriminating  schedule  which  recognizes  faults  of 
construction  would  improve  the  buildings  of  the  country  to 
an  extent  which  would  materially  reduce  the  number  of 
fires  which,  under  present  conditions,  extend  beyond  the 
buildings  in  which  they  start,  despite  the  efforts  of  Fire 
Departments  to  control  them.  If  one-half  the  conflagration 
losses  of  the  past  could  have  been  saved — and  proper  con- 
struction of  an  inexpensive  character  would  have  saved 
this  proportion  of  them — the  Companies  in  this  one  direc- 
tion alone  would  have  realized  a  fair  profit.  There  could 
be  no  better  illustration  of  this  fact  than  in  the  difference 
between  the  cost  to  a  single  Company  of  the  great  Boston 
tire  of  November,  1872,  as  compared  with  that  of  November, 
1889.  In  the  latter  fire  the  loss  of  the  company  was 
$40,000,  whereas  in  the  former  it  was  over  $800,000.  And 
it  may  safely  be  said  that  the  difference  in  destruction  was 
due  to  the  one  fact  that  in  the  pathway  of  the  '89  fire  was  a 
building  of  superior  construction,  which  enabled  the  Fire 
Department  to  control  the  conflagration. 

Twenty  per  cent.  (20  %)  of  the  losses  of  Companies,  year 
by  year,  on  mercantile  risks  are  from  exposures;  one-half  of 
this  saved  would  equal  5  per  cent,  profit  on  the  premiums. 

BUILDING  LAWS. 

A  system  of  schedule  rating  which  charges  and  collects 
from  both  owner  and  tenant,  a  yearly  penalty  in  the  shape 
of  a  rate-charge  for  faults  of  construction,  occupancy  and 
management,  would  prove  more  efficient  for  the  enforcement 
ot  building  laws  than  the  laws  themselves,  which  often, 
through  the  influence  of  builders  and  architects,  are 
deprived,  before  enactment,  of  all  penalty  provisions  and, 
even  in  the  case  of  important  cities,  are  simply  man- 
datory. To  conduct  the  business  of  fire  insurance  on  a 
basis  which  docs  not  penalize  bad  construction  is  to  con- 
duct it  on  lines  which  make  it  dangerous  to  society.  If 
property  owners,  architects  and  builders  are  led  to  ignore 
obviously  correct  systems  of  construction,  because  of  the 
fact  that  they  can  secure  insurance  as  cheaply  as  if  they 


723 


build  more  correctly,  the  natural  outcome  will  be  that 
entire  cities  will  be  subjected  to  the  dangers  of  sweeping 
conflagrations.  Whatever  may  be  the  rights  of  an 
individual  as  to  the  construction  of  a  building  owned  by 
him  in  the  center  of  a  ten-acre  lot,  there  can  be  no  question 
that  every  man  should  be  required,  in  the  compact  portions 
of  cities,  where  the  burning  of  his  own  structure  may 
endanger  that  of  his  neighbor,  to  build  in  accordance  with 
well-known  laws  as  to  the  prevention  and  control  of  fires 
Indeed,  no  building  should  be  permitted  in  the  compact 
portion  of  a  city  which  would  not  effectually  and  safely 
cremate  its  own  contents  without  injury  to  its  neighbor. 

CONFINING  FIRES  TO  FLOORS. 

If  buildings  should  be  constructed  in  accordance  with 
the  standard  described  in  the  Universal  Mercantile  Schedule, 
or  even  on  a  plan  approaching  this  standard,  as  to  floors, 
enclosed  stairways  and  elevators,  etc.,  fires,  in  the  majority 
of  cases,  would  be  confined  to  the  floors  on  which  they 
start.  It  may  safely  be  assumed  that  one-tenth  of  the 
losses  which  would  be  saved  in  this  way  if  fires  could  be 
confined  to  single  floors  would  yield  a  handsome  profit  to 
the  Companies. 

These  three  lines  of  thought  in  the  direction  of  securing 
a  reduced  loss  ratio  throughout  the  country,  reveal  pos- 
sibilities which  dwarf  considerations  of  improved  premium 
accounts  ;  for  it  may  safely  be  claimed  that  if  the  Uni- 
versal Schedule  did  not  raise  rates  in  any  section  it  would 
increase  the  profits  of  the  Companies  without  imposing 
additional  burdens  upon  the  assured. 

IMPROVED  FIRE  RECORD. 

REDUCED  HATES  FOR  REDUCED  LOSSES. 

It  may  be  asked,  at  this  point,  what  action  should  be 
taken  in  case  this  forecast  of  the  future  should  prove  the 
true  one  and  it  should  be  found  that  losses  would  be 
reduced.  A  far-seeing  underwriter  has  suggested  that  it 
would  clearly  be  wise  to  recognize  it  by  a  percentage 
reduction  of  the  premiums  of  succeeding  years  so  soon  as 
say  two  years  of  successive  low  loss  ratio  have  warranted  a 
belief  in  an  improvement  in  city  conditions.  This  would 
practically  place  the  whole  matter  on  a  three-year  basis, 
because  two  years  would  have  been  assured  without  reduc- 
tion and  the  first  reduction  would  be  on  the  third  year. 


According  to  the  methods  of  the  past  rates,  following  a 
reduced  loss  ratio,  have  usually  broken  in  demoralized 
competition  and  have  been  cut  in  two  below  the  middle. 
Would  it  not  be  a  more  intelligent  method  of  treating 
such  improved  conditions  to  forestall  demoralization,  make 
a  virtue  out  of  a  necessity  and  voluntarily  give  a  reduction 
in  rate  of  i  per  cent,  for  each  i  per  cent,  that  the  loss  ratio 
goes  below  55  per  cent.,  and  so  impress  property  owners 
with  our  fairness  and,  at  the  same  time,  with  the  fact  that 
they  are  directly  interested  in  preventing  fires  and  in  con- 
trolling them  ? 

We  should  then  have  a  new  factor  in  the  business  of 
insurance,  altogether  wanting  under  existing  methods — 
co-operation  on  the  part  of  citizens  to  prevent  fires,  to 
improve  fire  departments  and  water  supply  and  to  punish 
fraud  and  incendiarism.  Twelve  intelligent  citizens  in  a 
jury  box  would  not  then  ignore  convincing  proof  of  inten- 
tional burning  and  fraud  upon  Insurance  Companies. 

That  the  companies  could  afford  such  a  reduction  will 
be  seen  from  the  following  computation: 

Let  us  suppose  an  average  rate  of  1  per  cent,  and  a 
loss  ratio  reduced  to  40  per  cent,  instead  of  55  per  cent. 
A  reduction  in  rate  of  15  per  cent,  (or  1  per  cent,  for  each 
1  per  cent,  of  reduction  of  loss  ratio  below  55  per  cent.) 
would  mean  an  85-cent  rate,  in  place  of  100  cents  ;  but 
the  40  cents  of  loss  would  be  55  per  cent,  of  a  72-cent 
rate,  so  that  the  Company  would  still  have  a  margin  of 
13  cents,  with  its  policy-holders  satisfied.  This  margin 
would  provide  safely  for  the  element  of  any  simple  good 
luck  in  the  experience  of  a  city. 

In  case  the  record  of  the  city  should  change  for  the 
worse  in  a  subsequent  year,  property  owners  could  easily 
be  convinced  that  the  Companies  could  no  longer  afford 
to  allow  the  deduction,  and  the  majority  of  them  would 
address  themselves  to  the  task  of  improving  the  record  of 
the  city  in  their  own  interest,  instead  of  spending  their 
\ime,  as  they  do  now,  in  denouncing  Insurance  Companies 
as  "  trusts"  and  in  securing  adverse  legislation. 

Under  this  system,  moreover,  how  easy  would  it  be  to 
answer  the  objections  invariably  raised  to  any  increase  in 
rates  on  the  ground  that  they  are  not  needed.  It  would  be 
possible  for  the  underwriter  to  say  :  "  If  you  are  right 
and  we  are  wrong,  and  results  show  that  the  loss  ratio  of 


725 


this  city  is  less  than  55  per  cent,  of  the  premiums,  you 
will  get  1  per  cent,  reduction  for  each  1  per  cent,  that  it  is 
less,  and  will  have  a  practical  readjustment  of  rates  on  your 
own  proposition." 

For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  business  the  per- 
centage of  loss  to  premium  would  become  significant  and 
important.  At  present  it  is  simply  interesting.  An  average 
loss  ratio  of  50  per  cent.,  for  example,  may  conceal  the 
fact  that  many  of  the  classes  are  costing  the  Companies  100 
per  cent,  of  the  premiums,  while  others,  with  low  loss  ratios, 
are  helping  to  pay  for  them  and  to  reduce  the  average 
percentage.  Under  a  system  of  uniform  schedule  rating, 
however,  an  improvement  in  the  percentage  of  loss  to 
premium  would  indicate  that  all  policy-holders — those  hav- 
ing poor  risks  as  well  as  those  having  good  ones — were 
entitled  to  a  pro-rata  reduction  in  rate,  since  the  owners 
of  bad  risks  could  claim  that  they  had  contributed  pro-rata 
to  the  premium  account  in  rates  based  upon  merit  and 
demerit,  and  so  had  paid  for  the  faults  of  their  risks. 

Inasmuch  as  the  Schedule  recognizes  the  previous  fire 
record  in  computing  the  key-rate  of  the  city,  it  is  eminently 
proper  and  only  fair,  that  if  the  record  should  improve — 
and  it  is  an  observed  fact  in  connection  with  schedules 
which  penalize  faults  of  construction  and  management  that 
the  loss  record  does  improve — the  entire  system  of  rates  of 
the  city  ought,  in  justice  to  property-owners,  to  be  adjusted 
to  the  improved  condition.  Underwriters  have  heretofore 
made  this  adjustment  by  abandoned  tariffs  and  broken  rates, 
without  securing  anything  whatever  in  return.  The  plan 
outlined  would  secure  in  return  for  the  reduction  in  rate, 
the  hearty  and  sympathetic  co-operation  of  all  property- 
owners,  who  would  take  a  proper  civic  pride  in  the  record 
of  the  city. 

Does  not  this  view  of  the  matter  present  the  ultimate 
and  successful  solution  of  the  difficult  problem  of  rating 
in  the  United  States  ? 

Is  it  not  true,  as  a  simple  abstract  proposition,  that  any 
rating  system,  the  Universal  or  any  other,  must  recognize 
the  existing  fire  record  of  the  territory  or  city  at  the  time 
of  applying  it,  and  afterward,  in  case  the  fire  record  im- 
proves, recognize  the  improvement  ?  If  the  regular  line 
tariff  Companies  do  not  recognize  it,  the  non-tariff  Companies 
certainly  will.    Is  it,  indeed,  possible  to  conceive  of  any 


72G 

successful  or  permanent  treatment  of  insurance  rates  which, 
while  it  takes  notice  of  an  unfavorable  existing  fire  record, 
does  not  recognize  a  subsequent  improved  fire  record,  and 
between  these  two  maintain  a  uniform  schedule  or  measure 
for  fixing  rates.  With  such  a  scheme  of  rating  it  makes  little 
difference,  indeed,  whether  or  not  the  intermediate  measure 
or  schedule  produces  rates  which  are  too  high,  if  only  the 
schedule  be  uniform  and  rate  all  risks  alike,  for  the  adjust- 
ment can  easily  be  made,  year  by  year,  according  to  the 
ratio  of  loss  to  premium. 

Any  schedule  which  raises  the  rates  of  a  city  will  be 
regarded  with  disfavor  by  property-owners  and,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  by  the  local  Agents  as  well.  With  the 
certainty  of  reduction  on  a  favorable  fire  record,  however, 
criticism  is  disarmed  and  competition  of  non-tariff  Com- 
panies will  be  less  effectual  for  breaking  prices.  Not  only 
will  such  competitors  hesitate  to  cut  a  rate  which  is  kept 
uniformly  adjusted  to  a  5  per  cent,  profit,  but  intelligent 
property-owners  themselves  can  be  made  to  see  that  as  their 
security — the  thing  they  pay  for — depends  upon  adequate 
rates  rather  than  upon  capital,  they  will  be  unwise  in  entrust- 
ing their  premium  money  to  concerns  which  claim  to  be 
better  judges  of  risks  and  rates  than  all  other  underwriters 
put  together. 

UNIFORMITY  IN  RATING. 

If  a  system  of  schedule  rating  had  no  other  merit  than 
that  of  uniformity,  this  feature  of  it  would  alone  be  an 
important  argument  in  its  favor.  It  must  certainly  be 
conceded  for  the  Universal  Schedule  what  is  claimed 
for  it — that  it  measures  all  risks,  no  matter  where  located, 
alike.  If,  in  the  opinion  of  any,  it  produces  rates  which 
are  too  high,  all  must  be  too  high  ;  if  any  are  too 
low,  all  must  be  too  low.  Being  a  uniform  measure  of 
conditions  and  of  prices,  it  offers,  in  the  line  of  thought 
already  presented,  the  easy  and  effectual  solution  of  the 
difficult  problem  of  how  to  meet  conditions  of  reduced  loss 
ratio.  By  such  deduction  as  has  been  suggested  it  can  be 
adjusted  to  a  high  fire  record,  or  to  a  low  one. 


727 

THE  PREVIOUS  FIRE  RECORD 

for  a  five  year  period  should  govern  the  fixing  of  the  key- 
rate  of  a  city  to  cover  any  possible  moral  or  unknown  haz- 
ard. To  this  end  the  committee  provided  for  an  increase 
of  the  key-rate  of  a  city  by  adding  to  it  twenty  per  cent, 
of  its  amount  for  each  one  dollar  of  loss  in  excess  of  $5 
per  $1,000  of  insurance,  as  explained  on  pages  19  and  20. 

The  percentage  of  loss  to  premium  is,  of  course,  a 
changeable  and  unreliable  quantity,  varying  with  the  rate 
obtained.  The  amount  at  risk  and  the  amount  of  loss  per 
*ach  $1,000  at  risk,  on  the  other  hand,  present  reliable 
bases  for  determining  what  the  rate  of  premium  should  be. 
For  example,  in  the  supposable  case  stated,  of  a  town 
with  $20,000,000  of  mercantile  values  at  risk,  and  a  fire 
loss  per  annum  of  $100,000,  it  is  clear  that  the  annual 
loss  is  $5  per  $i,ooo,  but  while  this  would  be  50  per  cent, 
of  the  premium  at  an  average  rate  of  1  per  cent,  (which 
would  yield  a  premium  of  $200,000),  it  would  be  100  per 
cent,  of  the  premium  if  the  average  rate  should  happen  to 
be  50  cents  per  $100.  A  loss  of  $140,000  per  annum  in 
a  town  of  $20,000,000  of  values  (a  good  sized  town)  would 
be  at  a  rate  of  $7  per  $1,000  at  risk,  and  therefore  $2  in 
excess  of  normal  ($5  per  $1,000),  but  it  would  be  only 
50  per  cent,  of  the  premium  if  the  average  rate  should 
happen  to  be  140  (which  would  yield  $280,000  premium) 
and  fully  70  per  cent,  of  the  premium  at  a  1  per  cent, 
rate.  If  the  latter  should  happen  to  be  the  average  rate 
prevailing,  it  is  clear  it  should  be  raised  40  per  cent,  'co 
140  in  order  to  maintain  the  ratio  of  loss  to  premium  at  50 
per  cent.  The  scale  of  increase  should  thus  be  20  per 
cent,  for  each  $1  of  loss  per  $1,000  at  risk  in  excess  of  $5. 
See  No.  30.  If  the  percentage  of  loss  to  premium  were 
regarded  as  a  reliable  feature,  a  town  whose  insurable  values 
were  $20,000,000  and  fire  losses  $140,000  on  a  premium 
of  $280,000  would  be  considered  normal,  the  loss  being 
only  50  per  cent,  of  the  premium,  whereas  the  lowness  of 
percentage  would  be  simply  due  to  the  fact  that  the  average 
rate  obtained  was  unduly  high  (140),  and  not  to  the  fact  that 
the  rate  of  burning  was  low,  the  latter  being,  in  fact,  so 
abnormally  large  ($7  per  $1,000)  as  to  make  the  loss  70  per 
cent,  on  a  premium  rate  of  1  per  cent.,  which  may  be 
regarded  as  a  fairly  full  average  rate. 

The  previous  five  years  fire  record  can  be  easily  deter* 


728 


mined  by  the  books  of  say  five  of  the  agents  doing  the 
largest  mercantile  business,  by  picking  out  of  their  registers 
the  amount  insured  on  mercantile  buildings  and  stocks  and 
calculating  the  amount  of  loss  per  $1,000  of  insurance. 
Their  business  would  be  a  safe  sample  of  the  whole. 

The  addition  of  20  per  cent,  of  the  "  key-rate  "  for  each 
$1  in  excess  of  $5  per  $1,000  is  taken  and  not  20  per 
cent,  of  the  final  rate  obtained  by  the  schedule  because, 
from  the  key-rate  forward,  the  schedule  makes  proper 
charges  for  such  faults  of  construction  and  management 
as  may,  in  the  past,  have  caused  the  abnormal  loss  record, 
and  to  add,  therefore,  20  per  cent,  of  the  final  rate  would 
be  to  charge  twice,  which  would  be  unjust. 

IT  WILL   TEND  TO  PREVENT  RATE  CUTTING. 

No  company  has  a  percentage  of  fire  loss  to  earned 
premium  low  enough  to  justify  it  in  writing  five  per  cent, 
below  the  discriminating  rate  obtained  by  a  proper 
Schedule,  and  it  could  be  clearly  demonstrated  to  an  intel- 
ligent property  owner  from  the  Company's  own  sworn 
statement  to  the  Insurance  Department,  that  an  offer  to 
write  10  or  20  per  cent,  less  was  evidence  that  the  Company 
cutting  was  either  ignorant  as  to  the  business  or  reckless  as 
to  consequences.  A  merchant  would  soon  realize  that  upon 
adequate  rates,  not  less  than  upon  substantial  capitals  and 
net  surpluses,  depends  his  security,  and  that  to  accept  an 
inadequate  rate  from  a  Companv  pursuing  a  cut-throat  policy 
would  be  as  foolish  as  to  deposit  money  with  an  unreliable 
custodian  in  order  to  draw  interest  dividends  out  of  his  own 
principal.  An  intelligent  and  accurate  Schedule,  therefore, 
based  upon  combined  experience,  is  calculated  to  prevent 
the  loss  of  business  by  reckless  rate-cutting.  Unless  a  sys- 
tem of  rating  goes  thoroughly  enough  into  detail  to  consider 
every  feature  of  a  risk,  however,  the  rate  cutter  is  given  a 
decided  advantage.  If  the  system  of  rating  in  any  locality 
be  that  of  short  schedules  which  do  not  go  carefully  into 
details  of  construction,  &c,  the  best  risks  must  necessarily  be 
brought  up  to  the  average  rate  of  the  average  class,  and 
where  such  systems  prevail  there  will  always  be  rate  cutting. 
In  the  case  of  area,  for  example,  if  the  Schedule  did  not 
make  a  difference  between  areas  cut  off  by  curtain  or  cross 
walls,  as  compared  with  open  areas,  any  competing  com- 
pany could  intelligently  argue  to  a  man  having  a  building  so 


729 


sub-divided  that  the  system  of  the  Schedule  was  incorrect 
to  this  extent  and  unjust  to  his  risk.  If  it  should  overlook 
proximity  to  hydrants  or  to  fire  engine  houses  or  odier 
features,  the  door  would  be  left  open  for  intelligent  dis- 
crimination in  price,  and  the  company  getting  the  risk 
would  deserve  it.  Wherever  a  Local  Board  rates  the  choice 
risks  of  exceptional  construction  according  to  an  average 
standard,  the  non-board  companies  will  secure  them. 

RATING  BY  DISINTERESTED  EXPERTS. 

One  of  the  most  practical,  experienced  and  successful 
underwriters  of  this  country,  lately  suggested  the  advisa- 
bility of  forming  a  Stock  Company  to  rate  the  entire  country 
on  the  basis  of  the  Universal  Schedule,  and  sell  the  rates  to 
Insurance  Companies,  making  charges,  as  do  the  Mercantile 
Agencies,  for  specific  rating  slips  and  further  detailed  in- 
formation. His  argument  was  that  no  Company  could  afford 
to  be  without  such  information,  and  that  agreements  to  get 
the  rates  would  practically  be  a  logical  and  inevitable 
sequence  of  the  plan  :  if,  indeed,  he  argued,  any  agreements 
would  be  necessary,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  most  of  the 
present  rate  cutting  grows  out  of  honest  ignorance  as  to 
what  the  faults  of  risks  are  and  what  their  rates  ought  to  be. 

WILL  THE  UNIVERSAL  SCHEDULE  RAISE  OR 
LOWER  RATES  ? 
The  question  has  frequently  been  asked,  will  the  Uni- 
versal Schedule  have  the  effect  of  raising  or  reducing  rates. 
The  only  answer  that  can  obviously  be  made  to  this  is,  that 
if  the  Schedule  is  correct  and  there  are  any  rates  which  are 
too  low  it  will  raise  them  ;  if  there  are  any  which  are  too 
high  it  will  reduce  them.  It  is  like  any  other  standard  of 
measure.  A  two-foot  rule  would  increase  or  decrease  off- 
hand estimates  of  distances  according  to  the  accuracy  or 
inaccuracy  of  estimates.  It  is  simply  necessary,  therefore, 
by  way  of  reply,  to  ask  two  questions — are  there  any  rates 
in  the  country  too  high  or  too  low,  and  is  the  Schedule 
correct  ? 

ADVANTAGES  TO  LOCAL  AGENTS. 

Under  a  schedule  system  of  making  rates  the  Agent  can 
explain  to  a  dissatisfied  assured  the  reason  for  his  rate, 


in  many  cases  Indicating  to  him  how  he  can,  at  small 
expense,  reduce  his  rate  by  improving  his  risk.  At  present, 
much  of  the  dissatisfaction  of  property-owners  grows  out 
of.  the  fact  that  no  one  can  explain  why  they  are  required 
to  pay  more  than  others  in  the  same  line  of  trade  and  under 
conditions  which  seem  to  them  identical  with  their  own.  It 
is  safe  to  assume  that  competition  will  always  prevent 
exorbitant  rates,  and  that,  therefore,  equitable  rates  which 
can  be  explained  and  defended  are  directly  in  the  interest 
of  the  local  Agents,  and  will  contribute  to  their  comfort 
as  well  as  to  their  profit. 

There  is  a  further  advantage  to  Agents  in  the  fact  that 
where  a  town  is  rated  under  the  Universal  Schedule,  long 
titles  of  occupancy  and  whole  paragraphs  explaining  reduc- 
tions or  changes  in  rates  can  be  represented  by  the  use  of 
numbers,  saving  time  in  letter  writing  to  the  Company. 
It  would  be  found  in  practice  that  Companies  would 
require  less  explanation  of  a  rate,  knowing  the  system  by 
which  it  is  made,  than  under  present  systems,  where  the 
Agent  is  subjected  to  much  trouble  and  loss  of  time  in 
making  explanations  to  his  Company. 

SPEED  IN  RATING. 

The  objection  has  been  made  to  the  Universal  Schedule 
that  it  requires  more  time  and,  therefore,  money,  to  fix  rates 
under  it  than  by  prevailing  methods;  but  those  who  framed 
it  claim  for  it,  and  those  experts  who  have  been  applying 
it  will  support  the  claim,  that  whatever  extra  time  is 
required  in  rating  will  be  found  to  be  necessary  for  obtain- 
ing the  facts  of  the  risk  in  order  to  apply  the  schedule. 
In  other  words,  whatever  excess  time  is  consumed  in  the 
process  is  that  employed  in  investigating  each  risk  from 
cellar  to  garret.  It  surely  is  not  necessary  to  defend  this 
feature  of  it.  Any  system  of  rating  which  does  not 
thoroughly  investigate  a  building  and  its  various  details  of 
construction,  occupancy  and  fire  appliances  is  not  a  system 
of  rating,  but  a  system  of  guessing.  When  once  the  facts 
of  a  risk  have  been  obtained  the  rate  can  be  computed  in 
less  time  by  the  Schedule  than  by  any  memorized  process 
which  affects  to  deal  with  the  various  features.  It  will  be 
found  in  practice,  that  an  expert  can  rate  a  risk  more  quickly 


731 


with  the  Schedule  than  without  it.  By  rating  a  risk  is,  of 
course,  meant  the  fixing  of  a  proper  price  or  figure  upon 
each  feature  of  it  after  a  thorough  inspection  of  the  building 
from  roof  to  cellar  floor.  Any  test  of  comparative  speed  in 
rating  should  require,  without  argument,  this  "scratch  line" 
as  a  starting  point;  the  expert  is  to  make  the  tour  of  the 
building,  is  to  observe  everything  that  ought  to  be  seen  and 
to  fix  a  price  upon  it — the  uniform  price  for  the  same  feat- 
ure in  all  cases. 

He  will  rate  more  quickly  with  the  Schedule  for  the 
reason  that  he  will  lose  no  time  in  considering  or  estimating 
any  detail.  It  will  be  found  that,  at  any  point  where  the  one 
rating  by  memory  stops  to  recall  his  fixed  charge  for  a  par- 
ticular feature — open  staircase,  wooden  chute,  elevator,  well- 
hole,  etc.,  etc.,  (it  being  assumed  that  he  has  a  fixed  and 
uniform  charge) — he  will  be  passed  by  an  expert  using 
the  Schedule,  who  does  not  need  to  scratch  his  head  in 
reflection,  but  has,  already  fixed  for  his  convenience,  prices 
made  in  advance  by  hundreds  of  competent  men. 

The  objections  made  to  the  Schedule  that  it  will  take 
more  time  to  apply  it  are  generally  found  to  emanate  from 
men  who  contemplate  a  quick  method  of  fixing  rates  by 
"jump  "  estimates.  Men  whose  wives  would  not  trust  them 
to  go  to  market  without  a  memorandum  list  of  items  to  be 
ordered,  will  yet  complacently  essay  the  task  of  rating, 
off-hand,  a  risk  having  a  hundred  features,  each  of  which 
should  be  carefully  considered  in  making  the  rate. 

A  competent  expert  will  compute  the  rate  of  the  most 
complicated  mercantile  risk  by  the  rating  slip  inside  of  two 
minutes. 

EMPLOYMENT   OF  MECHANICS. 

Where  a  city  is  to  be  rated  it  will  be  found  economical, 
botli  in  time  and  money,  to  employ  mechanics,  intelligent 
carpenters  or  masons,  to  ascertain  those  facts  as  to  features 
of  construction,  quality  of  bricks  and  mortar,  thickness  of 
walls,  floors,  flues,  etc.,  etc.,  which  these  men  can  attend 
to  as  well  as,  if  not  better  than,  insurance  experts.  There 
is  the  further  advantage  that  they  can  be  hired  for  the 
time  needed,  by  the  day,  at  trade  wages,  and  their  services 
dispensed  with  so  soon  as  the  information  is  obtained. 


IS  THE  SCHEDULE  COMPLICATED  AND  HARD 
TO  UNDERSTAND? 

That  is  not  the  question.  Is  it  right  ?  Is  it  the  correct 
way  to  make  rates?  If  so,  no  one  should  shirk  the  task  of 
studying  it  in  a  business  where  the  margin  of  profit  is  so 
close,  and  where  not  merely  success  but  solvency  depends 
upon  accuracy. 

The  business  of  insurance  is  no  child's  play.  It  involves 
considerations  of  architecture,  fire  prevention  and  extinc- 
tion, chemistry,  physics,  arts,  manufactures,  commerce,  and 
every  enterprise  of  man,  and  the  measure  of  these  considera- 
tions with  mathematical  certainty.  The  schedule  is  not 
harder  to  understand  than  the  school-boy  task  of  long 
division  which,  however,  was  difficult  in  its  novelty. 

The  preparation  of  the  schedule  has  developed  the  most 
lamentable  differences  of  opinion  prevailing  among  experts, 
on  points  where  the  ignorance  of  those  making  mistakes  has 
resulted  in  broken  prices,  which  might  have  been  main- 
tained intact  if  the  knowledge  of  all  could  have  been  col- 
lated and  promulgated  for  the  benefit  of  each,  as  it  has 
been  in  the  various  provisions  and  rules  of  the  Universal 
Schedule. 

There  could  be  no  better  illustration  of  the  necessity  of 
a  Schedule  of  this  character  and  of  the  importance  of  con- 
ference for  securing  combined  judgment  than  in  the  present 
methods  of  rating  stocks  prevalent  throughout  the  country, 
by  which  the  costly  experience  of  the  companies  as  to  the 
relative  susceptibility  to  damage  of  various  stocks  is  entirely 
ignored.  It  is  mortifying  to  confess,  what  we  may  as  well, 
however,  frankly  admit,  that  the  major  part  of  the  knowl- 
edge held  by  underwriters  £o-day  has  been  gained  through 
the  simple  process  by  which  a  child  learns  to  dread  the  fire. 
For  want  of  a  proper  dissemination  of  this  dearly  bought 
knowledge,  which  too  often  lies  useless  at  the  head  offices, 
the  most  damageable  stocks  are  rated,  in  many  cities,  by 
local  underwriters,  at  figures  as  low  as  those  fixed  for  whole- 
sale boots  and  shoes,  package  dry  goods,  &c.  Thus,  facts 
which  have  cost  the  Insurance  Companies  millions  of  dol- 
lars, and  which  are  well  known  at  the  home  offices,  are  not 
availed  of  for  the  conduct  of  their  business  through  their 
agencies,  the  rates  being  made  in  the  various  cities  and 
towns  of  the  country  by  their  local  agents,  who,  while  hon- 


733 


estly  desirous  of  fixing  proper  prices,  have  no  experience  to 
guide  them.  Being  the  practical  rate-makers  of  their  com- 
panies, they  are  more  potential  for  determining  the  prices 
of  the  business  than  the  Companies  they  represent. 

If  a  merchant  should  purchase  a  million  dollars'  worth 
of  goods,  Silks,  Velvets,  Satins  and  Calicoes,  turn  them  over 
to  the  clerks  in  the  different  departments  of  his  store  with 
instructions  to  sell  them  at  such  prices  as  they  should 
choose,  withholding  from  them  all  information  as  to  cost 
and  depriving  them  of  yard-sticks  and  other  measures  of 
quantity,  his  action  would  be  regarded  as  sufficient  evidence 
of  mental  aberration  to  warrant  his  being  forthwith  placed 
in  an  insane  asylum  ;  and  yet  this  is  practically  what  is 
being  done  to-da}.,  in  the  insurance  business,  in  hundreds 
of  cities  and  towns  throughout  the  country.  The  com- 
panies furnish  the  capital  while  the  local  agents  sell  the 
policies  at  such  prices  as  they  choose,  without  reference  to 
quantity  or  the  percentage  of  insurance  to  value.  The 
most  intelligent  and  conscientious  among  them,  willing  and 
anxious  to  fix  fair  rates  and  make  accurate  guesses  at  the 
facts,  are  deprived  cf  the  necessary  information  as  to  cost 
which  lies  useless  in  the  head  offices  !  Surely  the  time  has 
arrived  for  a  change  in  such  business  methods,  and  the 
accumulated  knowledge  of  a  century  ought  to  be  combined 
and  utilized,  by  conference,  for  the  good  of  all. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  SECURING  COMBINED 
JUDGMENT. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  no  one  Company,  and  certainly  no 
one  underwriter,  can  claim  to  have  sufficient  experience  or 
knowledge  for  rating  all  classes  of  risks,  it  will  not  be  denied 
that,  in  a  business  where  an  adequate  price  is  so  absolutely 
essential  not  merely  to  profit,  but  to  solvency,  rates  should 
be  fixed  after  a  wide  canvass  to  secure  combined  judgment. 
In  no  other  way  could  any  tariff  be  secured  which  would  be 
more  than  approximately  correct.  There  was  a  period  in 
the  business  when  wall-paper,  for  example,  was  regarded  as 
a  non-hazardous  stock  ;  in  fact,  only  within  a  few  years  has 
it  been  known  that  the  claims  for  water  and  smoke  damage 
are  exceptionally  large  and  difficult  to  adjust,  and  to-day  the 
knowledge  of  this  fact  is  limited  to  a  few.  A  claim  was 
recently  fixed  by  appraisal  at  a  figure  over  $70,000,  for 
water  and  smoke  damage  on  a  stock  of  wall-paper,  which  the 


adjusters  supposed  was  injured  only  to  the  extent  of  a  few 
hundreds. 

The  same  remark  is  true  of  hops  in  bales,  and  many  other 
stocks,  which  are,  to-day,  in  various  towns  and  cities 
throughout  the  country,  regarded  as  choice  risks,  and  rated 
as  low  as  wholesale  boots  and  shoes  and  other  non-hazardous 
package  goods. 

There  could  be  no  better  illustration  of  the  importance  of 
conference  than  was  to  be  found  in  an  incident  of  the  last 
convention  of  the  various  committees  on  the  Schedule,  held 
in  the  City  of  New  York  in  November,  1892.  On  an  im- 
portant matter,  involving  the  question  of  an  allowance  of 
5  per  cent.,  the  convention  was  found  to  be  nearly  equally 
divided.  The  majority,  however,  in  the  debate  which  ensued, 
quickly  convinced  the  minority  of  their  error,  and  the  final 
vote  taken  was  a  unanimous  one.  No  comment  was  made 
upon  the  significance  of  the  fact  that,  while  5  percent,  meas- 
ures the  entire  profit  over  incurred  loss  and  expense  on  the 
earned  premium,  nearly  one-half  of  the  underwriters  in  the 
room  would  have  accepted  the  hazard  under  debate  at  a  rate 
lower  by  the  entire  measure  of  profit  than  the  other  half. 
They  would  have  done  this  honestly,  and  the  incident  en- 
forces the  argument  that  inasmuch  as  it  may  safely  be 
claimed  a  majority  of  underwriters  would  not  cut  a  rate  be- 
low a  figure  yielding  a  margin  of  5  per  cent.,  that  large 
amount  of  rate  cutting  v/hich  proceeds  from  ignorance  and 
not  from  greed,  would  be  prevented  by  a  comparison  of 
judgment  and  experience,  and  an  interchange  of  knowledge. 

The  necessity  of  a  printed  list  of  stock  rates  should 
require  no  argument.  There  are  more  than  twelve  hundred 
different  hazards  of  occupancy  enumerated  in  the  table. 
Even  if  an  underwriter  were  capable  of  fixing  correct 
charges  for  all  of  them  and  were  independent  of  the  knowl- 
edge and  judgment  of  others,  he  would  not  be  capable  of 
remembering  them  one  week  with  another.  If  they  are 
right  they  are  right,  and  ought  not  to  be  altered  when  once 
decided  upon.  A  difference  of  5  per  cent,  would  mean 
profit  or  loss.  The  average  rate  of  the  entire  list  does  not 
exceed  50  cents  ;  a  variation,  therefore,  of  5  cents  (which 
would  be  \o<fe  of  50  cents),  becomes  a  fatal  matter  in  a  busi- 
ness where  5  per  cent,  of  the  earned  premium  measures 
the  entire  profit  realized  above  incurred  losses  and  expenses. 
In  no  other  business  are  salesmen  permitted  to  ignore 


735 


carefully  considered  lists  of  prices — memory  is  not  relied 
upon.  The  salesman  in  a  hardware  store,  for  example,  is 
not  permitted  to  sell  even  the  single  item  of  screws,  ex- 
cept by  reference  to  a  price  list,  and,  lest  he  should  make 
a  mistake,  even  with  this  in  his  hands,  the  bookkeeping 
department  is  required  to  check  off  prices  before  bills  are 
forwarded. 

The  statement  is  frequently  made  that  schedules  or 
lists  of  risks  and  various  classes  of  merchandise,  with 
rates  named,  are  not  necessary  in  insurance,  and  that  in- 
surance experts  can  rate  the  various  classes  of  merchan- 
dise to  be  found  in  warehouses  and  the  various  classes 
of  hazards  more  intelligently  by  off-hand  opinion  than 
by  a  schedule  systematically  made  and  lists  of  prices 
carefully  fixed : 

I  most  emphatically  do  not  believe  in  expert  off-hand 
opinions  as  to  rates,  and  especially  as  to  that  feature  of  a 
rate  which  measures  the  susceptibility  to  damage  by 
fire,  water  and  smoke.  It  is  true,  as  claimed,  that  an 
expert  in  tobacco  or  in  tea  or  in  flour,  or  in  any  article 
of  merchandise,  becomes  by  long  practice  able  to  de- 
termine slight  differences  in  value ;  but  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  insurance  expert  cannot  devote  a 
lifetime  to  a  particular  class  of  merchandise,  but  must 
know  off-hand  the  value  and  susceptibility  to  damage 
of  hundreds  of  different  articles.  Of  course,  no  one  man 
can  know  much  ;  it  is  only  by  canvassing  for  opinions 
and  fixing  the  majority  view  in  a  printed  list  that  any- 
thing approaching  accuracy  can  be  secured. 


OCCUPANCY 


CHARGES, 


LIST  OF  HAZARDS,  UNIVERSAL  SCHEDULE. 

The  following  list  of  hazards  has  been  compiled  with  the  intention 
of  making  it  as  comprehensive  as  possible.  It  is  believed  that  none 
worth  considering  has  been  omitted.  Each  class  has  been  given 
the  National  Board  Analysis  or  Classification  number,  which  can  be 
used  for  analyzing  the  fire-cost  (z.  e.  fire  loss  per  $100  of  amount  in- 
sured )  so  that  the  fire-cost  not  merely  of  such  general  classes  as 
crockery,  clothing,  &c,  may  be  determined,  but  the  figures  of 
loss  on  sub-divisions  of  these  classes,  some  of  which  differ  from 
each  other  almost  as  vitally  as  the  general  classes  themselves.  For 
example,  class  No.  807,  Wholesale  Drugs,  without  compounding, 
etc.,  (Dry  Drugs  only),  should  not  be  charged  with  losses  on  806, 
Wholesale  DniLTs,  with  compounding. 

The  old  classification  "Merchandise,  extra  hazardous,"  comprised 
too  many  different  hazards  to  make  loss  figures  of  the  class  of  any 
value  whatever. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  risks  of  a  cli.ss  differ  so  much  as  to  exposures 
&c,  that  figures  of  fire  cost  would  not  indicate  relative  susceptibility 
to  damage,  but,  in  answer  to  tin.-,  it  should  lie  remembered  that 
while  risks  of  the  various  classes,  Groceries,  Dry-Goods,  Apothecary 
Stocks,  etc.,  vary  as  to  combinations  with  other  risks  in  the  same 
buil.liug  and  also  as  to  exposures,  the  average  environment  or  ex- 
posure combinations  of  a  class  vary  but  little  as  a  total.  So  large 
a  number  of  risks  of  each  class,  50,000,  for  example,  might  be 
si  c a :ed  by  co-operation  of  a  dozen  large  Companies,  that  while  a 
particular  grocery  stock  might  be  exposed  by  a  dwelling  house 
during  one  year  and  by  a  planing-mill  during  the  next  year,  there 
would  be,  in  so  large  a  number  of  ri  >ks,  compensating  changes,  and 
another  grocery  stock  exposed  by  a  planing-mill  during  the  first  year 
would  be  exposed  by  a  dwelling  during  the  second.  The  average 
fire  cost  per  $100  of  insurance  on  Grocery  Stocks,  therefore,  while 
including  the  average  exposure  or  environment  hazard  would,  based 
upon  a  large  experience,  be  an  absolutely  safe  figure  on  which  to 
estimate  the  relative  susceptibility  to  damage  feature,  which  has  so 
much  to  do  with  rates.  Moreover,  the  fire  cost,  including  the 
average  exposure,  would  be  a  perfectly  safe  figure  for  accepting 
or  rejecting  risks,  especially  as  the  underwriter  has  the  opportunity 
of  scrutinizing  the  exposure  hazard  of  each  risk  as  it  comes  up 
for  insurance  and  of  rejecting  the  more  undesirable,  it'  he  cannot 
get  a  higher  rate. 


I  O  I 

THE  FOLLOWING  TABLE  OF  OCCUPANCY  CHARGES  CAN  BE 
USED  WITH  ANY  SYSTEM  OF  RATING  AS  WELL 
AS  WITH  THE  UNIVERSAL  MER- 
CANTILE SCHEDULE. 

Being  intended  to  measure,  by  the  figure  in  the  first  column, 
the  "ignitibility"  and  "combustibility"  features  of  contents,  and 
in  the  second  column  the  third,  "susceptibility"  to  damage,  they 
can  be  added  to  a  basis  rate  made  by  any  other  schedule  for  an 
unoccupied  building,  as  well  as  to  a  basis  or  key  rate  computed 
by  the  U.  M.  S. 

These  three  features  of  a  risk  may  be  treated  as  the  super- 
structure of  a  rate,  the  foundation  of  which  would  be  a  figure 
which  recognizes  construction,  faults  of  management,  environ- 
ment, fire  department,  etc.,  etc.,  the  resulting  rate  being  higher 
or  lower  exactly  according  to  the  system  of  underlying  unoccu- 
pied building  rate  and  according  to  the  estimate  made  of  peculiar 
local  facts  or  environment.  Even  if  the  system  of  computing 
the  unoccupied  building  rate,  therefore,  should  differ  from  that 
of  the  Universal  Schedule,  the  charges  in  the  two  columns 
measuring  ignitibility,  combustibility  and  susceptibility  of  con- 
tents will  be  regarded  as  relatively  correct,  one  with  another, 
and  that  the  foundation  rate  to  be  added  to  these  would  be  the 
only  factor  which  would  differ  from  the  U.  M.  S.  no  matter 
what  system  should  be  followed. 

A  rough,  off-hand  estimate  of  what  the  final  rate  would  be  on 
an  average  risk,  computed  according  to  the  Universal  Mercantile 
Schedule,  can  be  made  by  adding  to  the  rates  of  the  two  columns, 
for  building  and  stock,  50  cents  in  the  case  of  brick  buildings  of 
average  area,  height  and  construction,  and  125  cents  for  frame 
buildings.  Most  risks  would  be  entitled  to  deductions  from  the 
resulting  rate  for  water  pails,  force  pumps  and  other  fire  appli- 
ances, and,  in  the  case  of  buildings  coming  under  the  protection 
of  good  fire  departments,  a  deduction  of  possibly  30^  from  the 
final  rate  would  probably  be  secured  under  the  U.  M.  S. 
Buildings  of  large  area,  exceeding  5,000  square  feet,  and  (or) 
over  five  stories  high — height  and  area  being  cumulative — 
would,  of  course,  have  a  larger  rate  under  the  Universal 
Schedule. 


If  it  is  desired  to  fix  a  round  rate  for  an  entire  plant,  it  should 
be  intelligently  made  with  reference  to  the  porportion  of  the 
policy  covering  on  building  and  contents.  Specific  amounts  on 
each,  however,  should  he  insured  in  the  case  of  special  hazards, 
as  in  other  risks,  unless  with  a  l  ull  co-insurance  clause.  There 
is  no  more  reason  for  insuring  the  building  and  contents  of  a 
manufactory  under  one  item  than  for  insuring  the  stock  of  a 
dry-goods  store  and  the  building  under  one  amount.  The  un- 
derwriter, for  example,  who  insures  the  building  and  product 
of  a  silk  mill  at  a  round  rate  obtained  by  taking  one-half  of  the 
sum  of  the  two  rates,  where  the  amount  of  insurance  on  the 
stock  is  more  than  one-half  of  the  amount  of  his  policy,  is  either 
indifferent  to  profit  or  does  not  know  the  difference  between  a 
pink  ribbon  and  a  pink  brickbat. 

Whatever  be  the  opinion  formed,  however,  as  to  the  correct- 
ness of  the  rates  named,  this  list  of  hazards  will  prove  valuable 
as  the  most  comprehensive  of  any  in  print,  and  the  feature  of 
alphabetical  arrangement — the  order  being  carried  to  the  fourth 
letter,  for  facilitating  quick  reference — will  it  is  believed,  be 
appreciated  f<  >r  other  purposes  beside  the  important  one  of  rating. 
In  addition  to  this  careful  arrangement,  each  risk,  as  will  be 
seen,  has  been  given  a  number,  which  facilitates  quicker  ref- 
erence even  than  by  the  alphabetical  arrangement.  This  num- 
ber will  save  time  in  writing  long  titles,  and  serve  for  experience 
analysis,  as  already  explained. 

F.  C.  M. 


HOW  TO  USE  THE  FOLLOWING  TABLE. 

Rule.  From  the  rate  of  Building  occupied,  No,  128,  deduct  one  fourth 
of  the  deficiencies  and  then  add  the  figure  n..med  in  the  second  column  of 
the  table  for  the  stock  to  be  rated,  proceeding  with  deductions  Nos.  190, 
191,  etc.,  as  per  rating  slip. 


a 

3  6 
c  * 
«  2 

So 

o  < 


No. 

400 


401 
402 

403 
404 
405 
406 
407 


408 
409 
410 
411 


412 
413 
414 
415 
415 
417 

418 
419 

420 
421 
422 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY". 
Note. — Where  stocks  are  entered  in  two  different  places,  alphabet- 
ically, the  reference  in  each  to  the  other  is  intended  to  prevent  over- 
sight in  case  of  subsequent  revisions  of  the  table,  so  as  to  insure  that 
if  a  rate  be  changed  in  one  place  it  shall  be  in  all.  For  example. 
Chinese  and  Japanese  goods  are  entered  under  both  C  and  J,  with 
a  reference  in  each  place  to  the  other.  Only  one  number,  however 
isassigned  ioboth  titles  for  Fire  Cost  Analysis. 


To  the  Rate  at 
Nos.  127  &  128 as 
ascertained  by 
the  Schedule. 


&  S  9 

Z  3  3;- 

GO  O^3 

o  a  a 


< 


Academies  and  Private  Schools  on  upper  floors  of 

mercantile  buildings,  in  cities,  

"         and  Seminaries  in  cities,  

"  "         "        "  country,  

Acids,  (see  Warehouse,  Nos.  1800,  1825)  

"  Manuf'y*  

Adze  Manuf'y.  (see  Hardware  Manuf'y)  

Agricultural  Implements,  Stocks  of*  

"  "  Manuf'y*  Steam  Power, . . 

"  "  "      Water  " 

Add  for  tiny  exposure!  by 
Boiler  Room  Hazard  No. , 
527,  Painting,  No.  1267, 
Dry  Room,  No.  814. 
Alarms,  Fire,  Burglar,  Annunciators  &c.,  Manuf'y,. 

"        "    Stocks  of  

Album  Manuf'y.,  

Alcohol  and  High  Wines,  in  bbls.,  or  casks  

"      If  included  in  Drug  Stock,  covered  by  drug 

stock  rate  

Ale  Houses,  (see  Saloons)  

Ale,  Beer  or  Porter,  in  bottles,  cased,  

"      "    "     "       "  bbls.,  or  casks  

b  Almshouses,  brick,  (see  also  Poor  Houses,)  

f         "  frame  

Aluminum  Manuf'y  

Ammunition,  fixed,  M'f'y.  (see  Cart.  M'f'y  No.  646). 

Anchors,  Anvils  

Animal  Black,  Animal  Charcoal,  Bone  Black &c.  Mfy. 

Animals,  Live,  domestic,  (see  Live  Stock)  

"  "     wild,  tamed  or  untamed,  

Apartment  and  Flat  Houses.*  

"  "     "       "      Co;d  and  Wood  Shafts 

and  Stairway  and  Eleva- 
tor Shafts  of  Brick  or 

Fireproof  

If  first  floor  Fireproof,  deduct  10  %■ 


(  cuts. 


125 
50 
10 
200 
150 


40 


50 
25 


100 
100 
75 


300 
50 


.  S 

=  g  2 

7t,  3  0. 
©  £  3 

«~  5 

< 
Cents. 

25 
25 
25 

75 
50 
50 
50 
50 


60 
75 
100 
50 


45 
50 
40 
25 
25 
50 

10 

300 

300 


*See  specific  Schedule  fur  class,  pending  preparation  of  which  these  rates  on 
Manufacturing  and  Special  Hazard  Risks  tentative  only. 

+By  which  is  meant  a  charge  according  to  the  facts.  If  the  Boiler  Room,  for  ex- 
ample, is  I  ire  Proof  or  so  thoroughly  isolated  that  it  could  do  no  damage,  no  charge 
should  be  made  to  other  portions  of  a  risk. 


740 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Add  for 
Build'g 
Rate. 


No. 

423  Apothecaries,  Retail  

424  Architects,  

425  Armories,  

426  Art  Galleries,  (see  Pictures,  1314)  

427  Artificial  Eyes  Manuf'y.  (see  Eyes)  

428  "         "    Stocks  of  

429  "      Flowers,  Feathers  and  Millinery  Stocks... 

430  "  "            "                  "  Manuf'y. 

431  "      Hair,  (see  Hair)  

432  "         "     If  vegetable  fibre  used,  

433  "       Limbs  Manuf'y  

434  "         "     Stocks  of,  

435  Artists'  Materials,  Dry  Plates  excluded  (See  No.  1302) 

436  "  Studio,  

437  Asbestos  Goods  M'f'y  

438  Asphalt  and  Hoofing  Material  M'f'y.  (see  Roofing  M.) 

439  Assayers,  Gold  and  Silver  Refiners,  (see  990)  

440  Asylums,  Deaf,  Dumb,  Blind,  Aged,  and  Orphan... 

441  "  Insane,  

(see  also  Almshouses) 

442  Athletic  Goods,  Stocks  of  (see  Sporting  Goods)  

443  "  "  Manuf'y  

444  Auction  Stocks,  

445  Autographic  Sales  Register  Manuf'y.  

446  "  "        "       Stocks  of  

447  Awning,  Sail  and  Tent  Makers  

448  Axe  Factories,  no  wood  work  

449  Axle  Grease  in  casks,  kegs  or  cases,  (see  Grease). . . 

450  Bag  Factories,*  Cloth,  Cotton,  sewing  &  print'g  only 

451  "  "        Gunny  Bag, 

452  "  "         Traveling,  Leather,  (No  Trunk  mak 

ing.)  

453  "         "  Paper  

454  Bagging  Factories,*  

455  Bakeries,  Small  retail,  oven  outside,  

456  "  "       "       "    inside,  safely  set  

457  "  "       "        "     with  doughnut  and  crul- 

ler stoves  inside,  add. . 

458  "       Large  steam,  Bread,  Cake  or  Pie,  

459  "       Steam  Cracker,  

460  Baking  Powders,  Manuf'y  

461  Bamboo  Furniture,  Manuf'y,  

462  "  "       Stocks  of  

463  Bananas,  Ripening  with  gas  heat,  

464  "  "  "    other  than  gas  heat,  

465  Banks  and  Bank  furniture  

466  Banners  and  Flags  Manuf'y  , 

467  "       "     "    Stocks  of  

468  Barber  Shops  

469  "      Supplies  with  Manuf'g  , 

470  Bark  Extract,  in  cans,  

471  "  Mills,  

"    See  Next  Page 


Cents. 
10 


25 
40 


25 


10 

50 


10 


20 
300 
20 
25 
3? 

10 

100 
10 
50 


10 

30 
25 
30 


50 
25 
200 
10 
25 

25 
125 
100 
60 
50 
10 
25 
50 


50 


50 
300 


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


741 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Add  for 
Build'g 
Rate. 


liark,  continued. 

"    piled  in  woods  

"       "    near  railroad,  

"       "    near  a  paying  city  or  town  Tannery,  same 

rate  as  the  Tannery  

Barns  (see  Farm  Property  No.  876,  882 )  

Barrel  Manuf'y*  (see  Cooper  shop  733 )  

Bar-rooms  (see  Saloons),  

Base  Ball  Manuf'y  (see  Athletic  Goods),  

Basket  Manuf'y  

"      and  Willow  Ware  Stock,  

Bath-houses,  City,  Turkish,  Russian,  &c  

"  Public,  Lake,  Seashore,  

"  Health  Springs,  

Batting  and  Wadding,  Cotton  Stock,  (see  Wadding). 

"        "         "  Manuf'y*  

Bead  Work,  Passementerie  and  Trimming  Stocks, 

(See  602)  

Bedstead  Manuf'y  Brass,  (see  556)  

"  "  Iron  

Wood*  

i  Bedding  Manuf'y  

Add  for  527,  1267,  814 

Beef  Dealers  (wholesale),  (see  Butchers,  590)  

Bellhanger  Shops  

Bell  Manuf'y,  no  handle  work  

'.'        "      with    "  "   

Bellows  Manuf'y  

Belting  and  Hose  Manuf'y,  less  than  10  hands,  

over  10  hands,  add  1  ct. 
for  each  10  hands  in  ex 
cess  of  10  to  both  columns 

Bicycles,  Factories  

"       with  wood  rim  m'fg.,  Japanning  and  Enam- 
eling  

"       Stocks  of,  without  repairing  

"  "       "   with  repair  shop,  

Billiard  Cue  Manuf'y  

"  Saloons  

Table  Manuf'y  

Bill  Posters,  

Bird  Cage  Manuf'y  

"  Stores  

Blacking  Manuf'y  (shoe)  

"  "        (stove),  no  Naphtha  

"  "  "     with  Naphtha  

Blacksmiths,  hand  power,  no  woodwork  

"  and  Wheelwright,  

"  steam  power,  (see  Machine  Shop  Sched 

Blank  Book  Manuf'y  (see  Book  Binderies,  No.  534, ). 

Blast  Furnace,  (see  Iron  Furnace  No.  1081, )  

Bleacheries,  Dye  and  Print  Works, *( see  827)  

Blind,  Sash,  and  Door  Manuf'y*  (see  Sash  and  B.) . . 

"     "    stocks  (no  m'fg)  

Add  for  any  exposure  by 
Boiler  Room  No.  527,  Painting 
Hazard  (No.  1267,)  Drying 
(No.  814,)  


Cents. 


50 
50 
15 
25 
50 
50 
20 
300 


50 
50 
250 


5 
25 
50 
50 
10 


50 
75 


15 
75 
10 
150 
25 
50 
10 
100 
100 
200 
25 
75 
30 
25 

125 
200 
50 


Add  for 

cont'nts 
Rates. 

Cents. 
1000 
500 


♦See  Specific  Schedule  for  class, 


742 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Block  and  Pump  Manuf'y  (see  Pump  Manuf'y  136T) 

Boarding  Houses,  private  

Not  over  15  Bed-rooms  and 
no  liar,  if  bar  add  25  cents 
and  add  2  cents  for  each 
Room  in  excess  of  15. 
"  Large  city,  add  1  ct.  for  each 

bedroom  in  excess  of  15,  

"  "       for  employees  of  contractors  on 

Railroad,  Dam,  Bridge  work,  &c, 

generally  bad  flues,  

"  "  for  mill  hands,  permanent,  good 
Hues,  no  stove  pipes  through  win- 
dows  

Boat  Builders,  Wood,  (see  Paper  boat,  No.  1209,). . . 

Boats  and  Boat  Houses,  Public,  Hotels,  &c  

•   Clubs,  

"     "       "  Private  


"     Stocks  of  for  sale,  no  Manuf'y  

Bobbin  and  Shuttle  Manuf'y,  (See  Shuttle,). 
Boiler  Makers  


Boiler  Room  Hazard — Should  be  cut  off  abso- 
lutely in  all  wood-working  risks,  and 
in  other  kinds  of  risks  if  other  than  coal 
fuel  is  used,  especially  if  shavings  or 
slabs  are  used  for  fuel.  The  furnace 
feed  should  not  be  in  line  with  any  com- 
munication with  the  main  structure,  but 
at  right  angles  to  it,  so  that  in  case  of  a 
"back  draft"  the  burning  contentsof  the 
furnaces  cannot  be  thrown  into  the  other 
rooms  of  the  risk.  Probably  the  most 
dangerous  form  of  boiler-room  is  where 
the  boilers  are  below  a  ground  floor,  es 
pecially  if  the  space  above  the  boilers  be 
used  for  drying  purposes,  piling  of  lum- 
ber, etc.  The  masonry  arches  over  the 
furnace,  no  matter  how  well  set,  yield  in 
time  to  the  effect  of  heat  and  cold,  by  ex- 
pansion and  contraction,  and,  in  the  case 
of  wood -working  risks,  a  combustible 
stratum  of  dry  material  collects  above 
the  arch,  to  be  eventually  ignited  as  a 
certainty.  If  boiler  rooms  are  safely  ar- 
ranged and  entirely  cut  off  add  

"  "  If  boiler-room  inside  below  floor  of 
main  structure,  in  other  than  woodwork 
ing risks,  (No  Shavings  burned)  

"  "  If  boiler-room  inside,  below  floor  of 
main  structure,  in  wood-working  risks, 

"         "  Petroleum  Fuel,  see  regulations  


(see  419) 


Bolt  and  Nut  Works ,*(see  Nut  &  Bolt). 
Bone-black,  f  Ivory-black  and  Animal-black  Manuf'y 

Bone  Mills,  (usually  nuisances)  

Bonnet  Manuf'y  (see  Millinery)  

and  Hat  Frame  Manuf'y  

"       "     "  Bleaching  

Bookbinderies,  (see  Blank  Book,  No.  511). . . . 

Book  lettering,  

Books  and  Stationery,  Stocks  of  (see  Stat'y) 


Add  for 

Build'g 
Kate. 


Cents. 
75 
5 


150 

100 
100 
50 
00 
25 
25 
150 


25 


600 

125 
300 
300 
25 
50 
50 
25 
15 


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  class. 


tLiable  to  Spontaneous  Combustion. 


743 


Add  foi 

Add  for 

CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 

Ruild'g 

cont'nts 

Rate. 

Kate. 

No. 

(  cllts. 

Cents. 

Boots  and  Shoes  wholesale   no  manufacturing  

40 

53£ 

35 

"     "       "      Mf'y  (see  Shoe  Mfy,  No.  1451  &c.  ] 

54C 

A  K 

45 

04  J 

**       "         "       RiiViIut   nfl pirn ffp  ftnlv          1thH:i  1? 

30 

KAQ 
04iC 

Ti/iftlinn-  T^ct >i  111  icli tn t >n tc    flfdliirci  ptf» 

15 

75 

KA% 
04t 

R/\nTlJti  ip   A  lli.XTc 

25 

50 

04*d 

RriVlno*  filnv*1  AT'ltlllPv 

50 

75 

040 

D/iv  "R1.  w>f  i   fSo"!?*  iotm  Oio'*is*  l^MV  IVT'i  11 11  f  \M 

t  0 

75 

04t) 

l"-*.)!"!^!'      11  Q  11(1  T"W~11IT£11' 

9, 5 

100 

04  / 

50 

100 

04C 

95 

/GO 

100 

549 

Wooden,*  packing  box,  hand  power,  . 

1  OK 
1*0 

Kt\ 

ou 

550 

"      "               "          "         "  steam*  " 

250 

100 

551 

"      "               "           "         "  water  " 

150 

100 

add  for  any  exposure  by  B.  R.  No.  527, 

Painting  Jso.  1207  Dry  Room  No.  814, 

552 

Braid  Manuf  y  (Not  Straw)  Knitting,  &c.    Not  ex- 

rppiUno1  1  fi  IimiiiIq  wpii vlnn- 

95 

60 

OOo 

*  *              ' '          Sf  ro w 

Aft 
4U 

60 

554 

Brand,  Stencil  and  Stamp  Manuf y  (see  Stencil),. . . . 

10 

50 

555 

40 

35 

kku 
000 

50 

00 1 

50 

558 

50 
ou 

559 

40 

4U 

560 

"          "    "     "     with       "     Add  for  any  ex- 

r»mnrp  hv  TCiln    (Nn    1100  ^ 

ool 

Tiri* •-■") -l^r*i r»  flnH  C^iirino.    Stork0,  of 

ad 

125 

ooli 

"Rvi/'l;"  AT  *i  7i  ii  r  \7 

25 

000 

T-^rid  (_t(»q    r'nvpi'pn  T?    T?                                                    1  ?»0  f*tc 

004 

ll                 .<          free                                                       175  << 

Ft  fin 
000 

"            "       toll                                       100  " 

000 

"        onen  or  deck  BR                           100  " 

Ken" 

5o7 

ii          tt    tt    it    free                            70  " 

568 

a                   it        t€        tt        toll                                                       OA  t< 

0o9 

"Rri  i'i  n  nvi  W:t  r*»  ATim  1 1  f '  V 

A  A 

50 

570 

50 

75 

571 

"  AT;irmPv 

1  lO 

75 
i  o 

o/a 

50 

573 

T?rnul»  WfrririiQ    iiri  ill !Hl 1 1  f  :i i * 1 1 1 rl n  o* 

OK 
<o0 

95 
•CO 

574 

25 

75 

576 

50 

100 

577 

"          "        If  pitching  inside  add  25  cents  to 

first  Column.  

75 

100 

578 

"                   with  wood-work  handles,  add  50 

cents  to  rates  of  first  Column 

580 

'Riiflri't  nnH  Pnil  M:miif'v  Mptal 

At) 
4U 

ou 

581 

75 

50 

582 

"       "     "       "  Wood  

200 

100 

583 

Builders'  Risks — Construction  Hazard,  cliarge  short 

rates  of  50  cts.  per  $100  in  addition 

to  rate  of  risk.    If  risk  unoccupied 

or  not  rated  short  rates  of  125  for  the 

tLiaule  to  Spontaneous  Combustion. 


7U 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Add  for 
Build'g 
]{atc. 


Building  Materials,  Lime,  Hair,  Cement,  &c,  

N.  B. — If  Lime  not  above  tide 
water  or  if  improperly  covered 
decline, 

Bunting  Manuf'y*  (see  also  Banners,  &c„  No.  466,).. 

Burlap,  with  hand  sewing  only,  (See  451, )  

Burial  Case  and  Coffin  Manuf'y.,  Metal,  

"     "      "         "  Wood,  

"       "     "      "     Stocks  of ,  

Butcher  Shop,  no  rendering  or  smoking,  (see  489). . . 
"         "     .end'g  and  smoking,  for  own  trade, . . 

"  Supplies,  Manuf'y  of  

Butter,  Cheese  and  Eggs,  (See  Cheese  &c,  )  

Butterine  Stock.    No  Rendering  

"  "       With  Rendering  

Button  Coloring  and  Finishing  with  Varnishing, .... 

"      Hole  Making  

"      Manuf'y*  Bone,  Ivory,  or  Pearl,  

Bright  Metal,  

"  "       Cloth  covered,  

"  "       Vegetable  Ivory  

Wood,  

Buttons  and  Trimmings,  Stocks  of  No.  485,  

Cabinetware,  Furniture,  etc.,  no  finishing  or  uphol- 
stering,   

"  "  "    with  finishing  and  up- 

holstering, not  less  than 
Factory*(see  Fur.  Facty  954). 

Candle  Manuf'y*  

Candy  and  Confectionery  Manuf'y*  

"      '•  "  Stores,  no  manufacturing 

"      "  "  "      small,  manufactur 

ing  for  own  retail 
trade  only  

Cane  Manuf'y  

Canes,  Whips  and  Umbrellas,  Stocks,  

"  "       "  "  with  Manuf'g.  No 

stick  work, 
«  with 

stick  work, 

Canned  Foods  exclusively,  stocks  of  (Fish,  Fruits, 

Meats,  Vegetables,)  

Canning  Fact'y  (Fish,  Fruit,  Meat,  Oyster,  Vegetable) 

"  "    with  tin  shop  

Add  for  Gasolene,  No.  969. 
Cap  and  Hat  Mfy.  Cloth  or  Felt,  less  than  100  hands 
"      "     "       "     more  than  100  hands  add  1 
cent  to  each  column  for 
every  5  additional  men,  but 
total  rate  not  to  exceed. . . 
"       "     "     Straw  Goods  (see  Straw  Goods,) 

Carbon  Point  Works,  

Card-board  Manuf'y*  

Card  Clothing  Manuf'y*  

"    Playing,  Manuf'y*  

Cars  Manuf'y*  

' '    See  next  page. 


15 

60 

50 

75 

10 

50 

25 

75 

50 

75 

40 

150 

50 

175 

50 

20 

80 

50 

100 

40 

60 

150 

100 

150 

150 

150 

150 

75 

75 

200 

100 

♦See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


745 


CHAKtjrJia  r  UK  Utl  LrAJNt  I,  continued. 

Add  for 
1  .11  t  III  g 

Rate. 

Add  for 

cont'nts 
Rate. 

No. 

Cars  coiitiinu'd. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

623 

200 

100 

624 

209 

100 

625 

200 

100 

626 

200 

100 

627 

628 

25 

frA 

50 

7fT 

75 

frA 
50 

00U 

1  AA 

00 1 

200 

100 

Add  for  any  exposure  by  Boiler 

Koom,  JNo.  527,  .rainting,  JNo.I2o7 

00,4 

1  AA 

100 

frA 
00 

boo 

110 

frA 
00 

004 

Carpets,  Rugs  and  Oilcloths,  with  sewing,  stocks  of, 

Aft 
4U 

000 

Carpet  Cleaning  Establishments  (usually  '  'nuisances"^ 

1  AA 
100 

1  FrA 
100 

.•■».. 
000 

using  Naphtha  to  sprinkle  carpets. 

150 

■t  FtA 

loO 

oo/ 

200 

1  fca 
100 

638 

50 

frA 

50 

ft9G 
003 

«   <                                            '  *                                         \  \  '   .  ,    t    .       1  •                   '  ' 

A  A 
40 

fta 
00 

040 

«<                      «<                   1Xm*i/1  << 

Oft 

40 

oft 

041 

frA 
00 

frA 
00 

642 

150 

100 

643 

150 

100 

644 

50 

040 

00 

frA 

646 

50 

646| 

200 

200 

04  i 

100 

648 

1 1            "it r    _  ,.i 

25 

125 

#^i^*j.i->   T  ; . . . .  c  j  i,    -t  ^  ft  fr  r  „  \ 

CI  A 

o4y 

300 

200 

If  Manufacturing  Gun  Cotton  for  sale, 

650 

100 

150 

100 

50 

652 

i  i                            ft                     it                      O  *     ,  .     1  -    ,     ,  ,  f 

40 

653 

150 

•i  AA 
100 

654 

200 

100 

Add  for  Boiler  Room,  No.  527,  Drying  No.  814, 

t>Qln+ln  rr    "\Tr»    1 0ft7 

Chandelier  Manuf'y  (see  Gas  Fixture  M'f'y  No.  966.) 

FrA 

00 

10 

656 

25 

60 

658 

OAA 
,400 

1  AA 
100 

659 

Ci  FT 
25 

frA 
50 

660 

Cheese  Fact'y,   Co-operative  (owned  by  patrons,) 

75 

50 

661 

1  ftA 

100 

Stocks  of  (see  Butter  and  Eggs  592)  

50 

662 

an 

OO 

00 

663 

125 

75 

*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


746 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued 


Add  for  . 
Build'g  i 
[fat.- 


Chemicals  (see  Drugs  and  Warehouse  Tariff). 


Suit  cake,  sulphate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  potash, 
muriate  of  soda,  muriate  of  potash,  NON- 
HAZARDOUS. 

Saltpetre,  nitrate  of  potash,  nitrate  of  soda,  nitrate 
of  ammonia,  chlorate  of  potash  and  other  chlor- 
ates, if  separately  stored,  EXTRA  HAZARDOUS 

Fulminates  of  silver  or  mercury,  ethers,  sweet  spirits 
of  nitre,  nitro-ber.zol,  methylic  alcohol,  bi-sul- 
phide  of  carbon,  metallic  "potassium,  metallic 
sodium,  quick-lime,  phosphorus  and  bi-chloride 
of  tin.  Also,  saltpetre,  nitrate  of  potash,  nitrate 
of  soda,  nitrate  of  ammonia,  chlorate  of  potash 
and  other  chlorates,  when  stored  with  oilier 
merchandise,  SPECIAL. 

Chewing  Gum  Manuf'y,  

China  Decorating,  no  firing  ,  

"  "         with  firing,  

Chinese  and  Japanese  Goods,  (see  Japanese),  

Chocolate  and  Cocoa  Manuf'y  

Churches,*  Brick  or  Stone,  Furnace  heated,  

"  "  "  Steam  "   

"  Stove  "   

"       Frame,  Furnace  heated,  

"  "       Steam  "   

Stove  "   

Church  Goods,  Books,  Statuary  &c,  no  Manuf'y. 

Organ  in  Church,  

Cider  Mills,  

Cigarette  Manuf'y  

Cigar  Manuf'y.    Other  than  Hand  Power  

"     Box  Manuf'y  (see  545)  

Cigars  and  Tobacco,  Stocks  of,  "Wholesale,  no  m'f'g 
"  "        Retail,*  with  manufacturing  for 

own  retail  trade,  hand-power 

no  dry  room  

"  "        with  dry  room  

Cleaning  and  Dyeing,  (see  Dyeing,  &c.)  

Cloaks  and  Mantillas,  no  manufacturing  

"  "        with  "   

"  "         cutting  only,  

Clock  Manuf  y  

Clocks,  Watches  and  Jewelry,  retail  

"  "  "  wholesale  

For  Jewelry  in  safes,  specific  in- 
surance and  full  co-insurance  clause 
deduct  £  of  final  stock  rate  for 
value  of  jewrelry  in  safes. 

"      Case  Manuf'y  

Clothing  Manuf'y.    Less  than  100  hands  

"  "        if  more  than  100  hands,  add  one 

cent  to  each  column  for  every  live 
additional  men,  but  total  rate  not 

to  exceed  

Stock  in  hands  of  working  tailors  ('  'floaters' 

Stocks  of,  Retail  

"       "  Wholesale,  no  manufacturing. . 
"       "  "        with  cutting,  but  no 

manufacturing. . . . 

See  next  Page. 


See  Specific  Schedule  for  Ciass. 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


No         Clothing,  continued. 
698    Clothing,  Stocks  of,  "Wholesale,  with  manufacturing 
G99  "      with  cutting,  pressing  and  husheling. 

700  "      repairing  and    cleaning,   small  quantity 

naphtha    

Oil,  (see  Oiled  Clothing,  No.  1251). .  . . 

"       Second  hand,  stocks  of  (see  1436)  

Cloths,  Cassimeres,  Beavers,  Broadcloth,  Worsteds  etc 
Cloth  samples  pasted  on  Cards,  with  Cutting.  . . 

Club  Houses  City  

"       "  Boating  

"        "      Hunting  and  Sporting  

"  Rooms,  with  bar  and  restaurant  

"       "      without  bar  and  restaurant  

Coal  Breakers*  

"    Cannel,  not  protected  from  weather  

*'       "     protected         "  "   

"    Mine  buildings  

"  Pockets  

"    Yard  and  Wood  yard  (see  also  Wood)  

a  Coke  "Works  

Cobblers  (see  also  Shoemaker)  

Cocoa  and  Chocolate  Manufy,  (see  Chocolate,  No.  668) 

Coffee  and  Spice  Mills,  special*  (see  Spice  1488)  

"    Tea  and  Spice  Retail  Stores,  no  roasting  

"  "        "    wholesale       "  "   

"  roasting  and  grinding,  Standard  roasters  &c. 
"  "      If  roasters  on  wooden  floor  or  floor 

supported  by  wooden  beams  . 

"         "      If  wooden  troughs  used  for  hot  coffee 

add  25  cts.  each  column  

Coffin  Manufy*  (see  Burial  Case  Manufy,  587,  588) 

Cold  Storage  Ware  Houses  Bdgs.  

"      "         "     Contents  ( see  Warehouse  Tariff ) 
Collar,  Cuff  and  Shirt  M'f  y  ( see  Shirt  M'f  y  No.  1445 ) 

Colleges  and  Academies,  

College  Dormitories  

"  Laboratories  

Color  Works  (see  Paint  Nos.  1258,  1259)  

"    Aniline  Manufy  

Comb  Manufy  Horn  (see  Rubber,  Celluloid  &c, ). 

Tortoise  Shell  

Confectionery.  See  Candy,  no  manufacturing.  607 
"  Small  manufacturing  for  own  trade 

"only  No.  608  

"  manufactory  No.  606  

Convents  and  Monasteries  

Cooper  Shops  small,  hand  power  

"        "     large,  steam*    "    (see  Barrel  M'f  y  475) 

Copper  Mine  Buildings  

Copper  Smiths  

Stamp,  Mills  

"      Tube  Manufacturing  

Cordage  and  Rope  Walks  (see  Rope  Walks,  No.  1412 

Cord  Wood  piled  in  Woods  

"      "     See  next  page. 


701 
702 
703 
704 
705 
706 
707 
708 
709 
710 
711 
712 
713 
714 
714 
715 

716 
717 
718 
719 
720 


721 
721 1 

724 
725 
726 

728 
729 
730 


731 
732 
733 
734 
735 
736 
737 

739 


747 

Add  for 

Add  for 

Jiuikl'y 

cont'nts 

Rate 

Rate. 

(Lents. 

20 

80 

Iff 

85 

25 

85 

100 

200 

40 

20 

80 

25 

25 

50 

50 

50 

50 

30 

30 

10 

30 

150 

50 

150 

50 

50 

50 

100 

25 

100 

25 

10 

40 

100 

100 

200 

150 

10 

50 

50 

150 

100 

200 

200 

50 
50 


25 
150 
150 
40 
10 


15 
100 


25 
250 
100 

40 
100 

30 
150 


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


COFFEE  PREPARING  ESTABLISHMENTS. 


Add  for 
Build'g 
Rate. 


Add  for 

Contents 
Rate. 


CLASS  A.     COFFEE  PREPARING  ESTABLISHMENTS. 

Coffee  milling,  polishing,  separating,  mixing,  grind- 
ing etc.,  with  power  


CLASS  B. 

Coffee  roasting,  using  only  gas  fuel,  standard  equip- 
ment, fire-proof  floors,  metal  cooling  pans,  metal 
troughs,  metal  conveyors,  and  metal  hoods  over 
roasters  


CLASS  C. 

Coffee  roasting,  Standard  equipment  using  other 
than  gas  fuel  


CLASS  D. 

Coffee  roasting,  gas  fuel,  standard  equipment  except 
floors  built  of  wood  well  covered  with  brick  or 
cement  


CVnts 


CLASS  E. 

Coffee  roasting  other  than  gas  fuel,  non-standard 
equipment,  non-fire- proof  floors,  etc.,  not  less 


749 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Cord  wood,  continued. 

"       "     piled  near  Wagon  Roads  not  exposed  to 

Forest  or  Prairie  tires  

"        "       "    near  R.  R  

Corks  and  Corkwood  Stocks,  no  cutting  or  manuf'y 
"                "        with  cutting  and  manufactur- 
ing, not  less  than  

Cork  Manuf'y,  no  Grinding  

"        "        with  Grinding  

"    Leather  Manuf'y  

Corn  in  Cribs  near  R.  R  

"    "     "   on  farms  (see  Farm  Property,  No.  883) 

Cornice  ( wood )  Manuf'y  

"     (metal)  "   

Corn  Meal  Mill  

Corsets,  Stocks  of,  no  manufacturing  

"         "  with  "   

Corticine  Manuf'y  (sec  Floor  Cloth,  No.  917)  

Costumers.    See  also  Theatrical  Goods  

Cotton  Brokers,  Office,  with  Samples  

add  for  each  office  in  excess  of 
one,  5  cents  to  each  column. 

"     Gins,  Steam  Power  

"       "    Animal  "   

"      in  Transit,  Rail  Roads  or  Steamboats  

"  Mills.  First  Class.  Modern  mill  construction, 
open  finish,  no  furring  on 
walls  or  concealed  spaces 
between  floors;  heavy 
beams,  double  floors;  stair- 
cases, elevators,  pickers  and 
drying  process  cut  off — lat- 
ter by  cold  air  only.  First- 
class  private  Fire  Applian- 
ces  

"  "  "  "  Weaving  only,  purchasing 
warps  and  yarns;  no  pick- 
ing or  spinning  

"  "  Second  Class.  Good  construction,  mill 
floors  single  with  ordinary 
beams ;  stair  cases  and  ele- 
vators not  cut  off,  but 
pickers  and  dry-rooms  sep- 
arated  

it  <<  Ti,jr(i  Class.  Plastered  ceilings,  furred 
walls,  poor  fire  appliances; 
elevators  and  staircases  not 
cut  off,  but  pickers  sep- 
arated  


Platforms  R.  R. . 

Presses.  

Seed-Oil  Mills*. . 
Sheds  ( no  press ) . 

Storage,  

Warehouses*  


Add  for 
Build'g 
Rate. 


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


750 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Counters,  Shoe,  Manuf'y  (see  also  Shoe  Counters). . 

Country  Stores  (cross-roads)  with  dwelling  

"  "  "  without  "   

"  "       in  villages  (see  9:54,  &c.)  

Court  Houses  with  Jail  

"        "      without  Jail  

Cracker  Bakers,  ( see  Bakery  No.  459),  

Creameries  

Crematories  

"        for  Garbage  (usually  "nuisances")  

Creosote  Works,  Wood  preserving  etc  

Crocker}-,  China  and  Glassware,  if  packing  and  un 
packing,    packing  material  not  kept  in 

boxes  

"     If  packing  material  kept  in  bins  or  boxes. . 

Crucible  Manuf'y  

Curios,  (see  Bric-a-brac,  No.  Ml),  

Currier  Shops*  not  over  10  hands  

"  if    "         "      add  1  cent  for  every 

5  hands  to  both  columns  

Supplies,  no  grease,  See  Oils,  Heavy  

Cutlery  Manuf'y*  

Grinding  ( see  also  Grinding )  

"       Stocks  of,  no  paint  or  oils  

Cycloramas,  Panoramas  &c,  (see  Panoramas).... 

Dancing  Halls,  no  stage  (see  Halls)  

Decorators  and  Painters  

Dental  Depots,  Supplies  

"      Goods  Manuf'y  

Dentists,  with  Laboratory  

"       without  Laboratory  

"       Gas  making  (see  Laughing  Gas)  

Department  Stores  (see  Dry  Goods,  810  arid  p.  752)  . 

Depots,  R.  R.  (see  Railroad,  No.  1378)  

Derricks,  Hoisting  Works  

Derricks,  Floating  150  cts. 

Die  Sinker  

Distilleries*  

Distilling  Apparatus,  Manufacturer  of,  same  as  Cop. 

per-smith    

Doors,  Sashes  and  Blinds,  Stocks  of,  with  Glazing 

(see  514)  

Drain  and  Sewer-pipe  Manuf'y  (see  Pipe,  also  651). 

Dredges,  Steam,  policy  to  locate,  300  cts. 

Dressmakers  

Dress  Patterns  (see  Patterns  1287)  

Drug  Mills  

Drugs,  Retailf  (see  Apothecaries  423)  

"      Wholesale,!  with  compounding  

"  "  without  compounding,  dry  drugsf  only 
Druggists'  Sundries  (see  also  Warehouse,  No.  2206). . 
Dry  Docks  


Add  for 

Bnild'g 
Kate 


10 

50 

200 

50 

40 

50 

50 

75 

100 

50 

5 

70 

150 

150 

150 

10 

50 

100 

85 

40 

85 

25 

75 

100 

25 

*See  Specific  Schedule  for  class. 

tFor  warranty  in  policy  to  keep  poisonous  stock  separate  from  rest,  deduct  5  % 
from  Stock  Kate. 


751 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


No. 
810 


811 

812 
818 


814 


815 


Dry  Goods,  Department  Stores,  large  general  stocks, 
etc.,  containing  wood  and  willow- ware, 
house-furnishing  goods,  millinery  depart- 
ment, dress  and  cloak  making,  crockery, 
&c,  &c,  in  addition  to  dry  goods,  all  un- 
der one  roof,  such  as  are  to  be  found  in 
large  cities,  special  rates  not  less  than  (sec 

page  35)..'  

*'      "  Retail,  

Wholesale  

"       "  original  packages  only,  not  ex- 

ceeding 10  %  of  stock  open. . . 

Dry  Plates,  (see  Photo.  No.  1302)  

Dry  Boom  Hazard — For  Wood,  Lumber,  etc.,  The 
si  cam  or  hot  water  pipes  should  be 
either  above  the  material  to  be 
dried  or  at  the  side  of  it,  and  not 
below  the  material,  where  distilla- 
tions of  pitch,  resin,  etc.,  shavings- 
sawdust  or  other  ignitible  sub- 
stances can  fall  and  collect  upon 

them.    If  safely  arranged  

If  steam  or  water  pipes  arranged 
below  the  material  to  be  dried. . . 

"         "    for  Textiles,  Wool,  Cotton,  etc.,  

If  the  steam  or  hot  water  pipes 
are  arranged  so  that  the  material 
cannot  touch  them  or  fall  upon 

them  

If  arranged  under  the  material, 
or  where  the  material  or  dust  from 
it  can  reach  the  heated  surfaces. . 
Cold  Air  Dryers,  No  heat  \ised,  add 
to  rate  of  build'gs  and  contents. . 
N.  B.    Any  system  of  drying  wdiich  admits  of  the 
falling  of  material  or  dust,  shavings,  &c,  upon  heat- 
ed surfaces  is  dangerous. 

81(5  b  Dwellings,  city,  town  and  village — Brick  or  Stone, 

metal,  slate  or 
gravel  roof  

8171)  "      "       "        "       Brick  or  Stone, 

shingle  roof  

-it;  f  "      "       "        '*       Frame,  metal, 

slate  or  gravel  roof 

817  f  "      "       "        "       Frame,  shingle 

roof  

Farm,  ( see  Farm  Property ),  

820  Large,  including  so  called  "palatial  resi- 

dences." These  sometimes  approach  the 
physical  hazard  of  summer  hotels,  and  fires 
have  been  discovered  burningbriskly  in  one 
portion  of  the  building  while  the  inmates 
in  another  portion  were  entirely  ignorant 
of  the  fact.  Losses  are  generally  total.* 
Whe  re  a  dwelling  exceeds  in  value,  by  more 
than  50  %  the  average  of  those  in  its  vicini- 
ty it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  purchaser 
in  case  the  owner  should  wish  to  sell,  or  in 


Add  for 

Build'g 
Rate 


15 


200 
600 

100 

300 
15 


Add  for 

com.  nts 
Rate. 


70 
50 
40 

25 


100 
400 

100 

300 
15 


*A  five  year  Are  record  of  the  class  within  a  radius  of  25  miles  of  the  City  of  New 
York,  showed  losses  of  $1,000,000,  or  $200,000,  per  annum.  This  would  have  requir- 
ed a  yearly  premium  of  $300, 000  for  a  55  %  loss  ratio.  The  class  did  not  yield  one- 
half  that  sum  at  prevailing  rates  which  proved  inadequate. 


DEPARTMENT  STORE  OCCUPANCY  CHARGES. 

CLASS  A.     DEPARTMENT  STORES. 

All  or  any  of  the  following: 

Dry  Goods,  Carpets.  Hugs,  Boots  and  shoes,  Dress- 
making, Toilet  Goods,  Upholstery  Stock  (mate- 
rials only),  Millinery,  Clothing,  Livery,  Cloaks, 
and  Mantillas,  Hats  and  Caps,  Photographic 
Supplies,  Fancy  Goods,  Books  and  Stationery, 
Silverware,  Jewelry,  Bags  and  Pocketbooks, 
Chinese  and  Japanese  Goods,  Restaurant  (cooking 
safely  arranged)  


CLASS  B. 

If,  also,  any  or  all  of  the  following: 

Bronzes,  Glassware,  Crockery,  Lamps  (all  packing 
material  in  bins;  if  not  in  bins  charge  under  faults 
of  management  No.  143,  15  cents),  Upholstery, 
(curtain  making  only),  Bric-a-brac  and  Curios, 
Trunks,  (no  repairing)  Toys,  Sporting  Goods, 
Fishing  tackle,  Guns,  Bicycles,  Sewing  Machines, 
Harness  and  Horse  Supplies,  Photographing, 
"Wines,  Liquors  and  Cigars,  Canned  Goods,  House- 
furnishing  Goods,  Kitchen  Goods,  Carriages,  Pic- 
tures and  Frames  (no  work)  

(This  rate  covers  also  Class  A,  the  higher  rate  including 
the  less.) 

CLASS  C. 

If,  also,  any  or  all  of  the  following; 

If  repairing  trunks,  or  picture  framing  

Furniture,  Mattresses,  Wood  and  Willow  Ware. .  . 

If  repairing,  varnishing  or  upholstering  furniture, 

mattress  making  other  than  hair  

If  hand  picker,  not  in  fire-proof  room  add  25  cents 

to  first  column. 

(These  rates  cover  also  Classes  A  and  B  the  higher  rate 
including  the  less.) 

Packing  and  unpacking  not  cut  off  add  10  cents  to 
first  column. 

If  packing  room  cut  off  and  sprinklered  deduct 
lOjf  from  first  column  charge — unless  deduction 
has  been  allowed  for  Automatic  Sprinklers. 

Power — Steam  or  electric  for  running  shafting,  in- 
crease first  column  charge  of  class  10  cents. 

Organization  of  employees  for  extinction,  fire  drill, 
etc.,  deduct  .02  both  columns. 


Add  for 

Build'g 
Rate. 


Cents 


20 


25 


35 
40 

50 


Add  for 
Contents 

Rate. 


Cents 


55 


60 


60 
70 

70 


753 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued 


Add  for 
Build'g 
Rate. 


Large  Dwellings,  continued. 

case  he  should  die  and  his  estate  should 
have  to  be  divided.  The  rate  should  ap- 
proximate an  increase  over  ordinary  dwell- 
ing rates  by  1  %  for  each  1  <f0  excess  of  val- 
ue over  the  average.  Thus  a  dwelling  50  fo 
more  valuable  than  the  average  of  its  neigh- 
borhood ought  to  pay  50  %  more  rate ;  one 
of  double  the  average  value  should  pay 
double  rate.  In  "boom"  towns  expensive 
dwellings  arc  often  erected  for  speculative 
purposes  to  add  to  the  value  of  sur- 
rounding property  for  sale  and  are  poor 
risks.  Refer  all  dwellings  exceeding 
$50,000  in  value,  in  cities,  to  the  Company, 
and,  also,  country  or  suburban  dwellings 
exceeding  $20,000  in  value,  before  binding. 

"        Miners',  owned  by  miners  75  cts 

"  "      owned  by  Mining  Co  65  " 

"        Mill,  owned  by  company  60  " 

"  Season— Summer  or  Winter.  A  moral 
hazard  is  frequently  involved  in  these, 
especially  on  a  yielding  sea-shore,  where 
the  cost  of  bulkheads  for  protection 
from  storms  is  frequently  an  onerous 
burden.  Mutual  exposure,  also,  is  an  im 
portant  factor,  where  they  are  near  to 
gether.  The  rate  should  be  50  %  more  than 
for  ordinary  country  dwellings,  and  should 
be  still  higher  where  they  are  exception- 
ally large  and  expensive  50  cts. 

On  Camp-Meeting  Grounds  75  cts. 

Dwelling  Occupancy  in  Mercantile  Bdgs.  (see  De- 
ductions, Nos.  169,  203  U.M.S.) 
Dyeing  and  Cleaning  Establishments,  (see  No.  683). . 

Dye  and  Print  Works  (see  Bleacheries)  

Dye-Stuff  (Extracts  in  cans)  

"     "     with  Acids,  Chemicals,  &c  

Dye-wood,  grinding  and  manuf'g  

Add  for  any  exposure  by  Boiler  R.  No.  527. 

Dynamo  Electric,  Manufy  

Earthenware  (see  Crockery  No.  778)  

Eating  Houses  (see  Restaurants  1401)    

"         "      R.  R.  (see  Restaurants  1403)  

Edge  Tools  Manufy  (see  Tools  Manufy,  1575)  

Effervescing  Salts  Manufy,  with  Steam  Dry  Room. 

Eggs,  Stocks  of  

"     with  Candling  

Elastic  Fabrics  Manufy  

"         "      Stocks  of  

Electrical  Supplies,  Stocks  of  

Electric  Car  Stables  or  Barns  (see  Car  Stables  624). . 
"       Light  and  Power  Plants.*  Large  (also  private 
plant,  supplying  current  outside  its 

own  premises)  

"      Time  Station  

"      Wire  Manufacturers   

"  Goods,  Manufacturers  of  (see  Dynamo  MT  g) 
Electrotypers,  Electroplating,  etc  


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Add  for  Add  for 

Build'g  cont'nta 
Rate. 


NO. 

844 
845 
846 
847 
848 
849 
850 
851 
852 
853 
853 
854 
855 
856 
857 
858 
859 
860 
861 
862 
863 
864 
865 

866 
866 
867 
868 

869 
870 
*871 
872 

873 
874 

875 
*876 

*8' 
878 

879 

880 

*881 
882 


ss:i 
884 
885 
880 


Elevator  Car  Manuf'y  Metal  

Wood  

Elevators,  Grain,  Large  Steam  Power  (Grain  Ele.) 

"      Small     "  "   

"  "        "      Horse  Power  (Grain  see  995) 

"         Floating  (see  Floating  Elevators)  

Embossing  Note  Paper  (see  Paper  Enib.)  

"         on  Ribbons  

Embroidery  work,  with  power  

Emery  Wheel  Manuf'y,  

a  Emery  Mills  

Enameled  Metal  Goods  MTy*Bath  tubs,  Kettles,  &c. 

Cloth  "   

"        Jewelry  "   

Engine  (Fire)  Hose  and  Fire  Patrol  Houses  

"       Steam,  Manuf'y  

"      Fire  Manuf'y  

Engravers,  Wood  

"  Metal  

Envelope?  Manufacturers,  with  printing  

"  "  no  "   

"  Stocks  

Essential  Oils,  Stocks  of  

Evaporators  (see  Fruit  Evaporators,  942)  

Excelsior  Manuf'y  ,  

a  Extracts,  Manuf'y  of  

Express  Offices  

Stables,  (see  Stables)  

Eyes,  Artificial  Stocks  of  (see  Artificial  Eyes,  No.  427) 

Fair  Ground  Buildings  

Fancy  Goods,  stocks  of  

Farm  Property — Occupied  by  Owner  

"  "       Dwellings — Brick  or  Stone — Metal, 

Slate  or  Gravel  roof  

"  "  "  Brick  or  Stone — Shin 

gle  roof  

Frame— Metal,  Slate  or 

Gravel  Roof  

"  "  "  Frame — Shingle  roof . . 

"  "        Barns  and  contents,  insured  with 

dwelling  on  same  premises. 

Occupied  by  tenant  

Dwellings — Brick  or  Stone — Metal, 

Slate  or  Gravel  roof  

"         Brick  or  Stone — Shingle 

roof  

"  "  "         Frame — Metal,  Slate  or 

Gravel  roof  

"  "  "         Frame — Shingle  roof,. 

"        Barns  and  contents,  insured  with 
dwelling  on  same  premises, . . 

"  Out  buildings  

"  "        Corn  in  Cribs,  

"  "        Grain,  in  stack  in  field,  

"  "  "  Growing,!  

Hay  in  stack  near  Farm  buildings, . 
"  "  "  "    over  500  feet  from  bdgs 

*'        Live  stock,  Horses,  Cattle,  Sheep, 
Hogs,  (SeeLive  Stock  No.  1155).. 


CentB. 
100 
150 
125 

75 

75 

15 
15 
25 
150 

100 
200 
75 


50 
50 


50 

25 
10 

5 

200 
300 

10 

50 


200 
20 


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class.  tWith  limit  per  acre  form  of  policy. 

*  <U  present  we  use  only  these  numbers  for  Farm  Dwellings  and  Barns  and  contents. 


755 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Add  for 
Build'g 
Rate. 


(  cuts. 


Feathers  and  Flowers,  Stocks  of  (see  Artificial  429) 

"      cleaning,  renovating,  etc  

Feed  Store  Stocks,  without  Hay  or  Straw  

"       "        "       with  Hay  and  Straw  in  bales. . . 

Felt  Mills*  

Felting  Goods,  Stocks  of  

"      Manuf'y,  Shoes,  Slippers,  &c  

Fences,  Privies,  Out-houses  of  dwellings,  &c,  50  cts. 

Ferry  Boats,  Steam  Power  75  ' 

"    Houses  ,  

Fertilizers  Manuf'y*  (see  also  Phosphate  Mills)  

"  "       from  city  garbage  (see  No.,  776) 

"         Phosphates,  Stocks  of.  

"         Fish,  blood  or  Animal  matterf  

File  Manufacturers  

Fire-arms,  Ammunition    Stocks,    Cutlery,  Fisliine: 

Tackle,  etc. .  . . 

"        Manuf'y  (see  Guns  and  Pistols)  

Add  for  any  exposure,  Wood-working 
Hazard  No.  1663,  Boiler  R.  No.  527,  Jap- 
anning No.  1087,  

Fire  Engine  Houses  (see  Engine  Houses,  No.,  857). . 

Fire -proof  Safes  Manuf'y  (see  Safe  Manuf'y)  

"    Stocks  of,  (see  Safes)..  

Fireworks,  fire-crackers  and  torpedoes  only.  Increase 
rate  on  the  building  and  stocks  with  which 
they  are  kept  15  cents  per  $100  per  month 
being  short  rates  of  75  cents  per  annum. . 
"  assorted  stocks,  other  than  fire-crackers 
and  torpedoes,  50  cents  per  $100  per  month 

"        with  Manuf  g.    Set  Pieces  

Fish  Dealers,  with  Lobster  Boiler  

"        "       without  Lobster  Boiler  

"    dried,  salted,  &c.  (see  Warehouse,  2286)  

Fishing  Tackle  Manuf'y  (see  Firearms,  etc.,  stocks 

(No.  903)  

Fixtures  and  Furniture,  Office  and  Store  (see  No.  957) 
Flags  and  Banners,  Stocks  of,  (See  Banners  No.  467) 

Flat  Houses  (see  Apartment  Houses  421,  422)  

Flaxseed  and  Linseed,  in  packages  

Flax  Mills*  

Floating  Elevators  (see  849)   4  % 

Derricks  and  Cranes(see  796)   3  % 

Floor  Cloth  (Oil,  Linoleum,  Corticine)  Manuf'y*. . . . 

Florists'  Stocks,  in  stores  

"  "       "  Green  and  Hot-houses  

Flour,  in  barrels  

"      "  bags  

"     and  Produce  (see  Feed,  891)  

"     Mills,  Brick  or  Stone,  Steam  Power,  Roller 

process 
Stone 
process 

"        "        "  "    Water  P.  see  next  page. 


25 
10 
25 
50 


50 


25 

25 

200 

10P 

300 

100 

4* 

300 

100 

25 

6<- 

10 

50 

50 

5G 

50 


600 
15 


10 


150 


300 
10 
100 


25 


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


+ Liable  to  Spontaneous  Combustion 


756 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


lAdd  for 
liuild^' 
Rate. 


Add  for 

cont'nts 
Rate. 


No. 
925 

926 


923 
924 
925 
926 
930  a 


932 
933 
934 
935 
936 
937 

938 


942 
943 
944 
945 


946 


94^ 


948 


949 
950 
951 
951 
952  b 


925 
953 
954 


955 
»56 
957 
958 
959 
960 
961 
962 


Flour  Mills,  continued, 
h  Flour  Mills,  Brick  or  Stone,  Water  Power  Boiler 

process 

b     "        "        "  "  "  Stone 

process 

f      "        "     Frame,  Steam  Power,  Roller  process. . . 
f      "        "        "         "         "  Stone 
f      "        "        "      Water     "      Roller  process. . . 
f      "        "        "         "        "      Stone  " 

Food,  Patent,  Manuf'y  

Forts,  (see  Military  Stations)  

Foundry,  Brass  (see  Brass  Foundry).(see  555)  

Iron  (see  also  Stove  Foundry,  1513)  

Type  

Frame  Rows,  not  exceeding  4  buildings  

Stocks  in,.. 

"        "     exceeding  4  buildings.  

"  "  "        Stocks  in,  

Frames  (see  Picture  Frames)  

Fringe  and  Trimming  Manuf'y  (see  also  485),  

Fringes,  Cords,  Gimps  and  Tassels,  etc.,  Stocks  of  . 

See  Buttons  and  Trim.  602. 

Fruit  Canning  (see  Canning  Factory,  No.  614)  

"    Dealers.    See  944  and  945  

"    Evaporators  and  Driers,  

"    by  Fire  Heat  

Fruits,  Retail,  Stocks  of  

"      Wholesale,  Stocks  of  

If  ripening  Bananas,  Gas-heat,  

"      "  "      other  than  Gas-heat, ... . 

Fulling  Mills  

Furnaces,  Iron,  (See  Iron  Furnaces,  Blast  Fur.  1081) 

Furnishing  Goods,  Men's  

Furniture,  Cabinetware.  with  finishing  and  upholster 
ing  (see  Cabinet,  No.  604). . , 
"  "  without  finishing  or  uphol 

stering(see  Cabinet,  No.  603) 
"        Household  and  Pictures,  Private  Storage 

(see  also  H.  F.). 

"  "        in  mercantile  or  office  building 

"  "        Second  Hand,  for  sale  (see  1437) 

"  "         in  brick  dw'g,  slate  or  metal  r'f 

"  frame  " 

"  "         "  brick  dwelling,  shingle  roof 

f        »  "         "  frame      "         "  " 

"  "Apartment  Houses(421c). 
"  Manuf'y,*  Steam  Power  (see  Cabinet,  604) 
Add  for  any  exposure  by  Boiler  R.  No 
527,  Painting  Hazard,  No.  1267,  Drying, 
No.  814). 

"         Manuf'y,  Water  Power  ,  

"         Polish  Manuf'y  (see  Varnish)  

"         and  Fixtures,  Office  and  Store  (see  Fixtures 

Furs  anil  Peltries,  in  unbroken  packages  

"  "       cutting  and  sewing  

"  "       without  sewing  

' '  Hats  and  Caps,  Stocks  of  (see  Hats  and  Caps) 
"    Hatters',  Manuf'y  of  


Cents. 


40 

50 
25 


50 
50 


150 

200 
250 


10 

25 
50 
50 


50 
25 
40 
100 


300 


200 
200 


i  enta. 


200 


35 
50 
100 


100 

75 
75 

50 

150 
150 
50 
50 
100 
100 
50 

50 


85 
30 
200 


25 
100 


100 
150 
20 
35 
60 
50 
60 
100 


♦See  Specific  Schedule  for  Clasa. 


CHANGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued 


Fuse  Factories  

Galvanizing  

Garbage  Crematories,  (See  Crematories,  776)  

Fertilizer  Manuf'y.  (see  Fert.  M'f'g.  No.  899) 
Gas  Fixtures,  Lamps  and  Chandeliers,  Stocks  of . . . 
"        "        Manuf'y.  with  Mach.  Shop  and  F'dry. 

"  Meter  Manuf'y    

"  Works  1% 

Gasolene  Soldering  Pots — Not  over  5  gallons  of  ma- 
terial, in  safety  cans,  inside 
of  building,  remainder  of  sup. 
ply  outside  entirely  cut  off, 
add  25  cts. 

General  Merchandise  (see  Nos.  1195  and  810)  

Gents'  Furnishing  Goods  (see  Furnishing  Goods,  947) 

Gilding  (see  Picture  Frames)  

"      paper,  books,  etc  

Gins,  ( See  Cotton  Gins,  755,  756),  

Glass  and  China  Decorating,  Kiln  &c,  (See  665,). . . . 

"    Blowers,  Ornamental,  with  Furnace  

"    Etching,  Sandblast,  &c  

"  Factories*  

"    Glassware  and  Window   Glass,    in  packages 

wholesale. 

"    Ornamental,  Stained,  Leaded,  &c  

"    Plate,  Grinding  and  Polishing  

"    Silvered  plates  

Glazing  and  Painting  

Gloves,  Buckskin,  Manuf'y ,  

"     Boxing,  Manuf'y  (see  Boxing  G.  No.  544)  

"     Kid  "   

Stocks  of  

"     other  than  kid,  stocks  of  

Glucose  Manuf'y  

Glue  Manuf'y  

Glycerine  Manuf'y  

Gold  and  Silver  Platers  

"  Beaters  

"    Refiners  (see  Assayers439)  

"    Pen  Stocks  

"     "  Manuf'y  

Goods  on  storage  (see  AVarehouses  and  1800,  etc. ). 
Gossamer,  Cutting  and  Making  Garments,  no  Cement 

(Same  as  Clothing) 
Grain  in  Elevator,  large.  Steam  Power,  

  small,    "  "   

"    "       "         "    Horse  "   

"     "  Field,  Standing  ( See  885  )  

"     "  Stack,  (See  884),  

"  Stores  or  IV arehouses,  Brick,  no  Elevator 
«  with 

"  "  Frame,  no  " 

"     With  " 
"     "  Granary  on  Farm,  


Add  for  . 
Build'g 
Kate. 

(  cut.-. 

150 
25 
300 

10 

50 
50 


30 
25 


75 
50 
100 


15 

5 
50 
50 
50 
25 


150 
200 
125 
25 
15 
20 


25 


50 


♦See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class, 


758 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Add  for  , 
Build'g 
Rate. 


1033 


Grand  Stands  on  Race  Tracks,  Fair  Grounds,  350  cts. 

Granite  Workers,  Sawing,  Polishing,  Carving  

Grape  Juice  Unfermented,  Manuf'y  

Graphite  works,  (See  Lead  Black,  No.  1123),  

Grease,  Axle  (see  Axle  Grease,  No.  449 ),  

Rend  ering,  (no  nuisances)  

Green  Houses  (see  also  Florists,  919),  

Grinding,  Cutlery  (see  Cutlery  Grinding,  No.  785  ). .  . 

Grist  Mills  

Groceries,  Retail  

"  "  Chinese  

"        Wholesale,  without  spice  and  coffee  grind- 
ing  

"  "         with  spice  and  coffee  grinding 

Guano  (see  Fertilizers)  

Gun  and  Pistol  Manuf'y,  (  See  Fire  Arms,  904), .  ... 
Guns,  Pistols,  Fishing  Tackle,  Stocks  (see  F.  No.  903), 

Gunsmiths  and  Locksmiths  

Guttapercha,  ( See  India  Rubber,  Crude,  No.  1067). . 

Gymnasiums  

HairCloth  Manuf'y  

"    Goods  (Human)  

"    Curled,  Manuf'y  of  

Halls,  with  scenery,  (see  Theatre  Schedule)  

"     without  scenery,  ceiling  uniform  height  over 
stage  and  auditorium,  Dancing,  Lyceum,  etc 

City,  Town  or  State,  No.  1500  

"     Society,  Lodges,  Masonic,  Odd  Fellows,  &c. . 
Hammock  Weaving,  not  over  10  hands  (if  over  10,  add 
1  ct.  for  every  5  additional  hands) 

Hardware  Manuf'y  

Stocks  of,  (not  exceeding  5  bbls.  oils). . 

"        without  oils  

"  "       "  heavy,  bar  iron,  etc.  (see  Iron 

and  Warehouse  Schedule). . . 
Harness  and  Saddlery  Stores,  no  Collar  Manuf'g. . . 
"  "  "      with  Collar  Stuffing. . 

Manuf'y  no  Collar  Stuffing. . . 
with  " 

Hats  and  Caps  Manuf'y  less  than  100  hands,  No.  615 
"  "        "  if  more  than  100  hands 

add  1  ct.  to  each  col 
umn  for  every  5  addit 
ionalmen,  but  total  rate 
not  to  exceed  (No.  616) 
"      Stocks,  Wholesale  (other  than  straw) 

"  "  retail  

"   Bonnet  Frame  Manuf  y  (No.  532)  

"     "       "      Bleaching  (see  Bonnet  B.  No.,  533) 

"    Block  Manuf'y  

"    Silk,  Manuf'y  

"    Straw  (No.  617)  

Hatters'  Furs  Manuf'y,  (see  Furs,  No.  962)  

Hay  and  Feed  (see  Feed  Stores,  No.  890)  

"     "    Straw  Presses,  private,  on  farms  

"      "         "      See  next  Page. 


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


WHOLESALE  GROCERIES  OCCUPANCY  CHARGES* 


CLASS  A.     GROCERIES.— WHOLESALE. 

Without  manufacturing  or  any  of  the  additional 
hazards  specified  below  

CLASS  B. 

If  bottling  wines,  liquors,  olive  oil,  blueing,  or 
other  preparations,  with  packing  

CLASS  C. 

If  mixing  and  packing  flour,  starch,  baking  powder, 

cereals  or  similar  substances; 
Or  if  printing  

CLASS  D. 

If  manufacturing  flavoring  extracts,  essences  or 
drugs; 

Or  if  rectifying  by  cold  process  only; 

Or  if  molasses  reboiling  or  maple  syrup  mixing; 

Or  if  coffee  milling,  polishing,  separating,  mixing, 

and  grinding,  with  power; 
Or  if  fruit  cleaning  with  power  or  dry  room,  or 

bleaching  with  sulphur  

CLASS  E. 

Or  if  coffee  roasting,  using  only  gas  fuel  standard 
equipment,  fire  proof  floors,  metal  cooling  pans, 
metal  troughs,  metal  conveyors,  and  metal  hoods 
over  roasters; 

Or  if  spice  grinding  with  modern  iron  frame  mills 

CLASS  F. 

If  coffee  roasting,  standard  equipment,  using  other 

than  gas  fuel  

CLASS  G. 

If  spice  grinding  with  wooden  frame  mills  

CLASS  H. 

If  coffee  roasting,  old  style  equipment,  wooden 
floors,  wooden  cooling  troughs,  or  wooden  con 
veyors.  

The  higher  rate  in 


*Charges  are  not  cumulative, 
each  case  includes  the  less. 


Add  for 
Build';,' 
Rate. 

Cents 


10 


15 


30 


40 


1.25 


Add  for 
Contents 
Rate. 


Cents 


40 


40 


45 


50 


60 

70 
75 

1.10 


7G0 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Add  for|. 
Build'g  i 
Rate. 


No. 
1034 


1035 

1036 
1037 
1038 
1039 
1040 
1041 
1042 
1043 
1044 
1045 
1046 
1047 
1048 
1049 


1050 

1051 

1052 

1053 

1054 

1055 

1056 

105 

1058 

1059 

1059 

1060 


1061 
1062 
1063 
1064 
1065 

1066 
1067 

1068 
1069 
1070 


Hay  and  Straw,  continued. 
Hay  and  Straw  Barns  or  Presses  public,  near  R.  R.  &c. 

Add  for  steam  power,  150  to 
both  columns. 
"       "     in  Stacks,  on  Farms  (see  No.  886,  887) 

near  Mills  (Mill  rate)  

Barns,  insured  with  d'wg,  (See  Farm,  No.  882), 

Barges  200  cts 

on  Barges  300  " 

Heliotype  Printing — Gelatine  

Hemp  and  Jute  Mills*  

"     in  bales  

Henneries  

Herbs,  Stocks  for  Sale  (see  Warehouse,  No.,  2402). . 

Hides  and  Skins  

Hollow-ware,  Metal,  Manuf'y  

"  "      Castings,  Stoves,  etc.  Stocks  of, 

Hominy  Mills  

Hop  Houses  

Hops  in  bales  

Horn  Goods,  Manuf'y  (see  Comb  Manuf'y,  729)  

Horse  Cars  in  H.  Car  Stables,  (see  Cars,  No.  626). . . . 

Horse  Car  Stables  (No.  623)  

Hose  and  Belting  Manuf'y,  (See  Belting  No.  494). . . . 

India  Rubber  (see  India 
RubberManuf'y,  No.  1072 
Hosiery  and  Knitting  Mills,  no  Picking  or  Carding. . 

"  with  Picking  and  Spin'ng 

"       "    Knit  Goods,  Stocks  of  

Hospitals,  for  Non-contagious  Diseases  

"  Contagious  Diseases,  P^-st  Houses  &c. 

Hotels,  City,  (see  Hotel  Schedule)  

"        "  Frame  

"     stocks  on  grade  floors  (see  various  stocks). . . . 

"     Country  Cross-roads  Taverns,  

"     Season,*  Summer  Resorts,  etc.,  

House  Boats,  Pleasure  Barges,  etc    

Hot  houses  (see  Green-houses,  919,  1005)  

House  Furnishing  Goods,  Stocks  of  

Household  Furniture.  Private  Storage  (see  No.  948). . 
"  "         in  Mercantile  or  Office  Build'g 

(see  Furniture,  No.,  949).  . . 

Hub  and  Spoke  Manuf'y  (see  Wheel  1641 )  

Ice,  Artificial,  Manuf'y  

"    Cream  Manufactury  

"   Houses  (Brewery)  

"       "      Ice  for  sale  or  shipping  

Imitation  Leather  Manuf'y  (see  Leather,  No.  1134) 

Incubators  

India  Rubber,  Crude  (see  Guttapercha)  

"        "       Boots  and  Shoes,  in  cases  (see  541). . 

"        "       Goods,  retail  stocks  

*'        "  "      wholesale,  belting,  etc  

"        "  "     If  rubber  cement  is  kept  in 

quantity  exceeding  one  gallon 

in  tin  cans  

"        "  "     See  next  page. 


Cents. 
200 


•See  Specific  Schedule  for  clase. 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Add  for 
Build'g 
Rate 


India  Rubber  Goods,  continued. 
India  Rubber  Goods,  If  oil  clothing  kept  (the  cloth 
ing  hung  with  air  spaces  for 

ventilation)  

"     Manufy*,  Hard  

Soft  

Ink  Manufy,  Printers,'  no  oil  boiling  

"  "        with  oil  boiling  

"      "  Writing  

Insane  Asylums  (see  Asylums,  No.  441)  

Instrument  Makers,  optical,  mathematical,  surgical, 

etc.,  with  manufacturing  

"  "       Stock,  no  manufacturing  

Iron  and  Steel,  Tubing  and  Pipes,  (see  Heavy  H.  1023) 

"    Architectural,  Works  

"    Foundry  (see  Foundry,  No.  932)  

"    Furnaces  (see  Furnaces  and  Blast  F.)  

"    Pipe  Manufy  (see  Pipe)  

"    Railing  Manufy  

"    Workers,  not  elsewhere  specified  

Ivory,  Stocksof,  with  turning,  carving,  etc.,  no  wood- 
working  

"     Vegetable,  (see  Vegetable  Ivory,  No.  1611). . . 

Jails  

Japanese  and  Chinese  Goods,  Stocks  of  (see  No.  667) . 

Japanning  Works  

N.  B.  Small  oven,  safely  arranged, 
used  in  manufacturing  risks  as  a 
mere  incident  of  the  process  add 
50  cents  to  both  columns  of  the  rate 
of  the  risk. 

Jewelers'  Findings  and  Supplies,  noManufg  

Jewelry-Case  Manufacturers  

Jewelry  Manufactory,  less  than  25  hands  

25  to  50  hands  

"  "  over  50  hands,  add  one  cent 

to  each  column  for  every  five 
additional  men,  but  total  rate 

not  to  exceed  

"       in  safes  (see  No.  690)  

"  Watches  and  Clocks,  retail  stocks,  (see  688 ) 
"  "  "      wholesale  (see  689)... 

Joiners'  Shops,  Ship  

Junk  Stores    

Jute,  in  bales  

"     Mats,  Stocks  of  

"    Mills  (see  1039)  

Kerosene  Oil,  5  barrels,  without  charge  in  groceries 

and  lamp  stocks  

"         "    exceeding  5  barrels,  special  rates  ac- 
cording to  quantity  (see  Oils)  

"         "   Refinery  (see  Oils)  

Kid  Gloves  (see  Gloves,  No.,  981)  

Kilns,  Malt,  Oatmeal,  Grain,  etc.  Where  any  wood- 
work is  used  in  the  framing  of  the  kiln,  wheth- 
er claimed  to  be  safely  protected  by  brick  or 
terra  cotta  or  not  


15 
150 
200 

75 
100 

50 


15 

110 

75 

40 

25 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

25 

50 

50 

50 

75 

50 

10 

35 

150 

150 

50 

25 

10 

80 

150 

150 

30 
25 
30 


40 


If  the  kilns  throughout  are  of  incombustible 
material  


100 
100 
75 
25 
100 


200 
300 


200 
25 


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Claes. 


t62 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Add  for  . 
liuild'g  i 
Rate. 


Kindling  Wood  Factory,  no  Pitching  

"  "         "       with  "   

Knit  Goods  Manufacturing  (see  Hosiery,  No.  1050). . 

"     Stocks,  (see  Hosiery  and  K.,  No.,  1052). 
Laboratories,  Chemical  (see  Chemical  L.  No.,  662). . 

Laces  and  Embroidery  Stocks  

"  "  Manuf'y  

Ladder  Manuf'y  (rung  ladders)  

Step,  "   

Ladies'  Waists  Manuf'y  

Lager  Beer  Saloons  (see  also  Saloons)  

Lamp-black  Manuf'y  (see  Animal  Black,  No.,  419, 

Bone-black,  No.,  529)  

Lamp  Manuf'y,  Glass  and  Metal  

Lamps,  Chandeliers,  etc.,  Stocks  of,  (see  Gas  Fix.  965) 

Lantern,  Metal  and  Glass,  Manuf'y  

"       Paper,  Manuf'y  

Lapidaries  

Lard  Oil  Refinery*  

"     "  Stocks  of  

"    Stocks  of  (see  Provisions)  

Last  Manuf'y  

Laughing  Gas  (see  Dentists'  Gas,  No.  794)  

Laundries,  Small,  Handpower,  Chinese,  etc  

"  Steam  power  

Lead  Pencil  Manuf'y  

Add  for  exposure  of  Boiler  Boom 
Hazard,  No.,  527,  Dry  Boom 

Hazard,  No.,  814  

"     Black  or  Graphite  Works  

Pipe  and  Sheet  Lead  Manuf'y  

Leather,  Stocks  of,  kinds  not  specified  

"      Bags  (see  Bags,  No.  452  and  Pocket  Books). 

"      Belting,  Stocks  of  

Manuf'y,  (See  Belting,  No.  494)  

Board,  Stocks  of  

"  "  Manuf'y  

"      Lace  Manuf'y  

"  Fancy  Leather,  and  Morocco,  Shagreen, 
Patent,  General  Shoe  Finding  Stock,  Tanned 
Kids,  Tanned  Sheep  Skins,  General  Stock  of 
Untanned  Calf,  Goat  and  Sheep  Skins,  Fancy 

Skins  for  Tanning,  Alligator,  Snake  

for  Belting,  Leather  in  Hides  or  Side3,  Kips, 

Bough  Leather  and  Sole  Leather  

"       Glove,  Finished  

Goods  (see  Harness,  Bags,  &c.)  

"  Grain  Leather,  Harness  Leather,  Split 
Leather,  Tanned  Calf  Skins,   and  Upper 

Leather,  Lace  Leather  in  rolls  

"      Imitation,  Manuf'y  

"       Ornamental,  Manuf'y  

"       Scraps,  Shavings  and  Skivings  

"      Stays,  Manuf'y  

Sole,  with  cutting  

"       Upper  and  Findings  


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


703 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


I  Add  for,  Add  for 
\  Build'g  cont'nta 
Rate.  Rate. 


No. 
1140 
1141 
1142 
1143 
1144 
1145 


1145  i 
1146 

1147 
1148 
1149 
1150 
1151 

1152 
1153 
1154 
1155 


Libraries  Circulating  

Public  

Lighters,  Sail  100  cts 

Steam  125  cts 

Lightning  Rod  Manuf'y  

"    Stocks  of  

Lime,  Cement,  Plaster,  Sand  and  Hair.    Masons'  and 
Builders'  Material  (  See  584) . 

Lime  Kilns  

Liniment  Manuf'y,  (see  Patent  Med.  M'f'y,  No.  1284) 

Linoleum  Manuf'y  (See  Floor  Cloth,  No.  917)  

Linseed  Oil  Mills*  

Liquors,  retail,  (see  Saloons,  No.,  1419, 1420)  

"        Storage,  (not  sale)  in  Barrels  and  Cases. . 

"        wholesale,  without  rectifying  

"  "        with  rectifying,  cold  process. 

"  "  "  hot  process  (see  1393) 

Lithographing  

Livery  Stables,  Brick  (see  also  No.  1493)  

"  "  Frame  


Live  Stock,  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  hogs. 


If  the  policy  contains  the  following 
clause,  25$  may  be  deducted  from  rate  of 
the  amount  covering  live  stock 

"The  amount  payable  on  any  one  an 
imal  in  case  of  loss  shall  be  the  sum 
produced  by  dividing  the  total  amount 
insured  upon  the  class  to  which  the  ani- 
mal belongs  by  the  total  number  of  ani 
mals  in  the  class  owned  by  the  assured 
and  in  no  case  exceeding  the  actual  cash 
value  of  the  animal." 

For  example,  $1,000  insured  on  horses 
would  mean  that  $100  could  be  collected 
on  any  one  if  there  were  ten;  $200  on  any 
one  if  there  were  live. 

N.  B. — Such  phraseology  as  "$500  on 
five  horses"  would  not  prevent  a  claim 
of  §500  on  any  one,  even  though  there 
were  twenty.  Nor  would  the  additional 
words  "not  exceeding  $100  on  any  one 
mend  the  matter,  except  to  prevent  claim 
for  more  than  that  amount  on  any  one. 
The  policy  would  still  be  faulty  in  that 
it  might  be  covering  a  much  larger 
number  of  animals  than  live  and  a  larger 
value  than  $500.  In  case  any  five  animals 
should  be  killed  by  lightning  or  burned, 
the  claim  would  be  that  the  identical  rive 
were  the  ones  insured.  No  rate  on  live 
stock,  especially  on  such  animals  as  cat- 
tle, sheep,  &c,  running  at  large  in  fields, 
could  be  relied  upon  without  some  such 
clause  as  the  above  ;  nor  would  the  num 
ber  of  animals  on  the  farm  at  the  time  of 
writing  the  insurance  be  any  guarantee 
that  the  number  at  risk  would  not  have 
been  largely  increased  at  the  time  of 
a  fire.  A  small  amount  of  insurance 
on  a  large  herd  of  cattle,  would  entail 
severe  loss  to  the  underwriter  in  the 
See  next  page. 


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


764 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Mo. 


1156 


1 157 
1158 
1159 


1161 
1162 
1163 
1164 

1165 
1166 
1167 
1168 

1169 
1170 

1171 
1172 
1173 


Live  Stock,  continued. 

course  of  a  five-year  term  from  lightning- 
claims  alone,  especially  in  a  wire  fence 
country. 

"  "  HIGH  riUCED  ANIMALS,  BLOODED  STALL- 
IONS, JACKS,  RACE  HORSES,  BROOD 
MARES,   ETC  150  CtS. 

The  concentrated  value  "within  the 
space  of  a  horse  stall,  of  an  exceptionally 
valuable  animal,  subj ect  to  total  loss  by 
the  effect  of  fire  or  smoke  on  a  single  vi- 
tal organ,  the  suffocation  of  a  single  pair 
of  lungs,  for  example,  is  a  feature  which 
should  not  be  lost  sight  of  in  the  rate.  Five 
thousand  dollars  insurance  on  50  animals 
where  the  loss  on  any  one  could  not  ex 
ceed  $100  is  a  much  better  risk  with  re 
spect  to  probabilities  of  salvage  than 
$5,000  insurance  on  a  single  horse. 

W ith  a  certain  class  of  owners,  also,  a 
serious  moral  hazard  may  arise  from  a 
slight  injury  to  a  valuable  animal  reduc- 
ing its  salable  value  possibly  90  %. 

In  the  case  of  bleeding,  racing  and 
training  stables,  the  stable  rules  should 
prohibit  the  use  of  matches,  kerosene  oil 
lanterns,  &c.,  &c.  It  would  be  a  simple 
matter,  also,  to  protect  each  valuable  ani- 
mal by  a  cheap  sprinkler  plant,  as  a 
single  sprinkler  head  over  a  stall  might 
serve  to  extinguish  match  fires.  Probably 
the  most  fruitful  causes  of  fires  in  stables 
are  dropped  matches,  the  animals  ignit 
ing  them  with  their  feet. 

Animals  above  or  below  the  grade  floor 
should  be  charged  for  at  the  rate  of  10 
cents  added  for  each  floor  above  or  below7 
the  grade. 

Lock  Factory  

Locksmiths  and  Gunsmiths  (see  Gunsmiths)  

Locomotive  Works  


"         Kound  Houses  (see  Rail  Road)  

Lodge  Rooms,  Masonic,  Odd  Fellows,  etc.  (see  Mason) 

Lodging  Houses,  no  Kitchen  

"  "       with  "   

Looking-Glass  and  Mirror  Manuf'y  

"  "      "    Picture  Frames,  Stocks,  etc.  (see 

Frames)  

Lumber,  Storage,  new  material  

"       Yards,  near  Saw  and  Planing  Mills  

"  not  "      "  "  "   

"  "      small,  detached  

Lunatic  Asylums  (see  Asylums,  No.  441)  

Macaroni  Factory,  Vermicelli,  &c  

Machinery,  Stocks,  delicate,  with  fine  parts  subject  to 
damage,  ring  travelers  (used  in  mills)  card 

clothing,  needles,  &c   

"  Stocks  of  heavy  

"         Contractor,  with  power  

Machine  Shop,*  with  forge,  no  Pattern  Making,  under 
10  hands  


See  next  page. 


Add  for  Add  for 
Iiuild'g  cont'nts 
Rate.  Rate. 


(  CIltB. 


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


ro5 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Add  for  |  Add  for 
Build'g  cont'nts 
Kate.  liate. 


Machine  Shop  .continued. 
Machine  Shop  with  Pattern  Making,  over  10  hands, 
add  1  cent  for  every  5  hands  in  excess 

of  10  

"         "     fine  woik  subject  to  damage... 

Mackintosh  Manuf'y  

Malt  Houses,  fire-proof  kilns  

"   not      "        "   but  cut  off  

Mantels,  Manuf'y,  Metal  or  Stone  

Wood  

"        Stocks  of  Metal  or  Stone  , 

"Wood  

Map  Mounting  and  Varnishing  , 

Marble,  Onyx,  &c,  Stocks  of  

"      Worker,  Steam  Sawing,  Carving  and  Polishing 

"  "      hand  carving  

Market,  large  public  

"      Retail,  Green  Grocers  (see  Butcher  Shops) 

Masonic  Lodges  (see  Lodges,  No.  1160)  

Massage  Establishments,  with  Baths  

Match  Manuf'y  

Mathematical  and  Optical  Instruments  (see  Instr'm'ts) 

Matting  (floor)  Manuf'y  

Mattress  Making,  Hair  only,  no  Picker  

"  "       other  than  hair,  no  Picker  

"  "         "      "    "  with  "   

Medicines,  Patent,  Stocks  of  (see  Patent  M.  No.  1283) 

Manuf'y  (see  1284,  1285)  

Merchandise  (see  Dry  Goods  &  Remarks,  U.  M.  S.  p.  3oj 

"         in  Warehouses  (see  Warehouses)  

Merchant  Tailors  (see  Tailor,  No.  1528)  

Merry-go-rounds  (see  Carousels,  No.,  630)  

Metal  Dealers  

"    Workers,  not  elsewhere  specified  (see  Iron,  1084) 

Metals,  heavy  exclusively,  Pig,  Bar,  Ingot  

Mica,  with  over  10  hands,  sorting,  &c  

Military  Goods,  Stocks  of  

"         "  Manuf'y  

"      Stations,  Forts,  Gov't  Barracks  

Milk  Depots,  Butter,  &c  

"    Condensed,  Manuf'y. . ,  

Millinery,  Stocks  of  

"         with  manufacturing,  (no  power)  

"  "  "  with  power  

Mill  Supplies,  Stocks  

"  "  Manuf'y  

Mineral  Water  Establishments,  Bottling  

"         "  Manuf'y  

Mince  Meat  Manuf'y  

Molasses,  Re  boiling  

Mixed  Stocks  (see  No.  810  and  p.  35,  U.  M.  S.). . . . 

Morocco  Dressers  

"  Manuf'y  

Moulding,  Wood,  M'f'y  (same  as  Planing  Mill,  1323) 
"        Picture  Manuf'y    "     "      "       "  . 

"  "      Stocks  of  

Mucilage  and  Paste  Manuf'y  


Cents. 

40 

25 
50 
50 
75 
25 
75 


25 
50 


15 

25 


10 

25 
200 

75 
50 
100 
200 
50 
75 


100 


75 


50 
200 


25 


10 

25 
50 

5 

25 
10 


100 

200 


50 
50 


♦See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class, 


766 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Add  for  . 

Build'g  i 
Rate. 


Museums,  no  Scenery  

"         with  Scenery   

Musical  Instruments,  Pianos,  Organs,  Melodeons.  . . 

"  string  and  wind  

Music  Stores  

Mustard  Mills  

Nail  Manufy  

Naphtha,  less  than  2  hbls.,  add  25  cents  *o  rate  of 

building  and  .stock  

"        more  than  2  bbls.,  special  rates  and  separate 

storage  

Natural  Gas  or  Oil  Wells  Fixtures,  &c,  decline. . .  . 

Naval  Stores,  Tar,  Rosin,  &c  

Navy  Yard  Buildings  

Necktie  Factory  

Needle  Manufy  

Negatives,  Photographic  (see  Photo.  No.  1301)  

News  Dealers  

Newspaper  Printing  Offices  (see  Printing,  No.  1356). 

"  Advertising  Agency  

Nickel-Platiug  Establishments  (see  Electro.  No.  843). 
Nitrate  of  Soda  (see  1422  and  Warehouse,  No.  2619). 

Notions,  Stocks  of  

Nut  and  Bolt  Works  (see  Bolt  and  N.  W'ks,  No.  528) 

Oakum,  Stocks  of,  in  bales  

"  Manufy  

Oat  Meal  Mills  

Odd  Fellows  Lodges  (see  Lodges,  No.  1160)  

Offices  (see  also  Cotton  Brokers)  

buildings  exclusively  for  (see  173,  207  U.M.S.) 
Office  Furniture  and  Fixtures  in  office  b'd'gs  (see  957) 
Oil  and  Paint  Stores,  retail  (see  Paint  and  Oil,  1262). 

Wholesale  (No.  1264)  

"   Currier's,  with  pressing   

"  Essential  (see  Essential,  No.,  865)  

"  Fish  Manufy  

"  Heavy,  Lubricating,  with  Grease  

"       "       with  Mixing  

"   Kerosene  or  Petroleum,  in  bbls.  (see  1098)  

"       "         "       "         in  Iron  Tanks  

Refineries  (see  1099)  

"  Mills  (see  Linseed,  Cottonseed,  Lard  Oil,  &c).  . . 
"   Petroleum  products,  Benzine,  Naphtha,  &c.  (see 

No.  1226)  

"  Stove,  Gas  Stove  and  Gasoline  Stove  Manufy. 

Oilcloths,  Stocks  of  

Oilcloth  Manufy  (see  Floor  Cloth  No.  917)  

Oiled  Clothing  Manufy  

"  "       Stocks,  hung  for  ventilation  

Oleomargarine  Manufy  

Opera  Houses  (see  Theatres,  No.  1547)  

Optical  and  Mathematical  Instruments  (see  Inst.  1078 ) 
Organ  and  Piano  Manufy  


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


76? 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Add  for1  Add  for 
Build'g  cont'nta 
Rate.  Rate. 


Cents. 


Organs  in  Churches  (see  also  Churches,  No.  676 ). . . . 

"       Stocks  of  (see  Musical  Instruments)  

Overalls,  Manuf'y  

Oyster  packing  (see  Canning,  No.  614)  

Packing  Box  Manuf'y  (see  Box  Manuf'y,  No.,  549). . 
Pail  Manuf'y  (see  Bucket  Manuf'y,  No.  580,  581,  582) 

Paint  and  Color  Works,  Water  Colors  

Oil  "   

"  "        "      Benzine  Paints  

"     Manuf'y,  Mixing  

"     and  Oil  Stores,  retail  

"     Dry  Colors,  Stocks  of  

"     Wholesale,  in  cans.    No  Oils  drawn  

If  Oils  drawn  add  75  cents. 

Painter,  House  

Sign  

Painting  Hazard  in  Manufacturing  Risks  no  benzine 

or  naphtha  used,  add  to  rate  of  risk  

Benzine  or  Naphtha  used,  add  to  rate  of  risk . 

Panoramas  and  Cycloramas  (see  Cyclo.  No.  787)  

Paper  Bags  Manuf'y  (see  Bag  Factories,  No.  453). . . . 

Boat  "   

Box  Manufactories  (see  Box,  546,  547)  

Car  Wheel  "  (see  Car  Wheel,  No.  629). . . . 
Embossing  Note  (see  Embossing,  No.,  850).  . . 
Hanging  Manuf'y  (see  Wall  Paper,  No.  1621). 

Stocks  (see  Wall  P.,  No.  1622)  

Mills*,  using  mixed  rags  

"  "     White    "  exclusively*  

"  "     Straw,  Jute,  Rope,  &c  

"  "    Wood  Pulp  

Pail  Manuf'y  (see  Bucket,  No.  581)  

Patterns,  Stocks  of  (see  Patterns,  No.  1287). . . 

Rulers  

Stocks  of,  wholesale  (no  rags  or  scraps)  

"      "  with  cutting  and  gilding  

"      "no  cutting  

"      "  with  wrapping  and  twine  

"      "  Rags  and  scraps  in  bales,  no  sorting 

or  baling  (see  Rags)  

"        "      "  with  Rag  sorting  and  baling  

Parasols  (see  Umbrellas  and  Parasols  1599)  

Passementerie,  bead  work  (see  Bead  Work,  No.  485). 

Paste  Manuf'y  (see  No.  1217)  

Patent  Leather  Manuf'y   

"      Medicines,  Stocks  (see  Medicine  Pat.)  

"  Manuf'y,  power  and  heat  

"  "  "       cold  process,  few  hands. . 

Patterns,  Dress,  Paper,  Manuf'y  

"  "        "     Stocks  of  

"         Shoe,  Manuf'y  (see  Shoe  P.)  

Wood,  "   

Pawn  Brokers  

Peanut  Factories  


25 


50 
100 
200 
100 
50 
20 
20 

50 
40 

50 
100 
50 
25 
50 

75 
15 
125 


150 
50 

250 
75 
75 


15 
5 
20 
15 
15 

15 
75 


200 
50 
75 
25 
25 


50 
100 

15 
100 


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


768 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Add  for!  Add  for 
Build'g  cont'nts 
Rate.  Kate. 


Pearl  Goods  Manufactury.    No  Vegetable  Ivory.. 

Peg,  Shoe,  Skewer,  and  Toothpick  Manufy  

Pencil,  Lead,  Manufy  (see  Lead  Pencil,  No.  1122). . 
Penitentiaries  and  State  Prisons  (see  Prisons,  No.  1359) 
"  "  Workshops,  No.  1360 

Pen  Manufy,  Gold  (see  Gold  Pens,  No.  992)  

"       "  Steel  

Perfumery  Manufy,  cold  process  

"  Stores,  

Periodical  Dealers  (see  also  News  Dealers,  1233)  

Phosphate  Mills  

Photo  Engraving,  Process  Work  

with  wet  plate,  electrotyping,  &c. 
Photographers,  Stock,  Supplies  and  Fixtures,  exclude 

Dry  Plates  

"  on  Negatives  (see  No.  1232)  

"  "  Dry  plates  

Supplies,  Manufy  of  

Piano  Manufy  (see  Organ  and  P.  Manufy,  1255)  

Pianos  and  Organs,  Stocks  of,  with  repairing  

"        "       "       no  repairing,  (see  No.  1222)  

Pickers,  Cotton.    Safely  arranged,  fire-resisting  con 
struction,  dust  conveyers,  casks  of 

water  and  pails  provided  

If  sprinkled,  deduct  40  %. 

"  "  Fire-proof  construction  

Deduct  25   per  cent,  from  above 


Wool, 
rates. 

*'      Jute,  Hemp,  Flax,  Upholstering  material 

etc  

Pickle  Manufy,  with  soldering  

"     Stocks  of  (see  Warehouse,  No.  2726)  

Picture  Frames,  manufacturing,  gilding,  etc.  (see  also 

Frames)  

"      Stores,  no  framing,  except  for  own  trade. . . . 

Pictures  on  exhibition  or  Storage  

Pie,  Cake,  and  Bread  Bakeries  (see  Bakeries,  No.  458) 

Piers,  Wharves  and  Bulkheads,  covered.  

"  "  "  "    Mdse.  thereon 

**  "  uncovered  

"  Mdse.  thereon 

Pin  Manuf  y  

Pipe  Cutting  (Gas  and  Steam).  

"   Drain  and  Sewer  M'f'y  (see  Drain  Pips,  No.  800). 

*'   Iron,  Manufy  (see  No.  1082)  

Pipes,  Meerschaum,  Smokers'  Articles,  etc.  (see  1480) 
Pitch  (see  Asphalt,  No.  438). 
Planing  Mills,  Steam  Power 

Charge  for  exposure  of  Drying  Hazard 
No.  814,  Painting  Hazard,  1267,  Boiler 
Room,  527. 
"         "    Water  Power 
Plants  (see  Florist,  No.  919). 

Plaster  Works  

"      Statuary  and  Casts. 


•See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


769 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Add  for  Add  for 

Build'g  cont'nts 
Rate.  Rate. 


Cents. 


Plated  Ware,  Stocks  of  

"         "  Manuf'y  

Plate  (Name)  Maker,  with  plating  

"        "     Engraving  only  

"  Printer  

"    Electro  and  Stereotype  

"       "        "         "       in  vaults  

"    Solid  Silver  (see  No.  1468)  

Playing  Card  M'f'g,  (see  Card  No.  621, )  

Plow  Manuf'y,*  hand  power  

"         "        steam  "   

"         "        water  "   

Add  for  Painting,  1267, 
Drying,  814,  Boiler R. 527. 
Plumbers'  and  Gasfitters'  Stocks,  with  handwork. . . . 

Plush  Manuf'y  

Pocket-books  and  Leather  Bags,  Stocks  of  

"  "        "         '  Manuf'y  

Police  Stations  

Policy  Shops  

Polishing  Materials,  Stocks  

Poorhouses  (see  Almshouses,  No.  415,  416)  

Pork  Houses  

Rendering,  Steam  Kettle,  add  25  cts. . 
"        Smoke  Rooms,  not  cut  off,  add  50  cts. . 

Post  Offices  

Potteries  

Preserves  Manuf'y  

Print  and  Color  Works  (see  also  Bleacheries,  No.  512) 
Printers' Ink,  in  cans  (see  Print.  Ink  Manuf'y,  1074) 

"      Roller  Manuf'y  

"       Supplies,  with  occasional  printing  

Printing,  Composing  only  

"        Foot-power,  card  and  small  job  printers.  . . 

Gold,  with  heat  

Heliotype  (see  Heliotype,  No.  1038,)  

"  Newspaper  

Solar    

with  power,  ( steam  or  electric )  1  large  or  3 

small  presses  

"        add  5  cts.,  for  each  large  press,  up  to. . . . 
Prisons,  State,  Penitentiaries,  &c,  (see  Penitentiaries) 

"        "  "  "  Workshops... 

Provisions,  Lard,  Produce,  Stocks  of,  no  smoking  or 

rendering. . . 
"  "     "  if  smoking  and 

rendering  for  own  trade 

Public  Park  Buildings  

Public  Halls  (see  Halls)  

Pulley,  wood  and  Block  Mfy  (see  Block  &  P.  No.  515) 

Pulp,  Paper,  Manuf'y  of  

"      Wood       "        wet  process  

"         "  "         chemical,  sulphite  process. 

Pumping  Stations,  see  Water  Works,  1634  

Pump  Manuf'y,  Metal  

"  *'        Wood,  (see  also  No.  515)  


25 
25 
10 

25 


50 
100 
25 

25 
50 


50 


25 
50 


100 
50 

125 
10 
50 
25 
15 
15 
25 
50 
50 
10 

40 
75 
100 
200 


25 


75 
100 
150 


25 
75 


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


770 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 

Add  for 

Huild'g 
Rate. 

Add  for 
cont'nta 
Rate. 

No. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

1  litis 

100 

50 

Queensware  (see  Crockery). . 

1369 

Quilt  Manuf'y,  Cotton,  &c  

50 

100 

1370 

"       Down  and  Feather  only  

25 

75 

1371 

Ra^s  in  iron  tied  bales  no  assorting  

10 

50 

1372 

"     "  rope  "     "      "  "   

50 

75 

"    with  assorting  

50 

150 

"      Carpet  Weaving  (see  ( 'a rpet,  hand  p.  No.  641; 

50 

50 

Railroad  Bridges  (see  Bridges,  No.  563)  

1373 

"       Cars  Dinin<r 

100 

i:;?4 

"          "     Freight  box  . 

50 

1375 

"          "        "  Platform 

55 

1376 

"          "     Ordinary  passenger  . 

75 

1377 

"          "     Sleepers  Parlor  &e 

75 

1378 

"       Depots  Passenger  Brick  or  Stone  . 

50 

25 

1379 

"           "              "  Frame 

60 

25 

1380 

Freight,  Brick  or  Stone  

60 

25 

1381 

"           "            "  Frame  

70 

25 

1382 

"  Locomotives  

25 

1383 

"        Hi  iiind  J  louses  

25 

25 

1384 

50 

100 

1385 

"       Signal  Towers    

50 

1386 

Snow  Sheds  

200) 

Stables  (see  Car  Stables,  No.  623)  

"       Stations  ( See  Depots  above) 

1387 

"       Property  generally — not  classified  . 

1388 

Rattan  Goods  Manuf'y  of  (see  Bamboo,  461)  

75 

75 

1389 

Stocks  of    (  "       "      462). . .  

10 

65 

Razor  Manuf'y  (see  Cutlery,  No.  784)  

25 

100 

1391 

"     Strop  Manuf'y  

25 

75 

1392 

Rectifying  Establishments,  cold  process  (see  1151). . 

15 

45 

1393 

*'             hot      "      (  "   798).  . 

200 

50 

1394 

Reduction  Works  (see  Quartz  Mills  No  1368). 

100 

50 

1395 

Refinery,  Oil  (see  Kerosene,  No.  1099,  Lard,  1116 )  . . 

300 

200 

"        Sugar  (see  Sugar  Refinery,  No.  1523)  

300 

100 

1397 

Reform  Schools,  Houses  of  Refuge  &  Reformatories 

100 

100 

"      "   "  Work  Shops,  No.  1360 

200 

100 

1398 

100 

100 

1399 

"         Stocks  of,  no  manuf'g  or  repairing. . . . 

10 

50 

1400 

Regalia    Masonic   Odd  Fellows,  etc  

65 

1401 

15 

70 

1402 

10 

to 

1403 

' '  Railroad  

25 

75 

1404 

Rice  Mills*   

100 

50 

1405 

50 

100 

1406 

25 

75 

1407 

Rinks  (see  Skating  Rinks)  

300 

100 

1408 

1? i  tllin  o*  At  ills 

75 

25 

1409 

Roofing  Materials,  Stocks  of,  no  boiling  of  tar,  &c.  . 

100 

50 

"                     Manui  y,  Asphalt,  -ritch,  etc.,  438 

300 

1411 

Rope  and  Cordage,  Cables  and  Twine  

5 

35 

1412 

"  Walks  

150 

100 

Rosin,  Tar,  Naval  Stores,  &c.  (see  Naval  Stores,  1228) 

75 

75 

♦See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


771 


CIIARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Add  for 
Build'g 
Rate 


Rubber  Boot  and  Shoe  Manuf'y  (No  1073)  

"      Boot  &  Shoe  Stocks,  package  only(see541) 

"      Goods  (see  India  Rubber  1068)  

"  Manuf'y,  Hard  Goods  (sec  India  Rubber  1072) 
««  "       Soft      "    (  "  "  1073) 

Stamp  Manuf'y  

Ruches,  and  Unfiles  Manuf'y  

Rule  Manuf'y  

Ruling  (Paper)  (see  Paper  Ruler,  No.  1274)  

Rugs,  exclusively  (see  Carpets)  

Saddlery  and  Harness,  no  Collar  nianuf'g  (see  liar 

ness,  No.  1024)  

Manuf'y  (No.  1026)  

Saddle-tree  Manuf'y  

Safes,  Fireproof,  Manuf'y,  (see  No.  905)  

"  Iron,  "Fireproof",  &c.  Stocks  of  (See  906).. 
Sail  and  Rigging  Manuf'y,  lofts,  &c.  (see  Awning). . 

Saloons,  Bar-rooms,  Alcoholic,  "Gin  Mills"  

"       High  Class  

"       Lager  Bier,  German  type,  No.  1109)  

Salt  Blocks  or  Works  

Saltpetre,  in  bbls.  (see  Warehouse,  No.  2619)  

"  sacks  (no  empty  sacks  to  be  stored  on 
premises)  (see  Warehouse,  No.  2621). . . 

Sand-paper  Manuf'y,  with  dry  room  

Sanitaria,  Water  Cures,  &c.  (see  Water  Cure,  1634) 
Sash,  Door,  and  Blind  Manuf'y  (see  Blind  No.  513) 

Sausage  Manuf'y  

Saw-dust  stuffed  goods  Manuf'y  

Saw  Factories  

"    Mills,*  Steam  power  

Water  "   

Scales  Manuf'y  

"     Stacks  of  

School- houses,  Brick  or  Stone  

"  Frame  

"  Small  Country  

Second-hand  Stores,  Clothing  (see  Clothing,  No.  701) 
"      Furniture,  (see  Furniture  950). 

Seeds,  Garden,  Stocks  of  

Segar  Stores,  (see  Cigars,  No.  680,  681)  

Seminaries  (see  Academies  401 )  

Sewing  Machine  Manuf'y  

"      Machines,  Stocks  of  

Shade,  Roller,  Manuf'y  (see  Window  Shade,  No.  1655) 

Shingle  Mills  

Ship  Builders  Yards,  &c,  wood  

"  "  iron  

"    Chandlery  (see  Chandlery,  No.  656)  

"    at  wharf,  (see  No..  1615)  100  cts 

Shirt,  Collar  and  Cuff  Manuf'y,  without  laundry  723 
"            "       "  with 
'*     Stocks  of  (see  Furnishing  Goods)  


Cents. 
200 


10 
15 
50 
15 


100 
50 


10 

25 
15 
5 
50 
75 

75 
100 
25 

75 
50 
75 
250 
150 
50 


10 

10 
10 
100 
100 

10 


50 
5 

150 
300 
100 
50 
25 

50 
75 


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


772 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Add  for  . 

Build'f,'  i 
Rate. 


No. 
1448 
1449 
1450 
1451 
1452 
1453 
1454 
1455 
1456 
145T 

1458 


1459 
1460 
1461 


1  102 
I  163 
1464 
14i',:, 

1465  i 

1466 
"  a 

1468 
1469 
1470 


1471 
1472 
1473 
1474 
1475 
1476 
1477 

1478 
1479 
1480 
"  a 

1481 

1482 

14s:{ 

1483  j 

1484 

1485 


Shoddy  Mills*  

"        "    with  picking  

"  Storage  

Shoe  and  Boot  Manuf'y,*  Brick,  Steam  power  

"  "         "         "       Water  "   

Hand  "   

"  "       Frame,  Steam  "   

"      Water  "   

*'  "  "  "      Hand  "   

"    Manuf'ry  in  mercantile  lniildings,  in  cities,  less 

than  100  hands  

"  "  If  more  than  100  hands,  add  one  cent  to 
each  column  fur  every  five  additional 
men,  but  total  rate  not  to  exceed . .  . 
If  rubbcrcement  used  by  more  than  10 
hands  or  oil  dressing  add  10  cents. 

"    Counter  Manuf'y  (see  No.  768)  

"    Dressing,  in  cans  

"    Findings  Manuf'y  

"    Maker  and  Cobbler  (see  No.  715)  

"    Patterns  Manuf'y  (see  Patterns,  No.  1288)  

"   Peg  Manuf'y  (see  Peg,  No.  1293)  

"    Stock,  with  cutting  

Shooting  Galleries  

Shot  Tower  

Show  Case  Manuf'ry,  (see  Wood-working  Schedule) 
Shuttle  and  Bobbin  Manuf'y  (see  Bobbin,  No.  525). . 
Silos  


1328) 


Sign  Painter  (see  Painter,  No.  1266)  

Silk  Manuf'y*  

"  Stocks  of,  exclusively  (see  Dry  Goods)... 
Silver  and  Plated-ware  Stocks  (see  Plated-ware 

"  Solid  

Polish  Manuf'rs  

Skate  Manuf'y  

Skating  Rinks  (see  Rinks,  No.  1407)  

Skewer  and  Peg  Manuf'y  (see  Peg  Manuf'y,  No.  1293) 

Skin  Mills,  (see  No.  781)  

Slate  and  Silicate  Manuf'y  

Slaughter  Houses,  large,  Abattoirs,  no  nuisances. . . 

"  "      small,  butcher,  

Sleigh  Manuf'y,  Driving  

Toy  

"     Stocks  of  

Slipper  Manuf'rs  

Smelters  (see  Reduction  Works,  No.  1394)  

Smoke  Houses,  Public,  Pork  House,  &c  

"         "  Private  

Smokers'  Articles,  Stocks  of  

"  "       Manuf'y  of  

Snow  Shovels,  wooden,  Manuf'y,  (see  No.  1576). . . 

Snuff  Manuf'y  

Soap  Manuf'y,  Laundry  

Toilet  

"     Powder  Manuf'y  

"    Stocks  of  

Soapstone  or  Talc  Manuf'y  


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


773 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Add  for 

Build'g 
Rate 


Add  for 

cont'nts 
Rate. 


Soda  Fountain  Manuf'y  

"  Water 

Spice  Mills    

Spool  Manuf'y  

Sponges,  Coral  and  Shells  

Sponging  (Steam)  Works  

Sporting  Goods,  Stocks  of  (see  Firearms,  etc.,  903). 

"  "       Manuf'ry  (see  No.  443)  

Spring  Bed  Manuf'y  

Stables,  Boarding  exclusively  

Car,  (see  No.  623  etc.)  

Express  (see  No.  868)  

"      Industrial,  Brewery,  Mills,  &c   

"  Hotel,  

Livery,  (see  No.  1153)  

"      Mercantile,  Grocer's,  Baker's,  &c  

"  Private  

"  Training  

Stair  Builders  

"    Rod  Manuf'y  

Stallions  (see  Live  Stock  No.  1156)  

Stamp  and  Quartz  Mills  (see  Quartz  Mills,  1368). . .  . 

"      Rubber,  Manuf'y  (see  No.  1413)  

Starch  Manuf'y,  Corn,  Cereal,  &c  

Potato  

State  Houses,  City  Halls  

Stationers'  Supplies,  Manuf'y  

Stationery  and  Book  Stores  (see  Books  No.  536)  

Stave  and  Heading  Manuf'y  (for  Cooper,  see  733)... . 

Steamboats,  Excursion  2% 

"  Laid  upf  IX 

"  Regular  trip  boats,  A  1  rating  1  % 

"      "      AIJi"  ....IX" 

"  "        "      "     A  2     "   2  " 

"      "     A  2y2  "  " 
"  River,  carrying  cotton  or  naval  stores. . 

"  Tugs,  A  1  rating  1  % 

"     "   IX" 

"     "    A  2     "   2  " 

"     '*    A  2}4  "   2%" 

"  Dredges  3 

"  Derricks  (see  Derricks,  No.  796)  \yz 

Steam  Engines,  Fire  Engines  Stocks  of  (see  Engines) 

"      Gauge  Manuf'y  

i     "       Heating  Plants   

Steel  Works,  Bessemer,  &c  

Stencil  and  Rubber  Stamp  Manuf'y  (see  No.  1413). . 

Stock-yards,  Cattle  Pens  200  cts. 

Storage  Risks  (see  Warehouse,  Nos.  948,  1623,  etc.). 

high  class  for  personal  effects  Fur.  etc.,  948 

Stove  Foundry  (see  Foundry,  No.  932)  

Manuf'y  (see  Oil  Stove,  Gas  Stove,  No.  1247) 

i  Stores,  part  dwellings  

Stoves,  Hollow- ware,  Stocks  of,  no  tinshop  

"    with  tinshop,  no  gasolene  

"    with  tin-shop  and  gasolene  fire-pots 


Cents. 

50 

40 
150 
150 


50 
10 
100 
50 
75 

50 
30 
125 
125 
30 
25 
75 
150 
25 

100 
10 

100 

400 
25 

100 


150 


50 

50 
10 


40 
50 
50 

10 

25 
40 


Cents. 

75 

60 
200 
100 

50 

75 

50 

75 

50 

75 

75 
40 
50 
50 
40 
25 
75 
150 
50 

50 

50 
150 
100 

25 
100 

75 
150 


50 
50 

50 

50 


85 
50 
50 

40 

40 
60 


•See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


tWith  stipulations  as  to  proximity 


774 


CHARGES  FOK  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


I  Add  for 
Ruild'g  i 
Kate. 


No. 

1517  Straw  Board  Mill*  (see  Paper,  No.  1272)  

1518  "        "    Stocks  of  

"    Goods  Manufy*  (see  617)  

1519  "        "     Stocks  of  Retail  

1520  "        "  Wholesale  

Studios,  Artists'  (see  Artists'  Studios,  No.  436  ). . 

1521  Sugar  Houses,  on  plantations  

1522  "      of  Milk  Manufy  

1523  "  Refinery  

Surgical  Instrument  Manufy  (see  Inst.  No.  1077 

1524  Suspender  Manufy  

1525  Tack  Factories  

1526  Tag  Manufy,  Card  Board  

1527  "        "        Metal,  with  acid  

1528  Tailor,  Merchant  (see  Merchant  Tailor)  

1529  "       Custom,  with  cutting  and  hushelling  

1530  "       Trimmings  (see  No.  602)  

Talc  Manufy  (see  Soapstone,  No.  1485)  

1531  Tanneries,  "Back  Country"  , 

1532  "         Bark,  in  or  near  Towns  

1533  "         Extract,  in  or  near  Towns  

Tape  Weaving  (No.  1637)  

1534  Tapestry  Weaving  by  hand  

1535  Tar  Manufy  

Taverns  (see  Hotels)  

1536  Taxidermist  

1537  Teamsters'  Office,  with  storage  of  supplies  

Teas,  Coffee,  Spices,  etc.  (see  Coffee,  717,  718 ). . 

1538  Telegraph  Offices  

1539  "  "  Switchboards  

1540  Telephone  Offices  

1541  "  "  Switchboards  

1542  "  Manufy  

1543  "  Supplies  

1544  Tenement  Houses,  with  brick  shafts  

"  a  "  "      without  "  "   

154.")  "  "      first  floor  fireproof  

Tent  Makers  (see  Awning  Manufy  No.  447  ). . .  . 

1546  Terra  Cotta  Works.  

1547  Theatres,*  Opera  Houses,  "Fire-proof"  construe 

1548  "  "  not 

Theatrical  Goods  (see  Costumers,  No.  753)  

Thermometer  Manufy,  No.  1077  

1549  Thread,  Cotton  and  Linen,  Stocks   

1550  "  "  "  Manufy*  

1551  "      Silk,  Manufy  

1552  "        "  Stocks  

1553  Tiles  Manufy  

1554  "    Stocks  of  

1555  Tin  Shop,  10  hands  

1556  "     "      more  than  10  hands  

1557  "     "      with  Japanning  

"     "      See  next  page. 


lion 


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


775 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Add  for 

Build'g 
Rate. 


Tin  Shops,  Continued. 

"     "     Gasolene  Pots,  (see  969). . .  

"    Cans,  Stock — no  work  

"    Plate  Manuf'y  

Tinware,  Stoves,  etc.  (see  Stoves)  

Tobacco  and  Cigars,  retail  (see  Cigars,  No.  680). . . . . 

Barns,  Country  

"      Chewing,  in  foil  and  boxes  

"      Leaf,  Foreign,  inhhds.,  bbls.  or  cases  

"         "        "       in  ceroons  or  bales  

"         "    Domestic  in  hhds.,  bbls  or  cases  

"         "         "         "  ceroons  or  bales  

"       Manufactory,  Fine  Cut  

Plug  

"      Pipe  Factories,  Clay  

"        "  "  Meerschaum  

Wood,  Cob,  &c  

"      Plug,  (See  Warehouse)  

"       Prize  Houses  

"  Stemmeries  

Toboggan  Manuf'y  

Slides  

Tool  Manuf'y  Edge,  (see  No.  832)  

"       "  Wood  

Toothpick  Wooden,  M'f'y  (see  Peg  and  S.  No.  1293). 

Tortoise  Shell  Manuf'y,  with  heat    

"  "  "       without  heat  

Tow,  in  bales  (see  Hemp,  No.  1040)  

Town  Halls  (see  No.  1500)  

Toys,  Fancy  Goods,  etc.,  open  stock  

"        "        "      in  p'k'gs,  not  exceeding  25#  open 

"     one  man  touching  up  

"  Manuf'y  

Training  Stable  (see  Stable  No.  1495,)  

Trimmings,  Buttons,  etc.,  Stocks  of  (see  Buttons,  602) 

Tripe  Manuf'y  

Trunks,  Manufactory  

"       Stocks  of,  no  manufacturing  

"       with  repairing  

Truss  and  Crutch  Factory  

Tub  Manuf'y  

Tug  Boats  (see  No.  1507)  

Turkish  and  Russian  Bath  Establishments  (No.  480). 

Turning,  Ivory  (see  Ivory  No.  1085)  

Wood  (  "  Wood  Turning)  

Turpentine,  in  bbls.  (see  1228)  

"  Distillery  

Twines,  Cord,  Rope,  etc.,  Stocks  of  (see  Rope,  1411) 

Type  Foundries  (see  Foundry,  No.  933)  

"    Stocks  of  

Type  writer  Factory  

"  Repairing  

"         Ribbon  Manuf'y  

Stock,  Supplies  


♦See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Umbrellas  and  Parasols.  Manuf'y,  covering,  no  stick 

work  (seeC.  &U.  611) 
"    with  stick  work. .  . 


Undertakers,  no  work  oilier  than  finishing  lor  funeral 

orders  


with  finishing, 
work  


varnishing,  etc.,  hand 


Upholsterers'  Stocks,  without  manufacturing  

with  manufacturing,  10  hands  or  less 
nmri  than  II)  hands,  add   1   ct.  to  first 
column  for  every  3  hands  in  excess  of  10 
using  jute,  excelsior  or  grass,  add  50 

cents  to  first  column  , 

"         if  picker,  power,  add  100  cents 

hand      "  25  " 

"         Hair  only  , 

Varnish  Manuf'y  

"      Stocks  of  

Vegetable  Ivory  Stocks  

Veneers,  Manuf'y  

"       Stocks  of  

Vessels  (see  also  Steamboats)  

"      at  Wharves  or  Piers  100  cts, 

"      in  port,  restrictions  as  to  petroleum  or  as  to 
lying  near  oil  refinery,  oil  yard,  &c. .  100  cts. 

"      on  the  ways,  repairing,  &c  125  " 

Vinegar,  Cider  Apple  and  Fruit,  Manuf'y,  (677)  

"       (Alcohol  Process)  "   

Wadding  and  Batting  M'f'y  (see  Batting  and  W.  484 ) 

Wagon  and  Cart  Manuf'y  

Wall  Paper  Manuf'y  (see  Paper  Hanging  Factory). . 

"  Stocks  of  (see  Paper  Hanging)  

Warehouses  Storage  (for  cont'nts  see  Nos.  1800,  etc) 

"  Country,  Brick  

"  "  Frame  

"  Cotton  and  Woolen  Mill  

Flour  Mill  

Washing  and  Wringing  Machine  Manuf'y  

Waste,  clean,  Cotton  

"         "  Woolen  

Watch  Case  Maker  

"     Dial  and  Face  Manuf'y  

"  Manuf'y  

Watches,  Clocks  and  Jewelry  (see  Clocks,  No.  688). 

Water  Cures,  Sanitaria  (see  Sanitaria,  No.  1425)  

"     Works,  Pumping  Stations,  &c  

Wax  Factories  

"    Figure  Makers  

Weaving  Mills*  (see  Nos.  759,  1673)  

Tape  

Webbing  Manuf'y  (see  Elastic  Goods,  No.  836)  

Whalebone  Worker  

Wharf-boats  

Wharves  and  Piers  (see  Piers  and  Wharves)  


Add  for  Add  for 

Huild'g  cont'nts 
Hate.  Rate. 


Cents. 

25 
50 


5 
15 
15 


10 

200 
50 
150 
150 


75 
100 
300 
150 
125 


50 
50 
50 
50 
200 
100 
150 
10 
25 
50 


25 
25 
100 
100 

100 
75 
25 

100 


Cents. 

75 
75 

45 

50 
50 
60 


65 
200 

75 
150 
150 
100 


75 
100 
200 
100 
125 
100 

50 
50 
50 
50 
100 
200 
200 
65 
75 
50 
50 
25 
100 
100 
150 

100 
100 
50 
50 


*See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


i  i  I 


Add  for  Add  for 

CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 

Build';,' 

conl'nts 

Rate 

[{ate 

No. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

1640 

OAA 
,400 

1  p:a 
IoO 

1641 

tit  1            1     1  r               t?y         /  TT..1.               1    r~4           i             TLX         -4  r\  /~*  -4  \ 

150 

150 

Wheelwright  &  Blacksmith,  (See  Blacksmith  No.  509) 

75 

C:A 
50 

1642 

100 

rrA 
50 

1U 

ou 

1643 

Whiskey,  in  barrels,  iu  stores  

25 

KA 

50 

1644 

40 

on 

1645 

25 

K  A 
50 

1646 

25 

50 

1647 

"     "      stove  heat  for  ageing  process 

50 

1648 

«        ••     it      steam    "      "       "  " 

40 

1649 

200 

100 

1650 

QA 

oil 

1651 

TTT "         HiT  _  1              /              XT  _  •       /"i            1  _      "XT"  _       -i  /\-4  f  \ 

75 

Willow-ware  and  Basket  Maker  (see  Basket  No.  478) 

50 

1  AA 
100 

"    Stocks  (see  No.  1661)  

1652 

Wind-mill  Manuf'y,  Metal  

100 

rrA 
50 

1653 

"           "  Wood  

250 

(TA 
00 

TIT  »         1                  S~1  T                  /                   VT  1                 TkT            r\i*.m,  » 

5 

00 

1654 

100 

75 

1655 

Mm                                MM             Tw      IT                          1       TT  •                                     T  r  ill 

1  KA 

150 

1  AA 
1UU 

1656 

25 

to 

1657 

TTT'                •                TIT*              TT  1  A  (J_ 

25 

10 

Wines  and  Liquors  (see  Liquors,  Nos.  1148,  1150). . . 

"             "       retail,  No  Bar  (see  No.  1148)  

25 

75 

1658 

50 

100 

1659 

25 

25 

1660 

5 

45 

1660 

1661 

.  .                        i    -rir  •  li               TIT"  O  i„  _  1_  _ 

25 

1  AA 
1UU 

1662 

OAA 
4VV 

1UU 

"     Carpet  Manuf  y  (see  Carpet  No.  642  ).  

1  £A 

tow 

1  no. 
tut1 

25 

125 

"     Pulp  Manuf'y  (see  Pulp  No.  1365,  1365a).  .... 

150 

100 

125 

50 

1663 

"     Workers,*  not  elsewhere  specified,  Steam  pow- 

er (Boiler  and  Dry  Room  outside). . 

200 

100 

1664 

"           "       not  elsewhere  specified,  Steam  pow- 

er (Boiler  and  Dry  Room  inside). . . . 

oUU 

4V\J 

1665 

.  -                             .  .                          ,i               t                                •  /"»       1      TTT  j_ 

"          "      notelsewhere  specified,  Water  power 

1  7^1 

i  O 

1666 

"           "                "                     Hand  " 

1  f^n 

ou 

"     Yard  and  Coal  l  ard  (see  Coal  and  W  .,  No.  714) 

100 

25 

75 

75 

1667 

9.00 

WW 

100 

1668 

4\) 

1669 

250 

50 

"  a 

1670 

50 

150 

1671 

40 

1672 

"      Mills.*  First  Class.Modem  mill  construction, 

Brick  or  Stone,  open  finish,  no  furring 

on  walls  or  concealed  spaces  between 

floors  ;  heavy  beams,  double  flooring  ; 

tThe  difference  between  frame  and  brick  will  be  measured  in  tbe  building  rate  to  be  added 
•See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


CHARGES  FOR  OCCUPANCY,  continued. 


Woolen  Mills,  continued. 

staircases,  elevators,  pickers  and  dry- 
ing process  cut  off — latter  by  cold  air 
only  ;  using  pure  wool  stock,  no  shod- 
dy, cotton  or  mixed  stock  

Woolen  Mills*  First  Class.  Weaving  only,  buying 
warps  and  yarns  ;  no  picking  or  spin 


"  "    First  Class.  Using  mixed  clean  cotton 

stock,  no  shoddy  

"  "    First  Class.  Using  mixed  stock  with 

shoddy  

"  Second  Class.  Good  construction, 
mill  Moors  not  double  or  with  heavy 
beams ;  staircases  and  elevators  not 
cut  off,  but  pickers  and  dry-rooms 
separated  ;  using  pure  wool  stock. . 
"    Second  Class.  Using  mixed  stock  or 

shoddy  

"    Third  Class.    Ordinary  construction 
plastered  ceiling,  furred  walls,  poor 
tire  appliances,  old  machinery,  eleva 
tors  and  staircases  not  cut  off,  &c. 

&c,  Decline  

"        "     Frame,  Steam  power  

Water  "   

"   Waste,  (see  Waste  No,  1630 )  

Worsteds  and  Fancy  Wools,  Stocks  of  

AV rappers  (Ladies')  Manuf'y  , 

Wringing  Machine  Manuf'y,  (see  No.  1628)  

Yachts,  Sail  75  cents 

"      Steam  or  Electric  100  " 

Yeast  Manuf'y  

Yankee  Notions,  (see  Notions  No.  1236)  

Yarns,  Cotton  and  Wool,  excluding  Jute  , 

Zinc  Manuf'y    

Zylonite  Factor}-,  same  as  Celluloid,  No.  649  


Cents. 


♦See  Specific  Schedule  for  Class. 


INSURANCE  OF  MERCHANDISE  IN  WAREHOUSES, 
PUBLIC  STORAGE  STORES,  ETC 
(With  Alphabetical  List.) 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  most  of  the  losses  (over  90$  in  city 
warehouses  other  than  fibre,  protected  by  fire  departments,)  are 
partial,  it  follows  that  the  relative  susceptibility  to  damage  of 
the  various  kinds  of  contents  is  vitally  important,  as  it  would 
indicate  the  relative  salvage  in  case  of  fire,  and  that  whatever 
differences  exist  in  the  goods  before  a  fire  would,  unless  they 
are  totally  destroyed,  be  found  reflected  in  the  differences  in 
salvage  after  a  fire.  This  fact  proves  that  the  rates  on  the  var- 
ious contents  of  warehouses  should  be  discriminating,  and  that 
where  they  are  not — all  merchandise  being  rated  at  some  aver- 
age figure,  (which  must  necessarily  be  a  maximum  high  enough 
for  the  most  damageable  class,) — injustice  will  be  done  to  those 
classes  on  which,  by  reason  of  the  character  of  the  goods  them- 
selves or  of  the  packages  which  enclose  and  protect  them,  the 
greatest  salvage  may  be  expected. 

The  necessity  for  a  round  or  average  rate  for  a  stock  of  mer- 
chandise in  a  private  store  for  the  sale  of  merchandise  of  general 
character,  such  as  Groceries  or  Dry  Goods,  for  example,  where 
only  small  quantities  of  each  class  of  goods  are  to  be  found,  does 
not  obtain  in  a  public  warehouse,  where  the  entire  consignments 
of  a  merchant,  year  in  and  year  out,  may  be  confined  to  a  single 
line  of  goods  in  a  uniform  kind  of  package,  which  he  can,  just 
as  well  as  not,  specify  in  his  policy. 

There  is  no  reason  why  a  merchant  having  a  valuable  invoice 
in  a  public  warehouse,  of  Raw-Hides  or  of  China  Clay  or  Fullers' 
Earths  in  barrels,  willing  to  limit  the  application  of  his  policy 
by  specific  description  of  the  goods  and  the  package  protecting 
them,  should  pay  the  same  rate  as  another  having  Leaf  Tobacco 
or  Toys. 


;S()  INSIRANCK  OF  M  KKCHANDISE  IN  WAREHOUSES,  ETC. 

No  system  for  rating  the  miscellaneous  contents  of  ware- 
houses by  an  average  rate  and  an  indefinite  form  of  policy  can 
be  either  just  to  all  merchants  or  safe  for  underwriters.  On  the 
one  hand,  it  charges  the  hazard  of  undesirable  risks  to  the 
owners  of  preferred  classes  and,  on  the  other,  it  leaves  an  insur- 
ance company  in  ignorance,  until  after  a  loss,  as  to  whether  it 
has  an  unduly  large  line  on  an  exceptionally  damageable  class 
of  merchandise,  or  an  unduly  small  line  on  an  exceptionally 
good  class  of  merchandise.  In  ignorance  of  what  it  may  be  in- 
suring under  some  indefinite  and  general  form  of  policy,  it  must 
either  unduly  restrict  its  lines  to  be  prudent,  or  inordinately  in- 
crease them  at  the  risk  of  having  a  heavy  loss  on  a  subject  of 
insurance  peculiarly  susceptible  to  damage  from  smoke  or  water. 
There  may  be  just  as  much  difference  between  two  different 
classes  of  merchandise  in  the  same  warehouse,  under  the  pro- 
tection of  a  fire  department,  as  between  two  different  manufac- 
turing risks. 

Where  all  kinds  of  merchandise  in  a  warehouse  are  insured 
at  an  average  round  rate,  there  will  be  temptation  either  to  cut 
the  rates  on  the  more  desirable  classes  or  to  pay  an  extra  broker- 
age or  commission  to  secure  them  at  the  tariff.  Any  other 
system  of  rating  than  that  which  justly  measures  the  hazard  of 
each  risk  is  practically  on  a  par  with  the  scheme  of  a  99-cent 
bargain  counter,  from  which  few  intelligent  person  select  50-cent 
articles.  If  rates  are  accurately  equalized  or  adjusted  there  will 
be  no  choice  between  hazards,  and  the  temptation  to  cut  rates 
or  to  pay  extra  brokerages  for  selection  will  be  almost  entirely 
removed.  Even  if  any  competitor  should  prefer  a  particular 
class  or  stock,  his  associates,  having  faith  in  the  adjustment  of 
prices,  would  not  be  disturbed  by  his  preferences ;  they  would 
be  as  willing  to  take  one  risk  as  another  and,  therefore,  those 
which  he  should  leave. 

The  specific  rating  of  the  following  schedule  will  relieve  the 
Companies  of  the  trouble  to  which  they  are  now  subjected  in 
order  to  ascertain  what  their  policies  are  covering  under  preva- 
lent, general,  blanket  forms,  such  as  "Merchandise,  hazardous 
and  extra  hazardous,"  &c.  If,  as  in  the  following  tariff,  the 
rates  named  for  these  general  forms  are  higher  than  those  for 
preferred  classes  specifically  insured,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 


LINES. 


781 


investigate.  The  underwriter  can  rest  assured  that  the  mer- 
chant will  declare  his  goods  if  he  has  a  low-rated  stock,  and  if 
he  does  not  and  asks  for  the  general  form  of  policy,  the  Company 
will  secure  a  proper  rate  and  be  able  to  determine  its  line. 

LINES. 

The  argument  has  been  made  that  some  underwriters  would 
be  tempted  to  take  the  highest  rated  risks  because  they  would 
yield  the  largest  premiums ;  but  this  overlooks  the  fact  that  a  line 
should  be  regulated  by  the  rate  if  the  latter  is  based  upon  accur- 
ate methods  of  measure.  The  liability  to  total  or  excessive  losses 
on  particular  risks,  and  the  frequency  of  fires,  etc.,  which  enter 
into  questions  of  line  are  measured  in  the  rate,  and  the  rate  is, 
therefore,  the  best  evidence  of  what  a  line  should  be. 

For  example,  if  the  line  of  an  underwriter  on  a  class  of  mer- 
chandise rating  at  25  cents  be  $20,000,  his  line  on  a  class  rating 
at  lfc  should  not  be  over  $5,000,  and  on  a  class  of  merchandise 
rating  at  2$  should  not  exceed  $2,500.  In  other  words,  having 
fixed  the  maximum  line  which  he  would  carry  on  a  non-hazard- 
ous risk,  the  amount  of  insurance  which  the  premium  on  such  a 
risk  would  pay  for  on  a  higher  rated  risk  would  be  the  proper 
line  for  the  greater  hazard.  In  the  foregoing  illustration,  $50, 
the  premium  of  the  maximum  line  for  the  minimum  hazard, 
would  pay  for  $5,000  on  a  Ifo  risk  and  only  $2,500  on  a  2$  risk. 

An  underwriter's  line  in  a  particular  warehouse  therefore, 
may,  be  said  to  be  "full"  when  he  has  secured  the  proper  pre- 
mium, graded  according  to  the  classes  covered,  no  matter  what 
the  amount  of  the  insurance  may  be.  If  the  rates  are  properly 
graded  the  question  of  amount  insured  would  not  determine  his 
line,  which  could  not  be  said  to  be  full  if  he  had  $15,000  on  a 
25-cent  class,  but  would  be  more  than  full  if  he  had  $7,500  on  a 
Ifo  class.  His  loss  on  a  $20,000  policy  on  crude  rubber  would 
not  be  greater  than  on  a  $5,000  stock  of  toys. 

Under  such  a  system  of  rating  as  is  here  proposed  an  under- 
writer can  easily  regulate  his  lines,  which  must  always  depend 
upon  the  character  of  the  goods  covered.  It  is  the  probable 
amount  of  loss,  and  not  the  actual  a  mo  ant  of  insurance, 
which  determines  what  a  line  should  be. 

Thus  not  only  lines,  but  rates  and  premiums,  would  be  equal- 


782    INSURANCE  OP  MERCHANDISE  IN  WAREHOUSES,  ETC. 

ized,  and  the  Company  taking  a  non-hazardous  risk  at  the  lower 
rate  would  have  as  much  premium  as  a  Company  taking  the 
more  hazardous  risk  at  the  higher  rate.  There  would,  there- 
fore, be  no  inducement  to  an  intelligent  underwriter  to  take  the 
higher  rated  risk,  as  he  would  not  secure  a  larger  premium,  and 
a  correct  system  of  rating,  which  properly  measured  all  risks, 
would  practically  remove  all  differences  and  the  temptation  to 
make  selection,  either  by  cutting  rates  or  paying  extra  com- 
missions. 

Rules  of  Warehouse.  A  reduction  in  the  rate  of  the  warehouse, 
not  exceeding  10$,  at  No.  127,  if  the  rules  of  the  warehouse  ex- 
clude other  parties  than  the  warehouseman  or  his  employees 
(ensuring  disinterested  custody)  and  provide  for  the  use  of  cov- 
ered lights;  prohibiting,  also,  smoking,  fires,  matches,  etc..  (see 
Warehouse  Rules,  N.  Y.  Board.) 

Arrangement  of  Merchandise.  Where  the  rules  of  the  ware- 
house agreed  to  by  the  warehouseman  require  clear  alleys  from 
windows  and  doors  so  that  not  only  may  fires  be  quickly  dis- 
covered from  the  street,  but  (what  is  more  important  still)  that 
water  thrown  by  the  fire  department  may  reach  all  portions  of 
a  room,  a  clear  space  of  three  feet  between  the  top  of  merchan- 
dise piles  and  the  ceilings  being  maintained,  the  basis  or  key 
rate  of  the  warehouse  may  be  reduced  ten  per  cent. 

This  matter  of  disposition  or  arrangement  of  merchandise  on 
the  various  floors  of  a  building  is  a  very  important  feature  of 
the  fire  hazard.  On  a  well  traveled  thoroughfare,  the  discovery 
of  a  fire  by  the  passers-by,  even  in  the  daytime,  may  be  delayed 
if  the  merchandise  is  piled  in  front  of  window  openings  so  as  to 
obstruct  the  view  and  prevent  water  from  reaching  interior  fires. 

Rates  on  Merchandise.  To  secure  the  rate  named  in  the  fol- 
lowing table  for  stock,  the  particular  merchandise  and  its 

PACKAGE  MUST  BE  DECLARED  OR  SPECIFIED,  and  the  policy 

must  not  contain  any  general  term,  such  as  "and  other 
merchandise,  hazardous  and  extra  hazardous,"  or  "other 
merchandise  not  more  hazardous."  Where  such  indefinite 
phrases  are  used,  the  policy  not  being  limited  in  its  application 
to  the  particular  goods  for  which  the  rate  is  specified,  the  rate 
for  general  merchandise  must  be  charged;  (see  Merchandise," 
No.  2693.)    Thus,  if  the  application  of  the  policy  is  limited  to 


POISONS  AND  SPECIFIC  COUNTER  TARIFFS. 


783 


Crude  Rubber,  specifically  insured,  the  addition  to  the  rate  of 
the  building  will  be  10  cents — that  named  for  Crude  Rubber 
No.  2203,  but  if  the  wording  of  the  policy  is  "Crude  Rubber  and 
other  merchandise,  hazardous  and  extra  hazardous.''  or  ''mer- 
chandise principally  Crude  Rubber,"  the  figure  should  be  that 
for  "'Merchandise,"  No.  2693. 

POISONS. 

To  secure  the  separation  from  other  merchandise  of  such  sub- 
stances as  Arsenic,  Paris  Green,  Asafoetida,  &c,  &c,  which 
would  poison  or  injure  food  stocks;  and  of  acids,  fibre  and  other 
ignitible  and  combustible  substances,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
charge  higher  rates,  as  has  been  done  in  the  following  table, 
where  they  are  stored  with  other  goods,  and  a  lower  rate,  suffi- 
cient to  measure  their  own  probabilities  of  damage,  where  they 
are  separately  stored  with  goods  only  of  like  kind.  The  ware- 
houseman, even  with  a  desire  to  keep  his  agreement,  might  not 
succeed  in  excluding  poisons;  but  if  these  were  rated,  as  in  the 
following  table,  at  double  the  rates  of  separate  storage,  they 
would  naturally  seek  such  separate  storage. 

Specific  Counter  Tariffs.  In  a  city  having  a  system  or  large 
number  of  warehouses,  a  specific  "counter  tariff"  may  easily  be 
arranged  and  printed,  which  will  save  computation  upon  each 
risk.  In  this  tariff  a  specific  basis  or  "key"  rate  for  each  ware- 
house can  be  determined  and  printed,  showing  the  net  figure, 
to  which  the  charge  to  obtain  the  stock  rate  is  to  be  added.  In 
this  basis  or  key  rate  the  deduction  of  one-fourth  of  the  deficien- 
cies of  the  building,  as  explained  at  No.  128  of  U.  M.  S.,  may 
be  made  which  will  save  deducting  it  from  each  stock  in  the  list ; 
it  making  no  difference,  of  course,  since  the  two  have  to  be 
added — the  key  rate  of  the  building  and  the  second  column 
charge  of  the  stock  to  get  the  stock  rate — whether  the  deduction 
be  made  from  the  key  rate  of  the  warehouse,  which  would  be 
equivalent  to  deducting  from  every  stock  in  the  warehouse,  or 
from  each  stock  charge  before  adding  it  to  the  key-rate.  The 
charges  for  the  stocks  in  the  second  column  of  the  table  can  be 
added  to  the  printed  basis  rate  of  the  particular  warehouse  to 
get  the  proper  rate  for  any  stock  in  it. 

The  "ignitibility"  and  "combustibility"  features  of  hazardous 
goods  admitted  to  the  warehouse  can  be  provided  for,  as  to  their 


7S4  1NSIRANCE  OF  MERCHANDISE  IN  WAREHOUSES,  ETC. 

effect  upon  other  stocks,  by  increasing  the  key-rate  according  to 
a  stipulation  on  the  pari  of  the  storekeeper  as  to  what  merchan- 
dise he  will  exclude,  notably  such  as  fibre,  chemicals,  etho  s, 
etc.  This  will  determine  the  grade  of  the  warehouse,  for  fixing 
the  basis  or  key-rate  for  all  contents  and  save  adding  the 
excess  hazard  of  all  other  stocks  to  the  one  to  be  rated. 

The  third  feature  of  each  stock — the  susceptibility  to  damage 
— is  the  only  one  included  in  the  following  table. 

The  following  illustration  will  serve  to  further  explain  the 
matter.  Let  us  suppose  that  the  unoccupied  rate  of  a  ware- 
house, No.  127  of  the  Schedule  is,  say,  45  cents;  this  Avould  be, 
under  the  Universal  Schedule,  the  basis  for  rating  any  stock. 
To  it  would  be  added  the  excess  in  the  first  column  of  the  most 
hazardous  stock  over  that  of  the  stock  to  be  rated  and,  in  ad- 
dition, the  second  column  charge  for  the  stock  to  be  rated,  first 
deducting  therefrom  one-fourth  of  the  deficiencies  of  the  build- 
ing, after  which  the  sum  total  would  be  reduced  by  such  per- 
centage deductions  as  the  risk  would  be  entitled  to  for  proximity 
to  hydrants,  city  fire  department,  extra  steamers,  water-towers, 
etc.,  (see  U.  M.  S.  rating  slip.)  Instead  of  making  all  these 
computations  necessary  for  each  stock  in  the  warehouse,  a 
uniform  key -rate  can  be  fixed  for  all  stocks  in  it,  by  taking  the 
rate  No.  127  of  the  Schedule,  increasing  it  for  the  occupancy 
hazard  (according  to  the  agreement  of  the  warehouseman  as  to 
whether  he  will  exclude  fibre,  chemicals,  etc.,)  then  deducting 
one-fourth  of  the  deficiences  of  the  building  and,  further,  such 
percentages  for  proximity  to  hydrants,  extra  steamers,  water- 
tower,  etc. ,  as  the  building  may  be  entitled  to,  the  result  being, 
let  us  suppose,  24  cents.  This  will  be  the  uniform  key-rate  of 
the  warehouse,  to  which  is  to  be  added  the  second  column 
charge  of  the  following  table  to  obtain  the  rate  of  any  class  of 
merchandise  contained  in  it. 

For  example,  suppose  the  basis  or  key-rate  of  the  warehouse 
of  John  Doe  to  be  25  cents,  the  net  rate  for  Boots  and  Shoes  in 
cases  in  the  following  tariff,  No.  1995,  being  25  cents,  the  rate 
for  Boots  and  Shoes  in  John  Doe's  warehouse  would  be  50  cents. 
In  Richard  Roe's  warehouse,  the  basis  rate  of  which  is  40  cents, 
it  would  be  40+25  =  65  cents. 


A  SHORTER  METHOD,  ETC. 


785 


A  SHORTER  METHOD. 

How  to  use  the  following  table  and  to  determine  the  key-rate 
of  any  warehouse. 


Compute  the  rate  of  any  staple  stock  by  the  Universal  Mer- 
cantile Schedule — hoots  and  shoes  in  cases,  No.  359,  for  example 
— in  the  warehouse  to  be  rated,  deducting,  at  No.  127  of  the 
Schedule,  10$  for  warehouse  occupancy,  and  adding  the  first 
column  charge  of  the  most  hazardous  stock  admitted  to  the 
warehouse  under  the  agreement  with  the  warehouseman.  From 
the  rate  so  obtained  for  the  boot  and  shoe  stock  deduct  the  charge 
for  this  same  stock  in  the  second  column  of  the  following  table 
(No.  1995.)  The  remainder  or  difference  will  be  the  key  or  basis 
rate  of  the  warehouse — a  figure  to  which  can  be  added  the  rate 
named  in  the  second  column  of  the  following  table  for  any  other 
stock  to  ascertain  the  rate  of  such  stock  in  the  warehouse. 

For  example,  if  boots  and  shoes  in  warehouse  "A,"  at  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  would  pay  45  cents  under  the  U.  M.  S.,  deduct  25  cents, 
(the  rate  for  Boots  and  Shoes,  No.  1995,  in  the  following  Ware- 
house Schedule)  and  20  cents  will  be  the  key-rate  of  the  ware- 
house, to  which  30  cents  added  would  give  the  rate  for  carpets 
in  the  warehouse  (20+30)  50  cents;  45  cents  added  would  give 
the  rate  for  hardware  in  the  warehouse  (45+20)  65  cents;  10 
cents  added  would  give  the  rate  for  crude  rubber  (20+10)  30 
cents. 

As  already  stated,  each  of  the  warehouses  of  a  city  may  thus 
have  its  key-rate  determined  and  printed  in  an  alphabetical  list, 
when  the  following  table  for  stocks,  showing  the  relative  sus- 
ceptibility to  damage  feature  will  answer  for  such  warehouse. 

AVERAGE  RATE  OF  THE  FOLLOWING  SCHEDULE. 

In  order  to  determine  what  would  be  the  average  rate  of  pre- 
mium obtained  on  the  total  merchandise  contents  of  a  warehouse 
computed  according  to  the  specific  rates  of  the  following  schedule 
on  the  distribution  of  actual  quantities  of  merchandise  of  the 
various  kinds,  a  computation  was  made  upon  the  basis  of  mer- 
chandise imports  for  the  year  1892  at  the  port  of  New  York. 
The  total  values  of  merchandise  imports  for  the  year  were 
$530,538,112.    Of  this  amount,  $382,569,516  was  for  staples 


786  INSURANCE  OF  MERCHANDISE  IN  WAREHOUSES,   ET(  . 

divided  as  per  the  following  list.  The  remaining  $153,968,596 
represents  the  value  of  miscellaneous  goods,  which  would  rate 
somewhat  higher  as  an  average  by  the  schedule.  The  premium 
computation  on  the  actual  values  of  each  of  the  staple  articles 
named  was  made  according  to  the  rates  fixed  in  the  following 
Warehouse  Schedule  for  the  class,  taking  25  cents  as  the  basis 
or  key-rate  of  a  warehouse,  which  would  be  the  average  key- 
rate  of  the  majority  of  the  New  York  warehouses  under  the 
U.  M.  S.* 

The  table  on  the  following  page  shows  that  on  staples  like 
coffee,  teas,  tobacco,  &c,  taking  the  actual  values  of  each, — a 
total  value  of  §382,569,516 — the  premium  resulting  would  be 
S2.2:>2. ;t0.  Calculating  the  rate  according  to  the  tariff  rate  of 
the  New  York  Board,  60  cents  flat  for  all  contents,  the  premium 
resulting  would  be  82,295,417,  showing  that  the  premium  ob- 
tained in  this  largest  warehouse  system  of  the  country  according 
to  the  following  schedule  would  be  almost  identically  the  same 
as  that  obtained  at  the  round  rate  of  60  cents  fixed  by  the  New 
York  Board.  Without  claiming  that  this  coincidence  is  either 
significant  or  remarkable,  it  is  certainly  interesting.  The  round 
rate  of  60  cents  is  the  result  of  the  combined  expert  judgment 
of  the  underwriters  familiar  with  the  largest  warehouse  system 
of  the  country,  and  the  specific  rates  of  the  various  classes  also 
indicate  their  views  as  to  the  relative  susceptibility  to  damage 
of  each  class. 

It  may  be  claimed  that  if  the  round  rate  of  60  cents  for  mer- 
chandise generally,  without  specification,  would  secure  practical- 
ly and  more  easily  the  same  premium,  little  is  to  be  gained  by 
entailing  upon  underwriters  the  extra  work  of  specifiying  mer- 
chandise, package  and  rate.  But  this  claim  overlooks  the  fact, 
first,  that  a  round  rate  which  may  be  twice  or  thrice  the  amount 
needed  for  such  classes  as  crude  rubber,  pig  lead,  metal  goods, 
boots  and  shoes  in  cases,  etc. ,  and  grossly  inadequate  for  such 
damageable  stocks  as  leaf  tobacco,  millinery,  feathers,  chemicals, 
toys,  etc.,  tempts  underwriters  to  cut  rates  for  the  preferable 
classes,  or  to  pay  extravagant  brokerage  to  secure  selection; 
second,  that  the  underwriter  cannot  know  what  he  is  insuring 

*In  the  case  of  a  warehouse  of  inferior  construction,  or  in  a  city  with  less 
efficient  fire  department  than  that  of  New  York,  the  key-rate  of  the  warehouse 
under  the  U.  M.  S.  would  of  course  he  higher. 


AVERAGE  RATE  OF  THE  FOLLOWING  SCHEDULE. 


787 


and,  consequently,  cannot  regulate  his  line;  and,  third;  and 
most  important,  that  it  ignores  the  rights  of  those  merchants 
who  own  the  less  damageable  property.  There  can  be  little 
claim  to  fairness  in  a  system  of  rating  which  charges  to  one  set 
of  merchants  the  insurance  burthen  or  tax  which  should  be 
borne  by  others. 


788 


Imports  of  Leading  Articles  of  Merchandise. 

Port  of  New  York,  for  a  single  year. 


ARTICLE. 

V  ALUE. 

Schedule  rate 

for  class  in- 
cluding ;J5  cts. 

key-rate 
of  building. 

r  REMIUM. 

S  u^ar 

ft  A1  RaR  lf\n 

$  47,o45./09. 

05  cts. 

ft         •?  T  T    #~»  T  -T 

Molasses 

C  O  C   C  1  7 

5 0  cts 

?  c  ?  c 
■SOO- 

Tea 

T  Ci  CiR  1    11  0 

60  cts 

6n  /i  87 

Coffee  . 

t  t  2  66  inn 

00  v-l». 

6  1  n  6  A  1 

Wool  Goods,  Mfd  

2Q  7  O  T  200 

50  cts. 

T  A  8  o  c  6 

Silk       "  "   

2  7  7  6l  206 

85  cts. 

2  2  C  07  T 

^oo> y / *  • 

Cotton  "  "   

2  1  I  "27  7  70 

50  cts. 

106,688. 

Flax      "  "   

18  oj.?  68a 

50  cts. 

90, 218. 

Hides  and  Skins 

18  7tc  jm 

a  r  pre 

84, 219 

Tin  hlork"  ptp 

7,978,627. 

40  cts. 

3I,914- 

u  plate 

j>uuuj  1  IS- 

6  c  c  t  c 

3  J>5°°> 

India  Rubber  and  Gut- 

IO>533>343- 

35  cts- 

6  1  866 

Leather  and  Mfrs  of  L. 

8,804,653. 

55  cts. 

48,425. 

7,423,  Hi- 

85  cts. 

63,096. 

Mfd  

1,509,808. 

75  cts- 

11,322. 

11,288,275. 

85  cts. 

95-949- 

Silks,  Raw  

8,925,938- 

55  cts. 

49,092. 

6,331,821. 

40  cts. 

25,327- 

6,842,574. 

85  cts. 

58,161. 

Furs  and  Mfrs.  of  Furs. 

6,068,245. 

80  cts. 

48,548. 

China,  Stone  &  Earth- 

4,745,825. 

60  cts. 

28,474. 

Fursand  FurSkinsUn- 

2,369,476. 

65  cts. 

i5,40i- 

All  other  articles  ,ex- 
clusive   of   coin  and 
bullion. 

Total  Imports, 

$382,569,516. 
$382,569,516. 

$153,968,596. 
$536,538,112. 

60  cts. 

$2,232,799. 
$2,295,417. 

OPERATION  OF  THE  WAREHOUSE  SCHEDULE. 

(LIST  CORRECTED  TO  JANUARY  1903.) 

The  following  list  has  been  enlarged  over  former  editions,  as 
the  result  of  applications  of  New  York  merchants,  from  time 
to  time,  for  specific  rates  on  classes  of  merchandise  not  before 
enumerated  in  the  schedule.  They  are  the  result  of  more  than 
a  year  of  successful  operation  of  the  Warehouse  Schedule  in 
that  city,  and  the  list  with  these  additions  may  be  regarded  as 
reasonably  complete. 

Under  the  operation  of  the  Schedule  the  warehouse  system  of 
New  York  has  been  materially  improved.  Buildings  have  been 
altered  by  the  correction  of  faults  of  construction  and  manage- 
ment. Drugs  and  chemicals  of  a  poisonous  or  nauseous  char- 
acter have  been  excluded  from  what  are  termed  the  Stipulated 
Warehouses,  and  also  those  of  an  explosive  character,  some  of 
which  are  harmless  when  segregated  and  properly  handled,  but 
dangerous  in  combination  with  organic  substances  like  sugar, 
sawdust,  etc. — potassium  chlorate,  for  example,  as  explained  on 
pages  395,  396  and  397. 

Where  the  following  stipulation  "A"  was  signed  by  the  ware- 
houseman a  low  rate  was  made  for  the  key  or  base  rate  of  his 
warehouse,  nothing  being  added  for  ignitibility  or  combustibility ; 
only  the  susceptibility  charge  being  added  to  the  key  or  base 
rate  of  the  warehouse  to  get  the  merchandise  rate,  and  the 
warehouses  whose  owners  signed  this  stipulation  are  known  as 
"Stipulated  Warehouses." 

All  other  ("non-stipulated")  warehouses  pay  30  cents*  higher 
base  rate,  except  in  the  case  of  chemical  warehouses,  whose 
owners  sign  stipulation  "B,"  agreeing  to  comply  with  its  re- 
quirements. On  these  warehouses  the  base  rates  are  increased 
15  cents.*    (See  Stipulation  "B'\) 

*20  cts.  and  10  cts.  net  in  N.  Y.,  after  deductions  for  its  Fire  Department, 
extra  steamers,  water  towers,  &c. 


790  SEPARATION  OF  POISONS,  EXPLOSIVES,  ETC. 

It  will  be  observed  tbat,  under  this  scheme,  there  are  two  in- 
fluences at  work  to  keep  objectionable  merchandise  out  of  food 
stock  warehouses,  viz.,  first,  a  high  rate  for  the  goods  themselves 
when  stored  in  such  warehouses,  as  contrasted  with  a  lower  rate 
when  stored  elsewhere  and  in  warehouses  of  proper  conditions; 
and,  second,  a  higher  base  rate  for  a  ''Stipulated  Warehouse" 
whose  owner  permits  the  storage  of  poisonous  or  explosive  sub- 
stances. Thus,  the  owner  of  drugs  and  chemicals  would  natur- 
ally seek  a  non-stipulated  or  chemical  warehouse  to  get  the 
lower  rate,  as  the  warehouseman  of  the  Stipulated  Warehouse 
would  naturally  decline  to  accept  merchandise  which  would 
immediately  raise  the  rate  of  everything  else  in  his  warehouse. 

The  plan  works  admirably,  and  New  York  underwriters  are 
no  longer  apprehensive  that  a  fire  in  a  warehouse  containing 
sugar,  flour,  tea,  coffee  or  other  food  stocks  would  result  in  a 
total  loss  on  these  stocks  because  of  the  leakage  from  poisonous 
substances,  which  would  cause  their  condemnation  by  the  Board 
of  Health. 

It  is,  perhaps,  well  to  call  attention  again  to  the  necessity  of 
using  the  exact  phraseology  of  the  list  when  insuring  any  mer- 
chandise, as  a  general  form  would  otherwise  be  used  to  cover 
higher  rated  merchandise.  It  is  not  allowable,  therefore,  for 
instance,  to  insure  "linens"  where  "linen"  is  intended.  The 
word  '  'linens"  might  be  claimed  to  include  tablecloths,  doilies, 
napkins,  handkerchiefs,  etc.,  for  which  higher  rates  are  named 
in  the  list.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  tablecloths  manufactured 
expressly  for  individuals,  with  monograms,  etc.,  of  an  expensive 
character.  One  wealthy  lady  in  New  York,  having  a  fad  for 
fancy  linen,  has  two  tablecloths  which  cost  $2,000  apiece,  made 
by  hand  and  elaborately  decorated  with  lace,  etc.  In  order  that 
linen  merchants,  therefore,  might  not  have  to  pay  so  high  a  rate 
on  the  general  class  of  goods  kept  by  them  as  would  be  needed 
to  cover  such  valuable  articles  a  special  form  has  been  provided, 
which  excepts  linen  exceeding  in  value  two  dollars  per  square 
yard,  which  will  be  found  in  the  list  of  forms. 

The  word  "goods,"  it  may  be  unnecessary  again  to  state,  must 
not  be  used. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  first  column  charge,  i.  e.,  that 


STIPULATED,  NON-STIP.  AND  CHEM.  WAREHOUSES.  791 


which  measures  ignitibility  and  combustibility,  is  omitted  in 
the  following  table.  This  charge  being  included  in  the  base 
rate. 

Let  us  conceive  of  three  separate  warehouses,  all  of  superior 
construction  and  built  exactly  alike,  and  all  rating,  without  any 
occupancy  charge  for  ignitibility  and  combustibility,  at  a  "base 
rate"  of  20  cents.  One  warehouse  is  set  aside  for  merchandise 
of  a  character  which  does  not  add  any  charge  for  occupancy; 
such,  for  example,  as  flour,  tea,  coffee,  calicoes,  silks,  etc., 
which  we  will  call  Warehouse  "X,"  whose  owner  signs  the 
stipulation  "A." 

Warehouse  "Y"  accepts  all  kinds  of  merchandise  and  will 
sign  no  stipulation  whatever.  The  addition  to  the  warehouse 
rate  to  get  the  base  rate  for  all  merchandise  in  this  warehouse 
will  be  30  cents,  making  the  base  rate  50  cents. 

The  third  Warehouse  "Z"  will  take  all  kinds  of  merchandise, 
but  the  owner  stipulates  (Form  B)  to  segregate  according  to 
the  pledge  (B,)  with  separating  fire  walls,  etc.,  and  restrictions  of 
arrangement,  and  handling,  all  those  chemicals  which,  in  com- 
bination with  others,  would  result  in  explosive  or  self-igniting 
compounds  or  which  would  poison  food  stocks  or  bleach  colored 
stocks.  In  view  of  such  stipulations  the  addition  for  ignitibility 
and  combustibility  is  15  cents,  making  the  base  rate  35  cents. 

We  would  then  have  three  warehouses  with  base  rates  as 
follows : 

"X"    "Stipulated"   20  cents. 

"Y"    Non-Stipulated   50  " 

"Z"  Stipulated  Chemical  Warehouse  35  " 
To  these  base  rates  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  add  the  '  'sus- 
ceptibility" charge  in  the  accompanying  tables  to  secure  the  rate 
of  any  merchandise  named  therein.  As  objectionable  merchan- 
dise, poisons,  etc.,  are  rated  high  in  a  "Stipulated"  warehouse 
and  at  lower  rates  in  a  "Non-Stipulated"  or  in  a  "Stipulated 
Chemical"  Warehouse,  the  tendency  would  naturally  be  for 
owners  of  such  merchandise  to  seek  the  "Non-Stipulated"  or 
"Chemical"  warehouses  since  the  addition  of  the  base  rate  to 
the  charge  for  the  merchandise  would  result  in  a  rate  much 
lower  than  in  the  "Stipulated"  warehouse.  For  example,  flour 
in  bbls.  in  "X"  would  be  20  cents  +25,  =  45  cents;  in  "Y" 


792 


SEPARATION  OF  POISONS  AND  EXPLOSIVES. 


50  +  25,  =  75  cents;  in  "Z"  30  +  25,  =  55  cents.  Arsenic, 
which  is  only  slightly  more  susceptible  to  damage  than  flour  for 
insurance  purposes,  but  would  endanger  other  merchandise, 
would  be  145  in  "X"  (with  the  further  effect  if  the  warehouse- 
man should  accept  it,  of  immediately  raising  the  base  rate  of 
"X,"  to  50  cents,  making  175.)  In  '  Y"  it  would  be  50  +  30, 
=  80  cents,  and  in  "Z"  35  +  30,  =  65  cents.  The  owner  of 
arsenic  would,  therefore,  naturally  seek  the  cheaper  warehouse 
to  get  a  lower  rate,  and  if  he  did  not,  the  warehouseman  would 
reject  it,  knowing  that  it  would  raise  the  base  rate  of  his  ware- 
house and,  therefore,  the  rate  of  all  other  merchandise  stored 
with  him  and  prevent  his  getting  the  larger  values  of  the  more 
insurable  classes. 

The  following  illustration  will  further  explain  the  operation  of 
this  plan  and  its  beneficial  effect  in  keeping  out  of  food  ware- 
houses those  poisonous  substances  which  when  stored  with  food 
stocks  render  underwriters  continually  liable  to  total  losses  on 
classes  of  merchandise  which,  but  for  such  dangerous  combin- 
ations, would  be  desirable  subjects  for  insurance  at  low  rates. 


W.  H.  "X" 
"Stipulated.'- 
Base  Rate  20c* 


W.  H.  "Y" 
'Non-Stipulated." 
Base  Rate  50c* 


W.  H.  "Z" 
'■Chemical." 
Base  Rate  35c* 


In  "X' 

> 

I 

n  "Y 

In  "Z' 

Tea, 

20+  35  = 

55 

50- 

\-35  = 

85 

35+35  = 

70 

Coffee, 

20+  30  = 

50 

50+30= 

80 

35+30= 

65 

Flour, 

20+  25  = 

45 

50+25  = 

75 

35+25  = 

60 

Arsenic, 

20+125  = 

145 

50- 

H30= 

80 

35+30  = 

65 

Potassium  Nitrate, 

20+125  = 

145 

50- 

|-50  = 

10(1 

35+50= 

85 

It  will  be  observed  that,  while  arsenic  becomes  cheaper  in  "Y" 
and  "Z"  than  in  "X,"'  flour  becomes  dearer,  its  danger  in  these 
warehouses  being  measured,  however,  by  their  increased  "base 
rate."  It  is  not  likely  underwriters  would  insure  flour  in  "Y" 
or  '  'Z"  even  at  the  higher  rates. 

The  owner  of  warehouse  "X"  cannot  afford  to  allow  poisons 
in  his  warehouse,  as  it  would  immediately  raise  his  base  rate, 

*In  the  New  York  Exchange  these  base  rates  are  shown  on  the  cards  in  the 
cabinets  known  as  "card  rates." 


SEPARATION  OF  POISONS  AND  EXPLOSIVES.  793 

and  he  would  lose  the  storage,  in  consequence,  of  ninety-nine  per 
cent  in  value  of  the  goods  in  his  custody,  whose  owners  could 
not  afford  to  insure  with  him  at  the  higher  base  rate.  Tea, 
coffee,  and  flour  ought  to  seek  (and  naturally  would,  to  get 
a  low  rate)  warehouse  "X,"  but  if  they  should  go  into  "Y" 
or  "Z"  they  would  pay  enough  higher  rate  to  cover  the  hazard 
of  miscellaneous  storage.  Before  this  plan  of  insuring  ware- 
houses went  into  operation  in  New  York,  they  were  insured 
at  a  low  and  inadequate  rate  no  matter  where  or  how  stored. 

When  is  taken  into  account  that  the  value  of  those  classes  of 
merchandise  which  are  not  objectionable  because  of  any  dele- 
terious, poisonous,  explosive  or  bleaching  properties  stored  in 
the  warehouse  system  of  New  York  in  a  single  year  (vide  the 
annual  statistics  of  the  Port)  is  over  five  hundred  and  twenty 
millions  of  dollars,  and  that  not  over  four  millions  of  dollars  in 
value,  or  less  than  one  per  cent  of  this  a  mount,  is  of  an  ob- 
jectionable character,  it  will  be  apparent  how  senseless,  from  an 
economic  viewpoint,  is  the  utterly  unnecessary,  mixed  storage  of 
such  enormous  values  for  purposes  of  insurance.  It  necessitates 
a  high  (but  inadequate)  rate  on  the  516  millions  of  non-hazardous 
merchandise  because  of  such  miscellaneous  storage,  in  order  to 
consider  the  convenience  of  owners  of  say  four  millions  whose 
premiums  distributed  among  all  the  insurance  companier  would 
amount  to  a  bagatelle  for  each.  All  of  the  warehouse  systems 
of  the  country,  those  of  the  larger  cities  especially,  should  be 
treated  by  underwriters  on  this  plan  which  has  worked  so  satis- 
factorily in  New  York. 

State  legislatures  and  municipalities  should  enact  regulations 
which  would  prevent  these  unnecessary  and  dangerous  com- 
binations. In  default  of  a  special  law  of  this  character  the 
King  of  Belgium  issued  in  September  last,  a  royal  decree,  com- 
pelling dealers  in  poisonous  drugs  and  substances  to  store  such 
articles  apart  and  keep  them  separated  from  food  supplies.  He 
requires  that  poisonous  substances  should  be  delivered  in  re- 
ceptacles or  wrappers  of  such  nature  that  their  contents  cannot 
escape,  and  strict  provisions  for  registering  each  sale  of  poisons 
are  made.    The  decree  went  into  effect  in  January,  1903. 

It  seems  deplorable  that  a  great  nation  should  be  behind  a 
petty  kingdom  in  taking  such  obviously  wise  precautions  in  the 
interest  of  citizens. 


STIPULATIONS  FOR  WAUKHorSEMEN. 


As  I  write,  February  9th,  1903,  word  comes  of  the  death  of 
Chief  Foley  of  Milwaukee  and  four  of  his  men  from  inhaling  the 
fumes  of  nitric  acid  at  a  fire,  enforcing  the  importance  of  safe 
storage  and  handling  of  acids  and  other  chemicals.  The  fact 
that  firemen  are  naturally  deterred  from  entering  buildings 
containing  such  substances  to  fight  a  fire  is  alone  a  reason  for 
charging  higher  rates  aside  from  the  danger  of  ignition,  com- 
bustibility, poisonous  and  explosive  properties,  which  increase 
the  fire  loss.  It  is,  perhaps,  natural  but  unreasonable  that 
dealers  in  these  substances  should  wish  them  stored  in  low  rated 
warehouses  where  non-hazardous  merchandise  is  stored,  but 
underwriters  should  be  firm  in  excluding  from  "Stipulated" 
warehouses  all  dangerous  or  even  doubtful  goods. 

"A" 

FOR  "STIPULATED  WAREHOUSES." 

STIPULATION  FOR  WAREHOUSEMAN. 

I  hereby  agree,  in  consideration  of  a  reduced  rate  for  insurance 

on  merchandise  in  my  Warehouse  No  

 Street,  that  I  will  not  knowingly  accept 

for  storage,  or  permit  to  be  stored  in  said  warehouse,  any  of  the 
following  classes  of  merchandise  or  chemicals,  and  I  agree  to 
observe  due  diligence,  by  inquiry  and  investigation,  to  exclude 
all  such  merchandise  from  my  said  warehouse,  and  to  notify  the 
New  York  Fire  Insurance  Exchange  of  any  attempt  on  the  part 
of  owners  to  store  such  merchandise  in  my  said  warehouse : 

Acids,  Ammonia,  Arsenic  or  other  Poisons,  Asafoetida, 
Benzine  or  Benzole,  Bleaching  Powders,  Bone  Ash,  Brimstone, 
Broom  Corn,  Calcium  Carbide,  Carbon  (Bi-Sulphide-of,)  Cotton, 
Creosote,  Ethers,  Explosives,  Fibre  (Vegetable,  Esparto  Grass, 
Excelsior,  Flax,  Hemp,  Jute,  Manilla,  Moss,  Oakum,  Sisal 
Grass,  Tampico,  Tow,  Hay  or  Straw, )  Formaldehyde,  Fulmin- 
ates of  Silver  or  Mercury,  Gasolene,  Kerosene,  Junk,  Jute 
Butts,  Lamp-Black,  Lime,  Metallic  Sodium  and  Potassium, 
Methyllic  Alcohol,  Naphtha,  Nitrate  of  Soda,  Nitrate  of  Pot- 
assium or  other  Nitrates,  Nitro-Benzole,  Paris  Green,  Petroleum 
or  Petroleum  Products,  Permanganate  of  Potash,  Phosphorus, 
Potassium  Chlorate,  Potassium  Cyanide  or  Nitrate,  Chlorate  of 
Soda  or  other  Chlorates,  Quicklime,  Rags,  Saltpetre,  Shoddy, 


STIPULATION  FOR  CHEMICAL  WAREHOUSE. 


795 


Spirits  of  Nitre,  Sulphur,  Turpentine,  or  Naval  Stores,  Var- 
nishes or  Lacquers,  Waste,  Zinc  Dust. 


"B" 

STIPULATION  FOR  PREFERRED  CHEMICAL  WAREHOUSE. 

I  hereby  agree,  in  consideration  of  a  reduced  rate  for  insurance 

in  my  Warehouse  No  

Street,  that  I  will  store  separately  from  all  other  merchandise 
each  of  the  following  chemicals  or  merchandise,  maintaining 
such  separation,  each  from  the  other,  and  from  all  other  mer- 
chandise, by  a  substantial  brick  wall  not  less  than  twelve  inches 
in  thickness,  without  doors  or  other  openings  and  extending 
through  and  above  the  roof,  viz : 

Acids,  Brimstone  or  Sulphur,  Ethers  or  any  Explosives, 
Naval  Stores,  Turpentine,  Nitre  Cake,  Nitrate  of  Soda, 
Nitrate  of  Potassium  or  other  Nitrates,  Phosphorus, 
Chlorate  of  Soda,  Chlorate  of  Potassium  or  other  Chlo- 
rates, Saltpetre,  Varnishes  and  Lacquers,  Cotton  or  other 
fibre. 

I  further  agree  that  I  will  not  permit  any  person  in  such 
compartments  for  handling  such  chemicals  or  merchandise  who 
is  not  thoroughly  qualified  by  knowledge  of  their  dangerous 
properties  to  carefully  handle  them.  And  I  further  agree  that 
I  will  not  accept  for  storage  any  food  stocks,  merchandise  or 
substance  used  for  food. 

I  also  further  agree  to  store  all  poisonous  chemicals,  such  as 
Arsenic  and  Paris  Green,  below  the  second  story  of  the  ware- 
house, and  to  store  any  roots  or  herbs  above  such  second  floor, 
where  water  thrown  by  the  Fire  Department  cannot  pass  from 
such  poisons  to  such  roots  or  herbs,  in  order  to  minimize  as  far 
as  possible  the  loss  or  damage  consequent  upon  fire. 


MERCHANDISE  IN  PUBLIC  WAREHOUSES. 


N.  B.  The  following  table  is  intended  exclusively  for 
merchandise  in  public  warehouses  or  storage  stores. 

Rule.  Add  to  the  base  kate  of  the  warehouse  the  figure  named 
in  the  following  table  for  the  merchandise  to  be  insured.  In  no 
case  shall  more  than  five  items  as  numbered  in  Alphabetical  List  be 
insured  under  one  amount,  and  in  such  case  the  rate  of  the  highest 
must  be  charged. 

The  policy  must  specify  the  merchandise  by  name  and 
describe  the  package  it'  the  rate  sought  is  that  for  a  particular  kind 
of  package;  thus  on  "Liquoi  in  bottles"  "Liquor  in  barrels"  "Flour 
in  barrels"  or  "Opium  in  tin  lined  cases". 

In  case  the  assured  docs  not  know  the  nature  of  his  package,  or 
does  not  wish  to  specify  it  as,  for  example,  where  he  may  have 
part  in  one  kind  of  package  and  part  in  another,  the  merchandise  may 
be  insured  without  specification  of  package  if  the  rate  for  highest 
rated  package  be  taken.  For  example,  in  the  case  of  Ale,  Beer  or 
Porter  (No.  1846)  the  package  need  not  be  specified  if  the  highest 
rate  for  any  package  be  taken;  in  this  case,  that  for  bottled  ale,  40 
cents,  as  contrasted  with  barreled  ale,  30  cents. 

It  will  be  observed  that  rates  for  general  classes,  such  as  Seeds, 
Gums,  Roots,  Dried  Fruits,  etc.,  are  higher  than  for  some  specific 
kinds  if  specifically  insured,  such  as  Gum  Copal,  Gum  Cutch,  Flax 
Seed,  Anise  Seed,  Chicory,  Dried  Peaches,  etc. 

N.  B.  For  Approved  Ceneral  Forms  see  end. 


No 
1800 
1802 
1803 
1806 
1807 
1808 
1809 
1810 
1811 
1812 
1813 
1814 
1815 
1816 
1817 
1818 
1819 
1820 
1821 
1822 
1823 


MERCHANDISE  IX  WAREHOUSES. 


Acids,  Acetic  

"  Arsenious,  

' '      if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H.  f 

"  Benzoic  

' '  Boracic  

"  Carbolic,  

if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H, 

"  Citric,  

"  Muriatic,  

"        "       if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H, 

"  Nitric,  

"      "     if  stored  in  Non  Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H, . . 

"  Oxalic,...  

if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H, . . 

"  Picric  

if  stored  in  Non  Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H, . . 

"   Sulphuric,  (Oil  of  Vitriol)  

"   "  if  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  "VV.  H, 

' '  Tartaric,  

"  (not  specified),  

"    if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H, 


Add  to 
Base 
rate. 


Cents. 

50 
100* 

50* 

50 

50 
100* 

50* 

50 
100* 

50* 
100* 

50* 
100* 

50* 
100* 

50* 
100* 

50* 

50 
100* 

50* 


♦Also  increases  "base  rate"  of  a  stipulated  W.  H.,  if  stored  therein. 

tSulphurie,  Nitric  and  Muriatic  Acids  and  ethers  should  not  be  stored  with  other 
merchandise;  and  all  acids,  ethers,  poisons,  drugs,  asafcetida  &c,  should  be  kept 
away  from  Food  Stocks,  Flour,  Tea,  Coffee,  Provisions,  Cereals  &c. 


79? 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


No. 

1830  Aconite,  root  or  leaves  

1831  Advertising  Boards,  

1832  Matter,  Almanacs,  Calendars,  Letter 
Heads.  Circulars,  Pamphlets,  Cards, 
framed  and  unframed,  not  salable  by 
reason  of  being  printed  with  names  for 
specific  parties  

1833  "         Matter,  salable,  without  names  

Show  Cards,  (see  Show  Cards,  No.  3080, ) 

Aerated  Waters  in  bottles,  (see  Mineral  Waters)  

"      "  bbls.  or  hhds,   "  " 

1834  Agate  and  enameled  hollow  ware,  

1835  Agates,  Marbles  and  Onyx  (see  Marbles,)  

1836  Agricultural  Implements  or  parts,  (see  Plows,)  

1837  "  "        Hand  Tools,  only  

is:;s  "  "  If  Steel  or  other  metal  ex- 
clusively such  as  Scythes,  Mower  or  Reaper 
Knives,  Planing  Machine  Knives,  

1839  Aigrettes,  if  written  as  "Feathers  and  Bird  Skins  for 

Millinery,"  (No.  2306)  

1840  Alabaster  

1841  "  goods  

1842  Albumen  

1843  "  Egg  

1844  Albums  

1845  Alcohol,  

1846  Ale,  Beer  or  Porter,  (bottled)  in  cases  

1847  "     "     "     "     in  hhds.  or  barrels,  

1848  Alizarine,  

Allspice,  (  See  Pimento,  No.  2912,)  

1849  Almonds,  in  bags,  frails,  or  bales,  

1850  "        in  boxes,  casks,  or  barrels,  

1851  Aloes,  

1852  ' '    in  tin  lined  cases  .'  

1853  Alum  

"     Chrome,  (see  Chrome  Alum)  

1854  Aluminum,  (metal,)  

1855  Amazona  Bark  

1856  Amber  

1857  Amid  

1858  Ambergris,  

1859  Ammonia,  Aqua  

1860  "  "    if  stored  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  II 

1861  "        Carbonate  of  


*Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  H.  if  stored  therein. 


798 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


1867 
1868 
1869 
1870 
1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 


Ammonia,  Molybdate  of,    

'*  "        "if  stored  in  Non-Stip. 

Chem.  W.  H  

"  Phosphate,  

' '        Sulphate  of  

"  "      "     if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or 

Chem.  W.  H  

Ammoniac,  Sal,  (See  Sal.  Am.,)  

Ammunition,  fixed,  (see  also  Cartridges,  No.  2081,  ). 

Anilines,  

Anchors  

Angelica  Root,  

Angora  Worsted  Yarn,  

Anise  Seed,  

Aniline  Salts,   

1874,       "  Oil  

"       "    if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H. . 

Annatto,  

Antimonial  Lead,  

Antimony  

"        if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H. . . . 

Metal  

Sulphate,  (see  Sulph.  of  A.  No.  1865)  

Antiquities,  Antiques,  Curios  and  Bric-a-Brac  

Anvils,  

Apples,  

"  Dried  

Apricots,  Dried,  

"       Kernels,  (see  Nut  Kernels  or  Shelled  Nuts) 
Arabian  Hair  Sheep  Skins,  Kangaroo  and  Marsupial, 

(see  Kangaroo),  

Argols,  (crude  Cream  of  Tartar,)  

Arnica  Flowers  

Arrow' Root,  

Arsenic  

"       if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H  

Artificial  Eyes,  

"  Feathers,  

' '  Flowers  

"  Limbs,  

Silk  Yarn,  (see  Silk  Yarn  3373)  

Teeth,  

Artists'  or  Photo  materials,  Dry  plates  excluded  

Artistic  Burnt  Work  on  Wood  and  Leather,  


Add  to 
Base 
rate. 


*A1«)  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  H.  if  stored  therein. 


799 


MDSE.  IN  WAKKIIOI  SKS,  continued. 


Art-works,  (see  Bronzes,  Antiques,  Statuary,  etc.,). . 
Asafoetida,  (should  not  be  stored  with  food  stocks,). 
"  if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H.. . 

Asbestos  

Asphaltum  

Astrachan  Cloth,  (see  Dress  Cloth)  

Athletic  Goods,  (see  Sporting  Goods,  No.  3146),  

Atlas  Preservatives,  

Autographic  Sales  Registers,  

Automobiles  and  Accessories  

Awnings  and  Awning  Frames,  Tents  

Axle  Grease,  

Babbitt  Metal  and  Solder  

Bacon  

Bagging,  made  of  flax,  hemp  or  jute,  

"         cotton  cloth  for  

Bags,  Cotton  cloth,  

"  Gunny,  

"     Leather,  traveling,  

"     Paper,  (see  Paper  Bags),  

Baking  Powders,  

Bakers'  and  Confectioners'  supplies,  (see  No.  2156). . 

Balata,  (see  Gums),  

Balloons,  paper,  

cloth,  

Balsam,  Peruvian  

Balsams,  not  elsewhere  specified — Copaiva,  Upo  bal- 
sam (Balm  of  Gilead,)  Tolu,  Benzoin,  Fir, . . 

Bamboo,  Calcutta,  Poles,  Japanese  Sticks,  

"        Furniture,  (see  also  Rattan,  No.  2993),.... 

Splits,  

Bananas  

Banjo  Strings,  (see  Catgut  Strings)  

Barilla  (see  Carb.  Soda,  2069)  

Barium,  (see  Nos.  1961,  2108,  2894)  

Bark,  Amazona,  (see  No.  1855)  

' '  Calisaya  

' '  Cascarilla,  

"  Peruvian,  

Barks,  Roots  and  Herbs,  (not  specified  see  Roots  and 

Herbs,  3008)  

Barley  

Barytes,  (Blanc  fixe,)  

Basket  Materials  

Baskets,  Splint,  


Add  to 
Base 
rate. 


Cents. 

100 

100* 

40 

10 
100 

28 

50 
160 

50 

72 

50 

50 

20 

30 

37 

25 

40 

75 

50 

50 

35 

96 

58 

75 

60 

40 

50 
25 
50 
48 
60 


40 
40 
40 

40 
35 
25 
75 
60 


*Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  H.  if  stored  therein. 


800 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


No. 

1939  Baskets,  Willow, 

1940  Bathing  Suits,  if  written  as  Knit  Goods 
otherwise  take  charge  "Underwear, 
men's,  women's  or  childrens 

1941  Bay  Rum,  in  bbls.,  casks  or  puncheons 

1942   bottles, 

1943  "    Leaves,  (see  Barks,  Roots  and  Herbs,  No.  1934), 

1944  Beads 

1945  Beans,  Manilla, 

1946  "    Peas  or  Lentils,  other  than  Castor,  Tonca  or 
Vanilla 

Beans  (see  Castor,  Manilla,  Tonca,  Vanilla, ) 

1947  Beef,  salt  or  corned, 
Beer,  (see  Ale,  &c,  Nos.  1846,  1847) 
Beet  Seeds,  (see  Seeds) 

1949  Bellows, 

1950  Bells,  large,  Church 

1951  "     small  table, 

1952  Belting,  Leather  and  Rubber, 

1953  Berries,  (see  Cranberries,  etc.,)  

1953^  Beta  Naphthol  

"       if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H. 

1954  Bicycles,  

1955  Billiard  Balls,  \  

1956  "  Cues  

1957  "  Tables  

1958  "      Table  Slates,  Marble  Slabs,  

Binders'  Board,  (see  1981)  

1959  "      Twine  in  cases,  

1960  "         "     in  bundles,  

1961  Binoxide  of  Barium,  

1962  "       "       "      if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem. 

W.  H  

1963  Bird  Cages  

1964  Birds,  Stuffed,  

1965  Bird  Skins,  raw  

1966  "     Paradise  Feathers  

1967  Biscuit,  (see  Hard  tack,  No.  2461 ;  Crackers,  No.  2196,) 

1968  Bismuth,  Oxide,  

Bi-Sulphide  of  Carbon  (see  Carbon,  2072)  

1969  Bitters,  bottled  

1970  "       in  barrels  or  hhds.,  

1971  Bitumen,  (see  Asphaltum,  No.  1904,)  

1972  Blackboards  Slate,  Composition  


*Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  H.  if  stored  therein. 


801 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


Black  Hypo  sulphate  of  Lead,  

"     Lead,  (see  also  Lead,  black,  Plumbago,)  

"     "Wool  Moreens  

Blacking,  Shoe  

Stove,  (see  Stove  Polish,  No.  3177,)  

Blankets,  

Bleaching  Powders,  (Chloride  of  Lime,)  

if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem. 

W.  H  

Blue  Vitriol,  (see  Sulphate  of  Copper,  No.  2168)  

"      if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H. . 

Board,  Binders,  (see  also  Straw  Board),  

Boats,  Ordinary,  

"     Rowing  Shells,  

Bolt  Rope  

Bolting  Cloth  

Bone  Ash  

Bone  Black,  Ivory -Black  and  Lamp-Black,  

"  "  "  "  if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or 
Chem.  W.  H  

"  Dust  

"    goods,  combs,  

Bones,  

Bonnets,  

Books,  Blank,  

"      Printed,  and  Periodicals,  

Boots  and  Shoes,  

Borate  of  Manganese,  

"     "  "        if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem. 

W.  H  

Borax,  in  bags  

"      "  casks,  

"  "cases,  

Bottles  

Bottle  stoppers,  

"  wrappers,  

Boxes,  fancy,  paper,  pencil,  plush,  jewelers'  

Box -wood,  (see  Woods)  

Braids  and  Tassels,  (see  No.  2357),  

"  Straw  and  Wood,  plain,  mixed  or  fancy,.... 
Bran  


Add  to 
Base 
rate. 


Brandy,  in  bbls.,  (see  Liquors,  Nos.  2641,  2642,). 

"      in  bottles,  

Brass  and  Copper,  scrap,  (see  Junk)  


ware, . 


Cents. 
120 

35 

24 

30 

25 
100* 

40 

100* 

28 

28 

45 

6(1 

45 

30 

40 
100* 

50 
40 
30 
45 
75 
45 
45 
25 

100* 

48 
40 
30 
35 
40 
30 
45 
75 

60 
50 
48 
70 
80 

20 


*Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  II.  if  stored  therein. 


802 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


Brazil  Nuts,  (see  Nuts,  No.  2765,)  

Brewers'  Grains  or  Sprouts,  (see  No.  2666),  

Brie-a-Brae,  (see  Antiquities,  Antiques,  Curios,  etc.). 

Bricks,  Bath,  

"  Enameled,  

Fire  

Brilliantine,  (see  Dress  Cloths),  

Brimstone,  or  Sulphur,  

if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  II.  . 

Bristles,  in  cases  

"     in  casks  

Britannia  ware  

British  Gum,  (see  Dextrine,  No.  2225,)  

Bronzes,  

Bronze  Powders  

Broom  Corn,  in  bales,  

"        "    if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H.  . 

"  Root  

Brooms,  (Corn,)  

Splint  

Brushes  

Buckets  and  pails,  wood  and  paper,  

"        "      "  metal,  

Buckwheat,  

Burgundy  Pitch,  (see  Pitch,)  

Burial  Cases,  metal,  (see  Coffins  2145)  

"     wood,  ( '*      "  2146)  

Burlaps,  

Burlap  Sacks,  in  bales,  

Burnt  Work  on  Wood  and  Leather,  (see  Artistic  1899), 

Burr  Stones,  

Butterine  

Butter,  

Butter  of  Cocoa,  (see  Cocoa  B.  2138)  

Buttons,  wood,  horn,  bone,  ivory,  and  pearl,  manu- 
factured or  in  part,  

"       cloth  covered,  or  metal  

Cabinets,  Drug.  Dye,  Instrument,  Filing,  

Cabinetware,  and  Household  Furniture,  new,  

Caffeine,  in  glass,  in  cases,  

"       "  tins  cased  or  tin  cans,  

Cages.  Bird,  (see  Bird  Cages,  No.  1963)  

Calcium,  Chloride,  in  drums,  

"  bbls.,  


*Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  H.  if  6tored  therein. 


803 


Add  to 

MDSE.  IX  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 

Base 

1  rate. 

No. 


( tents. 


Calf  Skins,  (see  Skins),. 

"    dry,  in  bales,     "  " 

waxed  

Calicoes.  Prints  and  Chintz  

Calomel,  

Cambrics,  (see  No.  2738)  

Camels  Hair,  (.see  Hair),  rrr: 

Camomile  Flowers  

Camphor  Balls,  (see  No.  2726),  

"  Gum,  

"        Wood,  for  ohcsts,  closets  Ac 

Camwood,  (also  Barwood)  

Candles 

Candy,  (see  2155) 
Canes,  Walking,  rough 
finished 

Canned  Foods,  (Vegetables,  Meats,  Fish,  Fruits,). 

Note — Canned  Goods  must  be  written 
as  Canned  Foods. 
Cannel  Coal,  protected  from  weather,  moisture  &c 

not  protected  from 
Cantharides,  "Spanish  Flies," 
Canvas 

Caoutchouc,  (see  Crude  Rubber,  No.,  2203) 
Capers 

Capsicum,  (see  Pepper,) 
Capsules 

Carbolic  Acid,  (see  Acid,  No.  1808,)  

Carbolineum  Avenarius,  

Carbonate  of  Ammonia,  (see  Ammonia,  Carbonate  of) 

"  Potash,  (see  Pearl  Ash,)  

"        "Soda,  (see  also  Barilla,)  

"  Lime,  (see  Lime,  No.  2628,)  

"Lithia  

"  "if  stored  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  II. 

Carbon,  Bi-Sulphide  of  

"      Silicate  of  v-see  Silicate  of  Carbon),  

Card  board,  straw,  

"         Bristol  or  enameled,  

Cards,  Panels,  Hangers  and  Calendars,  (see  Advertis- 
ing Matter  No.  1832), 

Playing,  (see  Playing  Cards,)  

Car  Springs,  (see  Springs,  No.  3148.)  

Carboys,  empty,  


120 

30 
40 

120* 
60 
150 

40 

50 


*.\lso  increases  base  jate  of  a  Stipulated,  \V.  II.  if  stored  therein, 


804 


MDSE.  IX  WAREHOUSES,  continued 


Add  to 
Base 
rate. 

I  CentaT 

Carpets,  (see  Oil  Cloths,  Kugs,)  I  30 

Warp   30 

Carriages,  Buggies,  and  Sulkies   50 

Carriage  and  Wagon  materials,  ■  45 

"       trimmings,  i  45 

Cartridges,  see  Ammunition  j  GO 

Carts  and  Wagons,  i  30 

Cassia  and  Cassia  Buds  |  50 

Castor  Beans,  i  40 

"     Oil,  (see  Oil,  No.  2774, )  j  40 

"      Pommace,  (see  Fertilizers),   35 

Casts,  Plaster,   75 

Catechu,  (see  also  Gambier  and  Cutch,  No.  2213)...  i 

Catgut  Strings,  (see  Banjo  and  Violin  Strings)  j  GO 

Caviar,   40 

Celluloid,  and  Zylonite  Goods,   100 

Cement   30 

Cereal  Foods,  (same  rate  as  Infant's  and  Invalid's 

Prepared  Foods)  

Chains  and  Chain  Cables,  

Chalk,  


10 

25 

Chamois  Skins,   40 

80 
35 


Champagne,  

Cheese,  

Chemicals  and  Drugs.  If  this  phrase  used  in  Stipu- 
lated Warehouse,  the  follow- 
ing words  must  be  added: 
"Acids,  explosives  and  poi- 
sons excepted. "  See  specific 
kinds  not  otherwise  specified, 
(see  2240  and  Acids,  Drugs, 

etc.,)  

"         if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  II... 

Chemical,  Pharmaceutical  and  Flavoring  Extracts, 
(see  Extracts),  

Cherries,  dried,  (see  Dried  Cherries  2236  and  Fruit),. 

Chewing  Gum   

Chicle,  (see  Gums),  

Chicory,  I  25 

Root,  |  35 

Children's  Underwear,  (see  Underwear,  Ladies'  and 
Children's)  

Chillies,  (peppers,)  j  40 

China  Clay,  Kaolin,  (see  Earths,  2253)  !  25 

China-ware,  Porcelain,  Pottery,  Parian,  Bisque  and 

Majolica  Ware  and  Faience  Ware  |  45 


120 
60 


60 


805 


MDSK.  IX  WAKKIIorsKS,  continued. 


No. 
2106 
2107 
2108 


2109 
2110 
2111 
2112 

2114 
2115 
2116 

2117 

2118 
2119 

2120 
2121 
2122 
2123 
2124 
212.-> 

2126 
2127 

2128 


2129 
2130 
2131 

2132 


2133 
2134 
2135 
2136 
2137 
2138 
2139 


Chinese  and  Japanese  goods  

Chloral,  Hydrate,  

Chloride  of  Barium,  

"  Calcium,  (see  Cal.  Chi.  2046)  

"      "  Lime,  (see  Bleaching  Powders.  No.  1978) 

"  Zinc,  (see  No.  3378),  

Chocolate,  

Chow  Chow  

Chrome  Alum,  

"  Yellow  

Church  bells,  (see  Bells  No.  1950)  

"  Furniture  

"      goods,  books,  ornaments,  and  images  

Churns  

Cigars  and  Cigarettes  

"       "  "         in  tin  lined  boxes,  

Cigarette  Paper,  

Cinchona  and  Cinchonidia,  (see  Quinine  No.  2984.) 

Cinnabar,  (Vermilion,-)   

Cinnamon  

Citron,  see  Fruit,  

Civet,  

Clay,  


"    Cold  Water  Paints  

Clean  Woolen  Clippings  in  bales,  (see  Rags  in  bales), 
Cloaks,  Mantillas,  and  womens'  cloth  outer  garments 
Cloakings,  if  written   as    "Woolen   and  Worsted 

Cloths,"  (see  No.  3363)  

If  not  written  as  "Woolen  and  Worsted 
Cloths"  shall  take  charge   for  Cloaks, 

Mantillas,  etc.,  No.  2126,  

Clocks,  

Clock  cases,  wood  

Clothing,  Men's  Women's  or  Children's  

Oil,  (see  Oil  Clothing)  

Cloths,  (see  also  Bolting  Cloths,)  woolen,  cassimeres 
beavers,  broad  cloth,  corduroys,  satinets,  (see 

Dress  Cloths,  No.  2232)  

Cloves,  

"  Stems,  

Cobalt,  

Cochineal  

Cocoa,  Cocoa  Beans  and  Cocoa  Shells  

"      Butter,  (see  Butter  of  Cocoa,)  

"  Matting  


Add  to 
Base 
rate. 

( 'ents 

75 
120 
120 


35 
30 
100 
30 
30 
75 
75 
40 
75 
50 
72 

45 
50 
40 
40 
24 
38 

75 

24 


40 
60 
72 


25 
50 
50 
25 
70 
35 
45 
50 


mm; 


MDsE.  IN  W  AREHOUSES,  continue<i. 


Cocoa,  Nuts  

Nut  Oil,  (see  No.  2775)  

"      Nut  Shells  

Cocoanut,  Desiccated,  

Cocoons,  Silk,  

Codfish,  dry,  (see  Fish,  Nos.  2328, )  

Coffee  

Coffins,  Burial  Cases  etc.,  metal  

"  "        "     "  wood  

Coir  Fihre  Fibre  rates  

"  Yarn  

Collars,  Cuffs,  and  Shirts,  

Cologne  Spirits,  in  bottles,  cased  or  barreled  

"         "      in  casks,  

Coloring  for  Brandy  

Colors,  (see  Dry  Paints  and  Colors)  

Combs,  horn,  bone,  ivory,  

Composition  Turnings  

Cones,  Fir,  or  Pine,  

Confectionery,  (see  Candy,  No.  2056)  

Confectioners'  and  Bakers'  Supplies,  (see  No.  1921),.. 

Cooperage,  barrels,  new,  shooks,  

"        old,  empty,  

Copal  Gum,  (see  Gum,  No.  2436,)  

Copperas  

"       if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H  

Copper,  and  Brass  goods  or  ware,  (see  No.  2011)  

"  Carbonate  


Add  to 
Base 
rate. 


Cents. 
40 

34 
72 
40 

30 
35 
75 

44 
45 
50 
40 
50 

40 
100 
75 
75 

50 
100 

50 
100* 

28 
20 

120* 


"         if  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  II.  -18 

bolts,  rivets,  nails,  rods,  tubing  

Ore,  

"      Oxide  of,  

"      Pigs,  or  Ingots  

"  scale  

"      and  Scrap  Brass,  (see  Junk),  

"  sheets  

"      Sulphate  of.  (see  Blue  Vitriol)  

"  "        "  if  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  II 

Cordage,  Rope  and  Twine   45 

Cordials,  bottled,  in  baskets  or  cases   80 

"       in  hhds.  orbbls.,   70 

Cordounet,  charged  silks,   100 

Corduroys,  (see  Cloths)  

Cords,  Tassels  and  Braids,  (see  Braids  2006)   60 


15 
10 
96 
10 
30 

15 
100* 

28 


*A1bo  increases  l>ase  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  H.  if  stored  therein. 


so: 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


No. 

'J  174 
2175 
2176 

2177 
2178 
2179 
2180 
2181 
2182 
21*3 
21S4 
2185 

2186 
2187 
2188 
2189 
2190 
2191 
2192 

2193 


2194 
2195 
2196 
2197 
2198 
2199 

2200 
2201 
2202 
2203 
2204 
2205 
2206 
2207 
2208 
2209 
2210 


*Al80 


Corks,  

Cork  Stone  

Wood  

Corn  Oil,  in  bl)ls,  (see  Oil  other  than  Kerosene)  

Cornices,  gilt,  

wood  

"  metal  

Cornwall  Stone  

Corsets,  packed,  and  Corset  Materials  

Corticine,  (see  Floor  Cloth,  No.  2344)  

Cosmetics,  Perfumery,  

Costumes,  Theatrical.  Bal-Masque  

Cottolene,  in  bids.,  or  kegs  

Cotton,*  in  bales  Fibre  rates  

"  Batting  

"      Curtain  Nets  

"      Goods,  not  colored  or  printed  

"  "     dyed  and  printed  

"  "     gray  and  colored  not  printed,  (2426) 

"      piece  goods,  colored  

"      Sacks,  in  bales,  

Seed  Oil  ( sec  No.  2779  )  

"      Ties,  metal,  

Velvet,  (see  Dress  Cloths),  

"      Velveteens,  (see  Dress  Cloths),  

Warp  Flannels,  (see  No.  2336)  

"      Warps,  (see  Warps)  

"      Yarn  or  "Warp,  

Crackers,  (see  No.  1967),  

Cranberries,  (see  1953)  

Crash,  (Russia,)  (see  Linen  No.  2635)  

Cream  of  Tartar,  (see  Argols,  1887)  

Creosote,  (see  Kreosote,)  

Crockery,  (see  China  Ware,  2105)  

Crucibles,  

Crude  Gutta  Percha,  

"    Rubber,  (see  India  Rubber,)  

"    Witch  Hazel,  in  bbls.,  

Crystal  Ash  

Cubebs,  

Cudbear,  

Curiosities,  Curios,  Antiques,  (see  No.  1880)  

Curled  Hair,  (see  Hair,  No.  2450)  

Currants,  dried  

Curtain  Nets,  cotton,  (see  Cotton  C  urtain  Nets),..  . 

increases  Base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W,  H.  if  stored  therein. 


Add  to 
Base 
rate. 

Cents. 

70 

38 

80 

60 
50 
25 
24 
60 
35 
75 
80 
45 

100 
48 
20 
28 
24 
28 
38 

20 


40 
35 
25 
35 

45 
25 
10 
Kl 
38 
30 
45 
3D 
100 
35 
30 


808 


No 
2211 
22 1 2 
2213 
2214 
2215 
221(5 
•."21? 
2218 
2219 
2220 
2221 
2222 
2223 
2224 
2225 
222(i 
2227 

2228 

2229 

2230 
2231 
2232 


2234 
2235 
223(1 


2238 
2239 


2240 


Curtains,  lace,  and  material  tor  same 

and  portieres,  other  than  luce 
Cutch,  (( 'atechu,  Gambier,  | 
Cutlery 

Cuttle  Fish  Bone 

Damask,  linen,  (see  Linen,  No.  2(>35 
Dandelion  Root 

I  »atcs 

Deer  and  Elk  Skins,  undressed,  (see  No.  3103)  

"      "     dressed,  (see  Chamois  2094), .. . 

Degras,  (Wool  Grease)  

Demijohns,  (empty,)  

Dentists'  materials,  tools  

Desiccated  Cocoanut,  (see  No.  2142)  

Dextrine,  ("British  Gum.")  

Dial  Enamel  

Disinfecting  Fluid  

if  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H. 
Doilies,  Napkins  and  Handkerchiefs,  (see  Napkins). 

Dolls,  (see  Toys)  

Doors,  Sash  and  Blinds,  see  also  Sash  and  Blinds,. . 

Double  Manure  Salt,  (see  Salts),  

Down,  

Dragon's  Blood  

Dress  cloths,  (Alpacas,  Cashmeres,  Serges,  Camels 
hair,  Ladies' cloth,)  Woolen,  Cotton,  or 
Mixed,  policy  to  except  Silks,  Satins 

and  Velvets  and  Velveteens,  

"     Goods,  (must  not  be  used)  

(See  No.  2232  and  general  forms  end.) 
Dresses,  manufactured  or  in  part,  (see  Tea  Gowns),.. 

Dried  Apricots  

"  Cherries  

"     Flowers,  (see  No.  2349),  

"     Fruit,  (see  No.  2358)  

Peaches,  (see  Peaches  Dried)  

Druggists'  Sundries  

(This  broad  term  would  include  instruments  and 
cases,  patent  articles,  brushes,  combs,  corks, 
scales,  shelf-bottles,  perfumery,  cosmetics,) 

Drugs  and  Chemicals,  see  specific  kinds.  If  this  phrase 
used  in  Stipulated  Warehouse, 
the  following  words  must  be 
added:  "Acids,  explosives  and 

poisons  excepted."  

"       if  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H. 
See  next  page  


*Also  increases  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  H.  if  stored  therein. 


sou 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


2241 
2242 


2243 
2244 
2245 

2246 


224 
2248 
2249 
2250 


2251 

2252 
2253 
2254 
2255 
2256 
2257 
2258 
2259 
2260 


Drugs  and  Chemicals,  continued. 
See  Acids, 
"  Barks. 
"  Chemicals. 
"  Druggis 
"  Ethers. 

Drums,  Musical. . 

"  Toy  


See  Extracts. 
"  Gums  and  Resins. 
"  Leaves  or  Herbs. 
•'  Patent  Medicines  and 
Proprietary  Articles. 
"  Hoots. 


Dry  Goods, j  (see  specific  rates  for  particular  kinds,) 

and  Mdse.  class  A.  and  B  

Dry  Lamb  Skins,  (see  Skins),  

Dry  Paints  and  Colors,  

Duck  ;  


Dutch  Herring,  (see  Fish,  No.  2328)  

Dye  Stuffs,  see  Alizarine,  Annatto,  ditch.  Cud 
bear,  Gambir,  Indigo,  Madder,  Orchill, 
Sumac  


Dye  Woods,  ground,  in  water  tight  bbls 
"  "  "  "  bags  or  sacks, .  . 
"        "      in  sticks  

Bar  Wood. 

Barbary  Root. 


Peach  Wood 
Quercitron  Bark. 
Red  Sanders. 
Red  Wood. 
Sapan  Wood. 
Sumac. 
Turmeric. 
Woad. 
Weld. 


Brazil  Wood. 
Cam  Wood. 
Fustic. 

Green  Ebony. 
Hypernic. 
Lima  Wood. 
Log  Wood. 
Nic  Wood. 

Dyed  and  Printed  Cotton  Goods  and  Cotton  Warp 

Flannels,  (see  Nos.  2232,  2233)  

Dynamos,  

Earths,  ground,  Fullers',  Painters',  Kaolin,  Infusorial 

Earthenware  and  Stone  Ware  

East  India  Goods,  

Ebony,  (see  Woods,  No.  3359)  

Eggs,  


Egg  Albumen  

"  Yelks  

Elaine  Oil,  in  barrels,  (sec  ( >ils>, . 


Cents. 


60 
70 


34 
40 
30 


50 
35 
35 
60 
40 


28 
75 
30 
30 
72 
35 
50 
48 
50 
38 


+The  term  "dry-goods"  may  be  definite  enough  for  policies  covering  stocks  for 
sate  in  stores,  where  the  facts  of  the  case  are  well  known  and  where  the  usages  of 
trade  and  custom  limit  it>  significance,  but  it  is  too  indefinite  for  insuring  goods 
in  warehouses  of  miscellaneous  contents,  as  an  unscrupulous  assured  might  claim 
that  it  covered  any  kind  of  "dry"  merchandise,  and  have  his  claim  sustained  by 
the  average  jury. 


SKI 


No. 


MDSE.  I.N  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 

Elecampane  root,  (sec  Roots  &c.,  No.  3008)  

Electric  appliances  and  apparatus,  Carbon  points, 

glass  lamps,  globes,  bulbs,  

Elecl  ric  Fans,  Motors  and  Apparatus,  (see  Telephones,) 

Electrical  Batteries  

Electroplates,  Stereotype  plates,  blocked  

"      not  blocked  

Electro  Silicon  

Elephant's  Tusks,  sec  Ivory,  (No.  2543),  

Elixirs,  Extracts,  Fluid,  Tinctures,  (see  Extracts 

No.  22%),.. . 

Elk  Skins,  (see  No.  2219)  

Embroideries,  

Emery,  •.  

"     paper,  (see  Paper)  

"  wheels  

Enamel,  Dial,  (see  Dial  No.  2226),  

Enameled  Leather,  (see  Leather)  

Enameled  ware,  (  see  Agate  ware,  No.  1834)  

Encaustic  Tiles,  (see  Tiles,)  

Engines,  Steam  (or  Steam  Fire,)  (see  No.  2324)  

Engravings  and  Etchings,  framed  

"  un  framed,  

"         on  wood  

"  "  stone,  lithograph,  (sec  Lit h.  Stones,  y. 

Envelopes  

Epsom  Salts,  Sulphate  of  Magnesium  

Erasers,  (Rubber  or  Steel),  

Ergot  

Essential  Oils,  in  cans,  

"        "     "  glass  

"        "     "  iron  drums,  

Ethers,  Sulphuric  

N.  B.  All  Ethers  must  be  separately  stored 
remote  from  tires  and  never  on  upper  floors. 

if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H  

Evaporated  Fruits,  (see  Fruit  No.  2359)  

Excelsior,*. .  .Fibre  rates  

Explosives,  high,  for  blasting  &c,  special  rate,  

Extracts,  Chemical,  Pharmaceutical  and  Flavoring, . 

"       dry,  (see  also  Dye  extracts  2247  ),  

"       Fluid,  Tinctures,  Elixers,  (see  Sarsaparilla)i 

Extract  Quebracho   34 

Eyes,  Artificial,  (see  Artificial  Eyes  1892),  


'Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  H.  if  stored  therein. 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


Eyeglasses,  (sec  Spectacles  and  E.  No.  3141)  

Fancy  goods  

"     Swisses,  (see  Dress  Cloths)  

Fans,  Electric,  Motors  and  Apparatus,  (see  No.  2262) 

"    fancy,  paper,  lace  

"  Japanese,  

"    palm  leaf,  

Farina  and  Potato  Flour,  

Feathers,  for  upholstery,  pillows,.  

"         and  bird  skins  for  millinery  

"        Artificial,  (see  Artificial)  

' '  Dusters  

"        Ostrich,  raw,  

"        Raw  Paradise  

Feldspar,  (see  Earths,)  

Felt  

Felts,  for  paper  machines  

Fence  "wire,  Iron,  see  Iron  

Fennel  Seed  

Fertilizers,  Ammoniacal,  animal  matter  or  blood, .. . 

"         Castor  Pommace,  (see  No.  2086)  

Guano,  (see  2432,)  

"         Land  plaster  

"  Phosphates  

"         Tobacco  dust  

Fibre,*  Cotton,  Esparto  crass.  Flax,  Grass,  Hemp, 
Jute,  Manilla,  Oakum,  Rice  root,  Sisal,  Tampico, 

Tow  

Figs,  

Filberts,  (see  Nuts,  No.  2765)  

Files,  

Fire  Apparatus,  Engines,  Hose  Carriages,  H.  &  L. 

Trucks,  Extinguishers,  (see  2278), . . 
Fire-arms,  in  cases,  (see  Guns  and  Pistols,  2923,).  . .  . 

Fire  Crackers,  

' '    Works,  separate  storage,  

Fish,  in  bbls,  kegs  or  kits  

"  dry  

in  oil.  see  Sardines,  Shadines,  Anchovies  

"    Salt,  in  brine  and  pickled,  

"  Sounds,  

' '    (see  Sprats)    

Fishing  tackle,  (see  Sporting  goods,  Nos.  3146,  1906) 
Flags  and  Banners,  


*Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  \V.  II.  if  stored  therein. 


o  1 2 


MDSE.  I.N  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


No 

2335  Flannels,  

2336  "       Cotton  War-, ,  vsee  No.  2194)  

2338  Flavoring  Extracts  

Flax  Fibre  rates  

2339  "    Seed,  (see  Linseed  No.  2638)  

2340  "  Velours  

2341  Flint  

2342  "  Pebbles,  

2343  Flocks,  Woolen-,  

2344  Floor  Cloth,  which  includes  Oil-cloth,  Linoleum  and 

Corticine,  

Flooring,  (see  Parquette  Fl.  Wood  Fl.  No.  2872)  

2345  Flour  

2346  ' '     in  barrels,  

Insect,  (see  Insect  No.  2517)  

2348  "     Tapioca,  (see  Tapioca)  

Sago,  (see  Sago  Flour)  

2349  Flowers,  Dried,  (see  Dried  Flowers)  

2350  Fluorspar  

2351  Foil,  gold  and  silver  

2352  "  tin  

2353  Food,   Infants  and  Invalids,   Prepared  and  Cereals 

(see  No.  2513),  

2354  Fossils,  

2355  Frames,  gilded,  mouldings  for  mirrors  or  pictures, .. 

2356  Frankincense,  (Gum  Olibanum,)  

2357  Fringes,  tassels,  Gimps,  and  trimmings  see  2006, ... . 

2358  Fruit,  Dried,  

2359  "  Evaporated,  

2360  "     green  and  ripe,  (see  Apples,  Bananas,  Lemons. 

Oranges,  Limes,  Pineapples.)  

2361  "     preserved,  (see  Tamarinds,  Figs,  Citron  2122. . 

2362  Fullers'  earth,  (see  Earths,  No.  2253)  

2363  Fungus  

2364  Furnishing  goods,  mens'  

2365  Furniture,  (see  also  Cabinet  ware,  No.  2042)  

2300  used,  wearing  apparel,  

2367  Furriers  Clippings,  

Furs,  Hatters,  (see  No.  2469)  

2368  Furs,  not  specified,  undressed.  

which  would  include  or  cover  the  more  ex- 
pensive fancy  kinds,  Beaver,  Bear  (black, 
brown,  grizzly,  white  polar),  Chinchilla  (real, 
bastard).  Ermine,  Fox  (silver,  black,  white,  red, 
blue,  cross),  Fitch,  Fisher,  Lynx,  Lamb 
(Persian),  Leopard,  Lion,  Marten,  Mink,  Musk 


Add  lo 

II.IM- 

rate. 
Cents. 

24 
28 
45 

40 

58 
24 
24 
30 

35 

34 
25 


58 
24 
50 
35 


50 

60 
40 
60 
50 
44 

60 
50 
20 
30 
60 
75 

100 

100 
40 


MDSE.  IN  WAUEHi  lUSES,  continued. 


Ox,  Ounce  or  Snow  Leopard,  Ocelot.  Otter 
(land  or  sea),  Sable  (Russian,  Kamschatka, 

Hudson  Bay),  Seal  (Alaska,  Shetland.  North 
west  Coast,  Copper  Island,  LollOS,  (  ape  Horn, 
Japanese,  Cape  of  Good  Hope),  Skunk,  Tiger, 
Wolf,  Wol\  erine. 

2369    Furs,  specified,  undressed,  any  of   the  following 

cheaper  varieties  

Astrakhan.  Angora,  Badger,  Black  J  .-met.  Cat, 
Coney,  Dog,  Fox  (grey,  Kitt.  Japan),  Goat, 
Guanaco,  Hamster,  Kangaroo,  Krimmer,  K<> 
Husky.  Lamb  (Iceland),  Moufflon,  Muskrat, 
Monkey,  Nutria,  Opossum.  Raccoon,  Rabbit, 
Sheep  (Iceland).  Squirrel,  Seal  (hair,  wool). 
Thibet,  Wombat,  Wallaby. 

2:570     Furs,  Dressed,  of  the  first  class  No.  2368,  

2371        "      1  >ressed.  "    "  second  class  No.  2369  


813 


Add  to 
Hase 
rule. 


2372  Gall  nuts,  (sec  Nuts,  No.  2765)  

Gambier,  (see  Cutch  No.  2213)  

2373  Gamboge,  see  Gums,  

2375  Games  

2376  Garancine  

2377  Garden  Seeds,  (see  also  Seeds)  

2378  Garlic  

2379  Gas  Lamp  fixtures  and  Chandeliers  

Gas  logs,  (see  Terra  Cotta  No.  3225.)  

2380  Gas  Machines  and  Meters  (see  also  Meters,)  

2381  Gauges,  Steam,  (see  Steam  Gauges)  

2382  Gelatine  

General  Mdse.,  see  Mdse.  and  specific  rates  for  kinds 

2384  Gentian  Root,  (see  Roots,  No.  3008)  

2385  Gents  Furnishing  goods,  (see  Furu.  goods,  No.  2364) 

2386  Gin,  in  bottles,  (see  Liquors,  No.  2640,)  

2387  "     in  bbls.,  or  puncheons  

2388  Ginger,  

2389  "  Ale,  

2390  "  preserved  

2391  Ginseng  Root,  (see  Roots,  No.  3008)  

2392  Glass,  (Plate,)  

2393  "      Ornamental,  colored,  stained,  figured,  ground. 

Leaded  

2394  "     Rough  hammered  for  skylights,  deck  

2395  Glass  House  pots,  (used  in  manufacturing  glass),. . . 

2396  "     Silvered  plates,  for  mirrors  

2397  "      Ware,  tumblers  and  fruit  jars  

2398  "  Window  

2399  Glassware,  Hollow,  


:!(• 


55 
45 
35 

40 
75 
30 
160 
44 
35 

40 
40 

35 

50 
60 
70 
80 
40 
38 
35 
40 
30 

50 
20 
30 
65 
40 
25 
48 


SI  I 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


No. 
24(  to 
2401 

2402 
2403 
2404 
2 105 
2400 
2407 
2408 
2409 


241. -> 
2416 
2417 
2418 
2419 
2420 
2421 
2422 
2423 
2  1 2  I 

242. -) 


2428 

2480 
2431 


2482 
2483 


Glauber's  Salts.  Sprudel  Sails,  (sec  Soda  Sulphate).. 

Gloves,  ml  her  than  Kid,  which  see  No.  2564)  

"      Schmachen  and  Lamb  Skins,  (see  No.  2581),. 

Glucose,  

Glue  

"  Slock  

Glycerine  

in  iron  drums,  

Goat  Skins,  dry,  see  Hides,  

pickled  

Gold  Pens,  see  also  Pens,  Gold,  

Thread,  (see  Thread)  

Goods  on  storage,  (see  Merchandise,  No.  261)8)  

Gowns,  Tea,  (see  Dresses  2234,  2706)  

Grain  Bags,  gunny  or  burlap,  (see  1017)  

"    cotton,  (see  1916)  

"      Identity  Preserved,  

"      Malt  Sprouts  or  Brewers'  

"      Wheat,  Rye,  Corn,  Barley,  Oats  

Grape  Juice,  in  hhds.  butts  or  pipes,  

"        "     "  bottles  

Grapes  

Graphite,  (see  Black-lead,  No.  1974)  

Graphophones  and  Phonographs  

"  "  Records,  

Grass  Bags  

"  Cloth  

Gray  and  Colored  Cotton  Goods,  not  printed,  see  2190, 

Grease,  Axle,  (see  No.  1911)  

"      other  than  Axle,  

Wool  (Degras)  (see  No.  2221),  

Green  Kern  

Grind  Stones,  

Groceries,*  see  specific  rate  for  particular  kinds,  and 

and  Merchandise  class  A  and  B  

Guano,  (see  Fertilizers,)  

Guava  Jelly  

Gummed  and  Coated  Paper,  (see  No.  2855)  


*The  .same  remark?  as  to  the  indefiniteness  of  the  term  "Dry  Goods'"  (which  see) 
will  apply  to  "Groceries."  which  is  too  broad  for  insuring  goods  in  public  ware- 
houses. High  rated,  damageable  classes  might  be  claimed  to  be  "groceries"  be- 
cause incident  to  such  stocks— matches,  spices,  oils,  liquors,  turpentine,  etc.  An 
average  rale  which  might  be  adequate  for  agrocery  stock,  where  <-ach  kind  of  goods 
would  be  only  a  small  percentage  of  the  whole,  would  not  do  for  a  warehouse  policy 
which  might  cover  fur  its  whole  amount  on  a  single  damageable  class. 


815 


MDSE.  IN  WAKEIIOUSES.  continued 


Gums,  Acacia,  Arabic,  Balata,  Benzoin,  Camphor, 
Catechu,  or  ditch,  Chicle.  Copal,  Damar, 
Dragons  blood.  Gamboge,  Kauri,  LaBiche, 
Mastic,  Olibanum,  (Frankincense),  Senealg, 
Shellac,  Tragacmm,  Zanzibar,  (see  specific 
rates)  

Gun  and  Musket  Barrels  

"  Metal  Turnings,  in  casks  and  barrels  

Gunny  Cloth  and  bags,  (  sec  No.  1917)  

Guns  and  Pistols,  (see  Fire  Arms,  No.  2325)  

Gun  Stocks,  

Guts,  (salted.)  sausage  casings,  

Gutta  Gelatong  

"     Percha  Cement,  exceeding  five  gallons  

Crude,  (see  Crude  Gutta  Percha  2202). 

"  "  Hard  Bubber  and  Penholders,  (see  Pen- 
holders), . . 

Gypsum,  or  Sulph.  Lime,  (Plaster  of  Paris,)  

Bock  

Hair,  Animal,  Cow,  Goat,  Hog  

"  Camels  

"  Cloth  

'■    Curled,  or  rope  

"    Horse,  (see  No.  2492)  

"  Human,  

"  Scoured,  

"  Tonic,  

"  Work,  

Hams,  

Hammocks,   

Handkerchiefs  

Handles,  Adze,  Axe,  Bake,  Hoe,  Scythe  Snaths  

Hand  Stamps,  (see  Stamps,  No.  3154)  

Hard  Rubber  or  Gutta  Percha  Penholders,  (see  Pen 

holders  and  2509),..  . 

Hard  Tack,  (see  1967)  

Hardware  

"        Cutlery  and  edge  tools  excluded  in  policy, 

House,  or  "Builders  hardware,"  

"        Saddlery  and  Harness  

Harness  and  Saddlery  

Hats  and  Caps,  other  than  straw,  

"    Palm  Leaf,  Leghorn  and  similar  hats  made  up, 

Hatters'  Furs,  

goods  or  materials,  hat  bands  


Add  to 
Base 
rate. 

( 'cuts. 


60 
40 
24 

45 
40 
25 
24 
150* 


25 
20 
25 
24 
28 
24 
35 
55 
24 
48 
75 
40 
35 
40 
35 
35 


40 
50 
40 
35 
30 
35 
35 
48 
28 
45 


♦Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  stipulated  W.  II.  if  stored  therein, 


si.; 


MDSK.  IN  WAHKHOI  SKS,  continued. 


Add  to 
Base 
rate. 


No. 

Hay  and  81  raw  Fibre  rates 

2471  Hayden  Sugar, 

2472  Heaters,  Steam  and  Hot  Water 

Hemp  Fibre  rates  

Herbs,  (see  also  No.  1934) 
Herrings,  (see  Fish  No.  2329) 

2474     Hide  Cuttings  

247o    Hides,  Buffalo,  Horse  and  Colt,  

2476        "    Cow  and  Ox  

"    Deer  and  Elk,  (see  Nos.  2219,  2220),  

2478  "     Horse,  (see  No.  2493)  

2479  "     Salted,  loose,  green,  "slaughter"  

2481    High  Wines,  see  Whiskey,  

2482|  "  "  if  stored  in  Non  Stip  or  Chem.  W.  H... 
2483,    Hollow  ware,  metal,  (see  agate,  enameled  &e.,  ). 

"      Glassware,  (see  No.  2399)  

2485  Hominy  

2486  Hones,  and  Whetstones 

2487  Honey, 

2488  Hoofs  and  Horns 

2489  Hooks  and  Eyes 

2490  Hops, 

2491  Horn  goods,  combs,  

2492  Horse  Hair,  (see  No.  2450)  

"     Hides,  (see  No.  2478)  

2494  '■  Shoes,  

2495  Hose— leather,  rubber,  linen  

2496  Hosiery  and  Knit  Goods,  (see  No.  2568,  and  Under 

wear)  

Hot  Water  and  Steam  Heaters,  (see  No.  2472)  

2498  House  furnishing  goods,  (see  specific  rate  for  Wood- 

enware  and  Tinware,)  

2499  Household  furniture,  new,  (see  Cabinet,  No.  2042). . 

2500  "         goods,  second  hand,  see  Furniture  2366. . 

2501  Houses,  Portable,  (see  Portable  Houses)  

2502  Hyposulphate  of  Lead,  Black,  (see  No.  1973)  

2503  Ice  Cream  Freezers  

Identity  Preserved  Grain,  (see  No.  2415),  

2504  Imitation  Straw  Braid,  (see  Straw  Braid  No.  2007). . 

2505  Incubators  and  Brooders  

2506  India  or  Malacca  Joints,  

2507  India  Rubber,  crude,  (see  Crude  Rubber  No.  2203 ) 

2508  "  "        Boots  and  Shoes,  

2509  "         "       Goods,  hard  

2510|      "  "  "     soft,  (see  Rubber  Bands),  


817 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


Indigo,  in  cases,  (see  Rubber  Substitute,  &c.)  

"      "  ceroons  

Infants  and  Invalids  Prepared  Foods  aud  Cereals, 

(see  No.  2353)  

Infusorial  earth,  (see  Earths),  

Ink,  in  bottles  

"     "  bbls.,  

"  Printers'  

Insect  Flour  

"  Powder,  

Insecticide,  (London  Purple)  

Instruments,  Optical,  Surgical  and  Mathematical,.. 

Iodine,  

Ipecac  •.  

Iron,  Bar  and  Rod  

"    Boiler  plates,  

Bolts,  nuts,  rivets,  washers  

"     Chain,  (see  Chain,  No.  2092)  

' '  Castings,  

Filings,  (used  in  sawing  marble,)  

hoop,  

"    Old,  scrap,  

"     Oxide  of  

"  Pigs  

Pyrites,  see  Pyrites  

Railroad,  and  Spikes,  

"     Railing,  Fence  work,  

"     Sulphate  of,  

Sulphide  "  (see  Sulphide),  

"     Tubes  and  Pipes  

"     Ware,  hollow,  Kettles,  (see  No  2567)  

"     Work,  Ornamental,  Architectural  

Isinglass,  

Istle  Cloth  

Italian  Cloths  and  Serges,  (see  Dress  Cloths),  

Ivory,  Animal  tusks,  (see  also  Elephant  tusks, ). . . . 

"      Goods,  manufactured  

"      Vegetable,  nuts,  (see  Vegetable  Ivor}',  3299). 

Jalap,  

Japanese  and  Chinese  goods,  (see  Chinese,  No.  2106) 

"  Crepe  

"  Paper,  

Jewelry  

"       cases  and  instrument  cases,  

♦Also  increase*  liase  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  II.  if  stored  therein. 


Add  to 
Base 
rate. 

Cents. 

35 

40 

48 

40 
30 
30 
48 
48 
120* 
70 
24 
40 
15 
25 
25 
10 
10 
30 
20 
25 
38 
10 

no 

10 
15 

28 

15 
30 
38 
35 
75 
28 
35 
65 
45 
40 

72 
38 
40 
50 


818 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


■k 


Jewels  for  mfg.  watches  and  cl 

Juice,  Grape,  (see  Grape  Juice)  

Lemon,  (see  No.  2618),  

"     Lime,  (see  No.  2629),  

"  Prune  

Juniper  Berries,  

Junk,  old  

Jute  Boards,  Oak  Grained,  

"   Butts,*  Fibre  rates  

"    Matting,  Yarns  and  other  Jute  products  

"    Rejection,*  Fibre  rates  

"    Rugs,  (see  Rugs),  

Kainite  or  Kainit,  (Sulph.  of  Magnes.  Potass.)  

Kangaroo  and  Arabian  Hair  Sheep  Skins,  (see  1886).. 

Kaolin,  or  China  Clay,  (see  Earths,  No.  2253)  

Kauri  Gum,  (see  Gums)  

Kern,  Green,  (see  No.  2430),  

Kernals,  (see  Nut  Kernals)  

Kerosene*  Oil,  special  rates  and  separate  storage.  .  . . 

Kid  Gloves  

"        "      in  tin  lined  cases  

Kirschwasser  

Kitchen  and  Cookery  utensils  

Knit  goods,  (Underwear  and  Hosiery,  (see  2496).  . . . 

Kreosote,  (see  Creosote,)  

"        if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  ('hem.  W.  II  

Kryolith,  

Labels  


LaBiche  Gum,  (see  Gums),  

Lac  Button,  (see  also  Gums,  No.  2436)  in  cases,  ! 

"  Dye,  

Laces  and  Lace  goods,  (see  also  Curtains,  No.  2211). 

"     Shoe,  (see  Shoe  No.  3075)  

Ladies' and  Childrens'  Underwear,  Skirts  and  Petti- 
coats, (see  Underwear)  

Lamb  Roams  .'  

"     Skins,  Dry,  (see  Skins)  

"    and  Schmachen  Skin  Gloves,  (see  Schmachen 

and  Gloves), . . . 

Lamps,  glass  or  part  glass  

metal  

L  .mp  Black,  (see  Bone  Black,  No.  1987)  

"       "      if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H.. 

"     Shades,  Glass,  

"  "      Paper  or  Textile  Fibre  


38 
50 
40 
100* 
50 
48 
72 


*.\lso  increases  lw*C  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  II.  if  stored  therein. 


819 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


Lanolin,  (see  Oils),  

Lanterns,  paper,  

"        metal  and  glass  

Lard  

"    Oil,  (see  also  Oils,)  

"    Stearine,  (see  Stearine)  

Lasts  

Lathing,  metallic  

Laundry  Blue,  in  boxes  and  cases,  

Lead,  Antimonial,  (see  No.  1876)  

"     Black,  (see  No.  1974  Black-lead)  

Pencils,  boxed,  (see  also  Pencils,  No.  2882). . . 

Pigs  

"  Pipe,  

Red  

Sheet  

Shot,  (see  also  Shot)  

Leather,  Artistic  Burnt  Work  on  Wood  and,  (see 

No.  1899) 

Bags  and  Trunks,  (see  Bags,  No.  1918)  

"  Board  

for  Belting,  Leather  in  Hides  or  Sides,  Kips, 

Rough  Leather  and  Sole  Leather,  

"  Grain  Leather,  Harness  Leather,  Split 
Leather,    Tanned   Calf  Skins,  and  Upper 

Leather,  Lace  Leather,  

"  Fancy  Leather,  and  Morocco,  Shagreen, 
Patent,  General  Shoe  Finding  Stock,  Tan- 
ned Kids,  Tanned  Sheep  Skins,  General  Stock 
of  Fancy  Skins  for  Tanning,  Untanned  Calf, 
Goat  and  Sheep  Skins,  Alligator,  Enameled, 

"      Scraps,  Shavings  and  Skivings  

Leaves,  (see Roots,  Leaves,  etc.,)  

"  Buchu  

"      Rose  ."  

Leggings  and  Overgaiters,  

Leghorn,  Palm  Leaf  and  Similar  Hats  made  up  (see 

Hats  2468),  

Lemons,  Limes,  or  Oranges,  in  boxes,  (see  Oranges, ). 

Lemon  Peel,  Orange  Peel  

"  Juice  

Lentils,  (see  also  Beans,)  

Licorice,  Extract,  sticks, . .  i  

Paste  

Root  

Life  Preservers,  cork,  


Add  to 
Base 
rate. 


Cents. 

60 
35 
40 
50 
68 
40 
20 
38 

30 
40 
10 
20 
30 
20 
35 


50 
30 

25 
30 


40 
100 

60 
60 

72 


50 
35 
44 
35 
40 
40 
100 
35 


820 


2625 
2626 
2627 
2628 
2629 
2630 
2631 
2632 
2633 
2634 
2635 
2636 

2637 
2638 

2640 

2641 

2642 
2643 
2644 
2645 
2646 
2647 
2648 

2649 

2650 
2651 
2652 
2653 
2654 
2655 
2656 
2657 
2658 

2659 


Lightning  Rods,  and  Fixtures, 
Lignum vita%  (see  Woods,  No.  3359) 
Lime.f 

if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H  

"     Bi-Sulphite  of,  in  bbls.,  

"     Carbonate  of,  

"  Juice  

"     Phosphate  of  

Limestone,  ground,  

Linaloe  Oil,  in  cans,  (see  Oils),  

"    "  glass,   "  "   

Linerusta  Walton,  

Linen,  (see  Linen  Form)  

Yarns  

(See  form  for  Linen). 

Linoleum,  (see  Floor  Cloth,  No.  2344)  

Linseed,  (see  Flax  2339)  

".     Oil,  (see  Oil,  No.  2787)  

Liquors,  in  bbls.,  hhds.  puncheons,  casks,  butts  or 

pipes  

Wines,  Spirits  and  Cordials;  Brandy,  Gin, 
Hum,  Whiskey  and  High  Wines,  in  bottles, 

"       if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  II  

Litharge,  Oxide  of  lead  

Lithographic  Stones,  not  engraved,  see  Stones  

"  "  engraved  

"         Prints,  other  than  for  advertising,  

Lithopoue  

Locks  

Logwood,  (see  Dye  woods,  No.  2248  &c.)  

Extracts,  (see  Dye  Stuffs  2246),  

London  Purple,  (see  Insecticide)  

Looking  glass  frames,  wood  and  gilt,  (see  2355)  

"    plates,  (see  Glass^  No.  2396)  

Lumber,  undressed  

"       planed  or  dressed  

Lycopodium  

Lye,  Concentrated  

Macaroni  or  Vermicelli  

Mace  

Machinery,  heavy,  not  easily  damaged.  Rollers,  Iron 

planers,  presses,  lathes,  vises,.  

delicate,  easily  damaged,  type  setting, 
paging,  dynamos  


30 


*.\lso  increases  bane  rate  of  a  Stipulated  \\".  H.  if  stored  therein. 
tDeduct  if  skidded,  10%. 


821 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


No. 
2060 
2661 
2662 
2663 
2664 
3665 
2666 
266' 
2668 

2669 

2670 
2671 
2672 
2673 


2674 
267o 
2676 
2677 
267* 


2680 
2681 


26m:! 
2684 
2685 
2686 

2687 

2689 
2690 
2691 
2692 
2693 


Madder  

Magnesia,  Carbonate,  Magnesite, 

Mahogany,  in  logs,  

in  board  or  planks, . . . 

"         in  veneers  

Malt  


"    Sprouts  or  Brewers  Grain  

Manganese,  Black  Oxide  of  

"         Chloride  of,  

"        "  if  Non-Stip.  or  Cliem.  W.  H 

Manikins,  

Manilla  Grass,  Fibre  rates  

' '  Beans  

Mantels,  metal,  

stone,  marble  or  slate  

wood  

Mantillas,  (see  No.  2126)  

Manure  Salt,  Double,  (see  Salts)  


Maps, 


Marble,  in  blocks,  rough,  

"      carved  or  chiseled,  statuary  

Dust,  

Marbles  and  Agates,  (see  also  Agates,  183"))  

Martingale  Rings  or  Poker  Chips  made  of  com- 
position goods,  (see  No.  2939). . . 

Matches,  parlor,  sulphur  

Safety,  requiring  prepared  friction  surface 
Mathematical  Instruments,  in  cases  (see  Ins.  25.20), . 
Mats  or  Matting,  vegetable  fibre  or  straw  matting, . 

"    India  Rubber  

Matting  Coir  

Mattresses  

Meats,  preserved  or  pickled,  in  tin  or  glass,  (see  2059,) 
"     Pickeled,  in  barrels  and  tierces,  (see  No,  1947) 

Medicines,  (see  Drugs,  No.  2240)  

"        Patent,  (see  pat.  med.)  

Meerschaum,  uncut  

pipes  

Melado  

Menthol  

Merchandise  

Policy  must  contain  following  clause: 

This  policy  shall  not  attach,  apply  or  cover  any  merchandise 
insured  specifically. 

Note.  -Merchandise  covers  packages  containing  same  such  as 
boxes,  barrels  and  labels. 


Add  to 
Base 
rate. 

Cents. 

30 

35 

30 

35 

65 

40 

38 

30 
120* 

48 

60 
200* 

72 

30 

45 

60 


35 
20 
75 
25 
30 


56 
75 
40 


25 
75 
40 
35 
24 
100 
50 
30 
75 
25 
120 
150 


♦Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  \V.  H.  if  stored  therein. 


822 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


No. 

2(i'.u    Mer<  handise,  Form  A 

Add  60  cents  to  Base  Rate  of  Warehouse. 

On  Merchandise,  the  property  of  the  assured  or 
held  by  the  assured  in  trust  or  on  commission  or 
sold  but  not  delivered,  while  contained  in  (insert 
location  and  description  of  warehouse)  This  policy 
docs  not  cover,  attach  or  apply  to  any  of  the  follow- 
ing: 

Acids,  ammunition,  artificial  flowers  or  feathers, 
celluloid  goods,  chemicals,  cigars,  cigarettes,  drugs, 
electrical  goods,  explosives,  fibre,  fireworks,  naval 
stores,  oils,  oiled  clothing,  photographers'  supplier 
patterns,  petroleum  or  petroleum  products,  poisons, 
rags,  tobacco,  toys  and  zylonite  goods 

This  policy  shall  not  attach,  apply  to  or  cover 
any  merchandise  insured  more  specifically  or  more 
generally  than  this  policy  covers. 

2695    Merchandise,  Form  B. 

Add  45  cents  to  Base  Rate  of  Warehouse. 

On  Merchandise,  the  properly  of  the  assured  or 
held  by  the  assured  in  trust  or  on  commission  or 
sold  but  not  delivered,  while  contained  in  (insert 
location  and  description  of  warehouse.)  This  policy 
does  not  cover,  attach  or  apply  to  any  of  the  follow 
in 

Acids,  ammunition,  antiques,  artificial  flowers  or 
feathers,  artists'  materials,  bags,  bagging,  burlaps, 
celluloid  goods,  chemicals,  cigars,  cigarettes,  Chi 
neseand  Japanese  goods,  cotton  batting,  curiosities, 
curios,  drugs,  druggists'  sundries,  electrical  goods 
electro  plates,  explosives,  fans,  fibre,  firecrackers 
fireworks,  Hags  or  banners,  frames  gilded  or  carved 
fruits  (green  or  preserved.)  furnishing  goods,  grass 
cloth,  gums,  herbs,  hops,  instruments,  kid  gloves 
laces,  leaves,  liquors,  matches,  matting,  meerschaum 
goods,  millinery,  mirrors  and  mirror  plates,  models, 
music  boxes,  musical  instruments,  naval  stores 
needles,  negatives,  oils,  oiled  clothing,  optical 
goods,  patterns,  petroleum  or  petroleum  products 
photographers'  supplies,  photographs,  pictures 
plants,  plush  goods,  poisons,  rags,  ribbons,  roots, 
shoddy,  seeds,  spices,  statuary,  straw  goods,  thcat 
rical  properties  and  scenery,  tobacco,  tonqua  or 
vanilla  beans,  toys,  toilet  articles,  trimmings,  watch 
springs,  wood  or  willow  ware,  wines  and  zylonite 
goods, 

This  policy  shall  not  attach,  apply  to  or  cover 
any  merchandise  insured  more  specifically  or  more 
generally  than  this  policy  covers 

Mercury,  (see  Quicksilver  298?) 


823 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued, 


Metal  Antimony,  (see  Antimony),  

Goods,  not  elsewhere  specified  

"     Paper,  (see  2857)  

"  Sheathing  

Metals,  unfinished,  pig,  ingot,  block,  &c. 

Meters,  

Mica  


"  pulverized,  

Military  Goods,  

Milk,  Condensed,  (see  Canned  Foods,)  

"     Sugar  of,  (see  Sugar  of  Milk)  

Millinery  Goods,  (see  Artificial  Flowers,  Bonnets,  &c.) 

"  Ornaments,  

Millstones,  (see  Burrstones,  No.  2036)  

Mineral  and  Aerated  Waters,  in  bottles  

"        •■'        "  "       "  bbls.  or  hhds  

"  Wax  

Wool  

Mirrors,  (sec  Glass,  silvered,  No.  2396)  

Models  and  Patterns  

Mohair,  (refer  to  "Angora  Wool"  and  not  the  dress 

cloth  known  as  Alpaca)  

Yarn,  

Molasses  or  Syrup,  

Molybdate  of  Ammonia,  (see  No.  1862)  

Monuments,  Bronze  and  Metal  

"  Stone,  Carved,  (see  Tombstones.)  

Moreens,  Black  Wool,  (see  No.  1975),  

Morocco,  (see  No.  2611)  

Mosaic  pattern  and  design  work,  

"      tile,  (see  Tiles,)  

Moss,  for  upholstery  Fibre  rates  

"     edible,  Irish,  Iceland,  &c,  

Moth,  Naphtha  and  Camphor  Balls,  

Mother  of  Pearl,  Shells,  

Mouldings,  Cornices,  gilt,  (see  Cornices,  2177)  

"    metal,  No.  2179  

'*   wood.  No.  2178  

Mucilage,  in  bottles  

"  bbls.,  

Mushrooms,  

Music  Boxes  

"  Sheet  

Musical  Instruments,  ( see  Pianos  2905,  Organs  2830) 


Add  to 
Base 
rate. 


70 
96 
20 
10 
40 
20 
15 
60 
30 
48 
75 
72 
40 
40 
35 
38 
10 
65 
75 

45 
20 
25 
120* 
40 
75 
24 

70 

40 

75* 

45 

96 

25 

60 

25 

50 

35 

25 

45 

75 

60 

60 


*Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  H,  if  stored  therein, 


824 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


No.  I 

2738 
2739 
274(1 
2741 
2742 
2743 
2744 
2745 

2746 


2747 

2749 
2750 
2751 
2752 
2753 
2754 
2755 
275(1 
2757 
2758 
2759 

27(iii 
2761  j 
2762 
2763 
27(11 
2765 

2766 
2767 
2768 
27(19 


2770 
2771 
2772 


Musical  Instruments,  piano  actions,  (sec  No.  2906).. 

Muslins  and  Cambrics,  

Muslin  Underwear,  (see  Underwear)  

Mustard,  dry  

Seed  

M  vrhanc,  Oil  of,  in  drums  

Myrrh,  gum  

"  Tincture  

Nails  


Naphtha,*  (special  and  separate  storage,)  

Naphthaline,  Moth  and  Camphor  Balls,... 
-Napkins,  Doilies  and  Handkerchiefs,  (see  2228,  also 

linen  form), . . 

Naval  Stores.*  (see  also  Tar,  Rosin  and  Turpentine,) 

Neatsfoot  Oil,  (sec;  Oils,  No.  2790)  

Needles,  hand  or  sewing  machine  

Negatives,  Photographic  

Nets,  Cotton  Curtain,  

"    and  Netting  ■>.  

Nickel  

"  Oxide  

Nitrate  of  Soda,  (Chile  saltpetre,)  

if  stored  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  II 

Nitre  Cake  

"  '"  if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H. . . 
Nitro-Benzol,  (a  substitute  for  Bitter  Almonds  in 

Confectionery,)  

if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H. 

Noils,  Silk,  (see  Silk  Waste  and  Noils)  

Noodles  

Notions,  Yankee,  

Nursery  Stocks,  plants,  bulbs,  (see  also  Plants,)  

Nuts,  (Betel,   Brazil,  Cashew,  Chestnuts,  Gallnuts, 

Hazel,  Kola,  Peanuts,  Pistachio,)  

Nut  Galls,  

"    Kernals  or  Shelled  Nuts  

Nutmegs  

Nux  Vomica,  

Oak  grained  Jute  Board,  (same  as  Straw  Board)  

Oakum,*  Fibre  rates  

Oatmeal  

Ochre,  (see  also  Earths,  No.  2253)  

Oil  Cake  


Add  in 
Base 
rate. 

Cents. 

100 

24 

34 

45 

45 

150* 
35 
40 
25 

96 


100 
4b 
75 

175 
48 
40 
15 
28 

125* 
50 

100 
50 

150* 

75 

50 

40 

75 
100 

45 
45 
60 
50 
45 


40 
30 
40 


*Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  H.  if  stored  therein. 


825 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued 


No. 
2773 


2774 
27.0 
2776 
2777 
2778 
2779 
2  7  si  I 
2781 
2782 
2783 

2785 


2787 
2788 

2790 
2791 
2792 
2793 
2794 
2795 
2796 
2797 


2799 

'.'SI  Ml 

2801 
2802 
2803 
2804 
2805 
2806 
2807 
2808 
2809 
2810 


Oil,  («>llicr  than  Kerosene,  which  sec)  Amber,  Berga- 
mot,  Caraway  Seed,  Cod,  Corn,  Cotton,  Lanolin, 

Olive,  Palm,  Rape  Seed,  

Oil,  Aniline,  (see  No.  1874 >£),  

Castor  

Cocoa  Nut, . .  .*  

Cod  liver,  in  glass,  

"     "  bhls  

Corn,  in  barrels  

Cotton  seed,  in  bbls  

Cotton  seed  in  glass,  table  oil  

Elaine,  in  bbls  

Essential,  (see  No.  2287)  

"        in  iron  drums,  (see  2289)  

Foots,  Olive,  (see  No.  2817)  

Kerosene,  (special  rates  and  separate  storage  ). . . . 

Lard,  (see  No.  2592)  

Linaloe,  (see  2632),  

Linseed,  (see  No.  2638),  

Lubricating  

of  Myrbane,  in  drums,  (see  No.  2742),  

Neatsfoot  

Oleo  

Olive,  in  baskets,  cans  or  Cases,  

"     "  bbls.  or  casks  

"      "  bottles  or  tins,  

Palm,  in  bbls.,  

"      "  tin  or  glass,  boxed,  

"  Kernal,  

Peppermint,  in  cans,  (see  No.  2889)  

"  "  glass,  (see  No.  2890),  

Sesame,  (same  rates  as  2792,  2793,  2794),  

Sod  

of  Spearmint,  in  cans  

"  "        "  glass  

Sweet,  in  bottles  and  cases,  

Tallow,  

Tanners',  

Vegetable,  

Wood,  

Whale  and  Fish  

Oil  Cloth,  (see  Floor -Cloth,  No.  2344)  

Oiled  Clothing,  

Old  Rubber  Scraps,  (see  No.  3012)  


♦Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  H.  if  stored  therein. 


836 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


No. 
281] 

2814 
2815 
2816 
2*17 
2818 
2*19 
2820 
2821 
2822 
2823 

2824 
2825 
282G 
282? 
2828 
2829 
2830 
2831 
2832 
2833 
2834 
2835 


2*36 
2837 
2838 


2839 

2840 
2841 
2*42 


2844 
2*45 
2*41 


Old  Steel  Bails  

Oleo  Oil,  (see  No.  2791)  

Oleomargarine  

Olives,  in  bottles,  

"      "  kegs,  bbls.,  or  hogsheads  

Olive  Oil  Foots  .'  

"    Wood,  (see  Woods,  No.  3359)  

Olive  AVood  goods,  from  Syria,  in  boxes,  

Onyx  

Opium,  i:i  ta.  e.;,  Li.i  ll.ied  or  drums  

' not  tin  lined  

Optical  and  Mathematical  Instruments,  (see  In- 
struments, No.  2520)  

"  Goods  

Orange  &  Lemon  Peel,  (see  Lemon,  No.  2617)  

Oranges,  (sec  Lemons,  No.  2616)  

Orchill  Weed  

Ore  

"  Chrome,   

Organs,  (see  Musical  Instruments,  No.  2736)  

Oriental  and  Turkish  Goods,  

Ornaments,  Millinery,  

Ostrich  feathers,  (see  Feathers  for  millinery,  No.  2306) 

"  "      Raw,  in  tin  lined  cases,  

Overgaiters  and  Leggings  

Oxalate  of  Potash,  (see  Potash),  

Oxide  of  Copper,  (see  No.  2164)  

"  Iron,  (see  No.  2531)  

"      "  Nickel  

"     "  Tin  

Ozokerite,  

Packages;  It  shall  be  permissible  to  make  an  endorse 

ment  as  follows;  "This  policy  also  covers  packages 

containing  the  above  described  merchandise  and 

labels  thereon. " 
Paintings,  Pictures,  Panoramas,  (may  add  and  their 

frames)  

Paint,  oil  

"     dry,  (see  Dry  P.  No.  2244)  

Driers,  liquid,  (except  petroleum  products,). . 

Paint  Pots,  

Paints,  Clay  Cold  Water,  (see  No.  2125)  

Palm  Kernel  Oil,  (see  Oil)  

"    Leaf,  in  cases,  

"       "     "  ceroons  

"       "     "  bundles,  


AdJ  to 
rate. 


Cents. 
10 
48 
40 
50 
40 
36 
40 
75 
28 
40 
60 

70 
70 
40 
50 
45 
15 
14 
60 
72 
72 
70 
50 
72 
96 
96 
38 
28 
28 
38 


75 
50 
40 
100 
35 
38 
48 
30 
35 
40 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


No. 


Palm  Leal',  Hats  made  up,  (see  Hats  No.  2468)  

Pampas  Plumes  Fibre  rates  

Panama  Hats,  (see  No.  2468),  

Paper  Hags,  (see  Bags,  Paper,  No.  1919)  

"     Balloons,  No.  1923  

"  Blotting  

Boxes  and  tubes,  

"  Building  

"     Cigarette,  (see  No.  2119)  

Clippings  or  Pressed  Paper,  in  bales  

'      Emery,  (see  Emery  Paper,  No.  2272)  

'     Glazed.  Enameled,  same  as  Paper  Hangings, . 

"     Gummed  or  Coated,  

Hangings,  wall  paper  

Japanese,  (see  No.  2549)  

' '  Metal,  

"     Pails,  (see  No.  2028)  

"    Patterns,  (see  Patterns,  No.  2874)  

Printed  Sheets  and  Bound  Books  

Printing,  in  rolls,  (see  No.  2966)  

"  Pulp,  

Rice,  

Sand,  same  as  Emery  

"     Stock,  (see  Rags,  No.  2989)   

"     Wax,  (see  Paper  Glazed,  Enameled,  

Wrapping,  Manilla  

Writing,  Flat,  News,  Book,  Printing,  Tissue 
and  Toilet,  (see  Printing  in  rolls). 

Paraffine  

Parasol  and  Umbrella  Sticks  

Paris  Green  

"      If  stored  in  Non  Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H 

"    White,  (see  Whiting)  

Parquet  Flooring,  

Patent  Medicines,  (see  Medicines,  No.  2688)  

Patterns,  Paper  

' '  Wooden,  

Metallic  

Peaches,  Dried,  (see  No.  2238)  

Peanuts,  (see  Nuts,  No.  2765)   

Pearl  Ash,  (see  Carbonate  of  Potas.,  2068)  

"  Shells,  

Peas,  (see  Beans,  No.  1946)  

' '  Preserved,  


♦Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W,  II.  if  stored  therein, 


828 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


No. 


Pebbles.  Flint,  (see  N3.  2342)  

Pencil  Boxes,  (see  No.  2004)  

2882  Pencils,  ( Lead )  (see  Lead  Pencils,  No.  2599)  

2883  Penholders  

Hard  Rubber  or  Gutta  Percha,  (see  2509) 

2884  Pens,  Gold,  (see  Gold  Pens,  No.  2409)  

2885  "    Steel,  (see  Steel  Pens,)  

2886  Pepper,  Berries,  (see  No.  1953)  

2887  "  Ground  

2888  "  Shells  

2889  Peppermint  Oil,  in  cans  

2890:  "  "    "  glass  

2891  Pepsin  

2892:    Percaline,  (see  Dress  Cloths)  

2893|    Perfumery,  and  Cosmetics  

2894j    Peroxide  of  Barium,  

2895    if  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H.. 

2896  Persian  Berries,  

Peruvian  Bark,  (see  Bark,  No.  1933)  

289£    Petroleum  barrels,*  (empty,)  

2899  "         special  rates  and  separate  storage  

Petticoats  and  Skirts,  (see  Underwear),  

Pharmaceutical,  Chemical  and  Flavoring  Extracts, 

(see  Extract,  No.  2294). . 
Phonographs  and  Graphophones,  (see  No.  2422),. . . . 

Records,  (see  2423) 

Phosphate  of  Ammonia,  (see  No.  1864)  

"  Soda,  (see  No.  3125)  

2900  Photographs  

2901  Photographers'  materials,  excluding  Dry  Plates,. . . . 

2902  "  Dry  Plates,  

2903  Phosphorus,  in  tins,  hermetically  sealed,  

2904  "  if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H. 

2905  Pianos,  (see  Musical  Instruments,  No.  2736)  

2906  "      actions,  (see  No.  2737)  

Pickled  Fish,  (see  Fish  2331)  

"       Meats,  in  barrels,  (see  Meats),  

"      "  tins  or  glass,  (see  Meats),  

"      "  tierces,  (see  Meats),  

Sheep  Skins,  (see  Sheep  Skins),   

2908  Pickles,  in  barrels  

2909  "      in  bottles,  

2910  Picture  Frames,  (see  Frames,  No.  2355)  

Piece  Goods,  Colored  Cotton,  (see  Cotton)  


•Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W,  II.  if  6tored  therein. 


82!) 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


Pig,  metal,  (see  Copper,  Iron,  Lead,  Tin,  Zinc,). 

Pimento,  (allspice,)  (see  Spices,  No.  3144)  

Pins,  


Pine  apples  

Pipe,  Burnt  Clay,  

"     Copper  or  Brass,  

"     Iron,  (see  Iron  No.  2537  )  

Lead,  (  see  Lead  Pipe,  No.  2(51(1  

Pipe  clay,  (not  clay  pipe  or  pipes,)  

Pipes,  Smoking,  made  of  clay,  

"  "        Brier  Root,  Cob  or  Wood,  

Meerschaum,  (see  Meersc.  26*!»,  2690) 

Pistols,  (see  Fire  arms  No.  2325)  

Pitch,  (see  also  Asphaltum,  No.  1!)04)  

Plants,  (see  Nursery  Stocks,  No.  27ti4)  

Platina  

Plaster  of  Paris  

"  Wall  

"     Casts,  (see  Casts,  No.  2087)  

Plates,  Electrotype,  Stereotype,  blocked,  2265  

not     "  2266  

Plated  Ware,  Silver,  

Playing  Cards  

Plows  

Plumbago,  ( sec  Lead  Black,  1974)  

Plumbers'  Supplies  

Plush  goods  

Pocket  Books  

Poker  Chips  and  Martingale  Pings,  made  of  Com- 
position Goods, 

Poppy  Seed,  

Pork,  Salt,  

Portable  Houses,  (see  No.  2501)  

Porto  Rico  Tobacco,  (see  Tobacco)  

Postage  Stamps,  Cancelled  

Potash,  Acetate,  

"      Bi-Carbonate  of,  

"  Bichromate  

"      Bi-Oxalate  of,  

Carbonate,  (Pearl  Ash,  which  see,  No.  2068). 

"      Caustic  (Hydrate,)  

"      Chlorate  of  

"  "       if  stored  NonStip.  or  Chem.  W.  II 

"      continued  next  page  


♦Also  inaeuses  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  U.  If  stored  therein, 


MDSE.  I  N  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 
No.      Potash  continued, 

2950  "      Chloride  of,  or  muriate  

2951  "  "       "  if  in  Non-Stip.  or  Cbcm.  W.  H 

2952  "      Cyanide  of  

2953  "  "       "  if  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H. 

2954  "  Iodide,  

2955  •'  Nitrate  

2956  "      Oxalate  of  

2957  "  Permanganate,  

2958  '*      Sulphate,  (see  Kainite,  No.  2559)  

2959  "      Yellow  Prussiate  of  

2960  Potassium  Hydrate,  

2961  Potatoes  

2962  Potato  Flour,  Farina  and  

2963  Precious  Stones,  (see  Jewels  for  Watches,  No.  2552) 

Preservatives,  Atlas,  (see  No.  1907)  

Preserved  Fruits,  (see  No.  2361)  

Prints,  Chintz,  and  Calicoes,  (see  2048,  also  general 

form)  

2964  "       in  Portfolios  

Printed  Cloths,  (see  forms  end)  

2965  Printers'  Ink,  (see  Ink,  No.  2516)  

2966  Printing  Paper,  in  rolls,  

2967  Prunes,  in  bags  or  baskets  

2968  "       "  barrels  or  casks  

2969  "      "  boxes  .'  

2970  "      "  glass,  in  cases,  

Juice,  (see  No.  2553),  

2971  Prussia  Blue  

Prussiate  of  Soda,  (see  Soda)  

"        "     "     Yellow,  (see  Soda),  

2972  Pulleys,  wooden,  

2973'    Pulp  Board  :  

2974  Pumice  Stone  

2975  Pumps,  wood  

2976  "  metal,'  

2977  Pump  Castings,  

2978'  Punk,  

2979  Putty  

Pyrites,  (see  Iron  Pyrites,  No.  2533)  

2980  Quaker  Buttons,  (Strychnine  Seed),  

2981  Quartz  

Quebracho  Extract,  (see  No.  2297),  

2982  Quicksilver,  in  iron  flasks,  

2983  "         in  glass,  boxed  


•Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  H.  if  stored  therein. 


831 


MDSK.  IN  WARKIIOUSKS,  continued. 


No. 
2984 
298') 
2986 
2987 
298S 

2989 
2990 

2991 
2991i 

2992 
2993 
2994 
2995 


2996 
2997 
2998 
2999 
3000 
3001 

:  2 

3003 
3004 
3005 

3000 
3007 

;{0(is 


:ii  109 

3010 

301 1 


Quinine,  ( !inchona  and  Cinchonidia  in  glass,f  in  cases, 
"  "        "       "     in  tins  cased,  or  tin  cans, 

Quilts  of  down  or  feathers  

cotton  

Quills  and  tootli  picks  

Rabbit  Skins,  (see  Furs  2309),  

Rags  and  Clean  Woolen  Clippings,  in  bales  

loose  

Kails,  (see  Steel  Hails)  

Hailing,  Iron  or  Brass,  (see  No.  2535)  

Railroad  Iron  and  Spikes  

Railway  Supplies,  (see  specific  kinds,)  

Raisins,  


Rattan,  (see  Bamboo,  1927),  

Core  

Goods  and  furniture,  (see  also  Bamboo,  1927). 

Raw  Bird  Skins,  (see  Bird  Skins),  

"    Paradise  Feathers,  (see  No.  2310)  

Red  Precipitate,  

Refrigerators  

Regalia,  Masonic,  Odd  Fellows,  and  other  society,  .  . 

Rennet,  

Resin  or  Rosin,  Pine,  •  

"    other  than  pine,  (see  Gums,  No.  2436)  

Rhubarb  

Ribbons  

Rice  


"    Meal,  or  Flour,  

"    Paper,  (see  Paper  No.  2861),  

' 1    Root  (fibre  rates),  

Rods,  Wire  

Root,  Broom,  (see  No.  2024)  

Roots,  Leaves  and  Herbs,  (not  elsewhere  specified,) 
N.  B.    For  lower  specific  rates,  see  Angelica, 
Chicory,  etc. 


Add  to 
Hase 
rate. 

(  ents. 

60 

35 

40 

45 

35 

150* 
200* 

15 
5 

40 
20 
48 
50 


60 

75 

50 

40 
100* 

60 

35 

60 

25 

35 

72 
100 

14 
200 

50 


Angelica,  see  1871,  Flag, 
Ruchu,  Jalap, 
Canagre,  <  )rris, 

Chicory,  see  2101,  Ramie, 
Elecampane,  see  2201,  Rose, 

Rotten  Stone  

Rubber  Rands,  (sec  No.  2510),.  .  .  . 
Coloring  


Sarsaparilla, 
Sassafras, 
Seneca, 
Snake, 

Valerian,  &C. 


25 
28 
38 


*Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  II.  if  stored  therein. 
tBroken  glass  would  render  Quinine  valueless. 


832 


MIisi;.  in  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


Rubber  Erasers,  (see  No.  2285)  

Scraps,  Old  

"  Substitute  

Ruches  and  Unfiles,  

Rugs,  Camels  hair,  woolen  

Jute  

Rules,  Measuring  

Rum.  (see  Liquors,  Nos.  2G40,  2041)  

"     Bay,  (see  No.  1941)  

Russia  Sheetings,  (see  Sheetings,  No.  3064)  

Iron  

Sacks,  Burlap,  (see  Bags,  1917)  

Cotton,  (see  No.  1916)  

Saddlery  and  Harness,  (see  No.  2466)  

Saddlery  and  Harness  Hardware,  (see  H'dware,  2466) 

Safes,  Iron  

Safflower  

Saffron  

Sago  

Hour  

Sal  Ammoniac,  (see  Ammoniac,  1H67,)  

Saleratus,  

Salmon,  (see  Fish.  No.  2328)  

Salt  Cake,  (-Glaubers  Salts,  No.  2400)  

Salt  

Salts,  Aniline,  (see  No.  1874)  

Sprudel,   

Double  Manure,  

Saltpetre,  (see  also  Nitrate  Soda,  No.  2755)  

if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  ('hem.  W.  II  . 

Sal  Soda  

Sandal  Wood,  (see  Woods,)  

Sand  Paper,  (see  Paper,  No.  2862)  

Sardines,  Anchovies,  Shadines,  No.  2330  

Sarsaparilla  

Extract  

Sash,  Doors  and  Blinds,  (see  Doors  &  Blinds,  No.  2229) 

Sassafras,  

Satin.  White  

Satinets,  (see  Cloths  No.  2132),  

Satins,  (see  Silks,)  

Sauce,  Catsup  and  table  condiments  

Sausage  Casings,  (see  No.  2442)  

Saws  


*Alsn  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  H.  if  stored  therein. 


833 


musk.  IX  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


3057 

3058 

3059 

3060 

30604 

3061 


Scale,  Copper,  (see  No.  2166)  

Scales,  

Scenery,  and  Theatrical  Properties  

Schmachen  and  Lamb  Skin  Gloves,  (see  No.  2581), . . 

Scientific  Instruments,  (see  Instruments,  No.  2520). . 

Scoured  Hair,  (see  Hair  No.  2453)  

Scrap,  Brass  and  Copper,  (see  No.  2555),  

"  if  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  AY.  H 

Lead,  in  bbls  

"       if  stored  in  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  AY.  H. 

Sealing  AYax,  

Seeds,  (This  includes  any  of  following),  

Anise,  see  1873,  Cotton,  Millet, 

Beet,  Fennel,  Mustard, 

Canary,  Field,  Poppy,  see  2940, 

Caraway,  Flax,  see  2339,  Rape, 

Cardamom,         Garden,  Sunflower, 

Clover,  Grass,  Timothy, 

Coriander,  Hemp,  Wormseed,  see  3366, 

Linseed,  see  2638, 

Note.  Germinating  seeds,  winch  are  claimed  to  be  worthless 
after  passing  through  a  lire  because  of  the  suspicion 
of  injury  which  would  deter  planters  from  buying 
them,  would  he  covered  by  the  general  term  "Seeds." 
Those  seeds  which  like  Flax  feed.  Anise,  etc  ,  are  not 
intended  for  planting,  are  provided  for  by  specific 
rates. 

Seeds,  Garden,  Flower  &c,  (see  Garden  Seeds,  2377) 

Seneca  Root,  (see  Roots  &c,  No.  3008)  

Senna  

Sesame  Oil,  (see  No.  2799),  

Sewer  Pipe,  (see  Pipe,  No.  2915)  

Sewing  Machines  and  parts,  except  Needles,  (No. 

2749  which  see,)  

Shades,  Lamp,  glass,  (see  No.  2586)  

"  "      paper  or  textile  fibre,  (see  No.  25S7),. 

Shawls,  (lace)  (see  Lace  No.  2576)  

if  written  as  "Cloth  Shawls"  

Shavings  or  chips,  for  Brewers  or  Yinegar  Mfrs.,... 

Sheep  Skins,  (see  Skins)  

"  Pickled  

Shellac,  (see  Gums,)  

Shells,  Cocoa,  (see  No.  2141)  

"      Pearl,  (see  No.  2879)  

Shelled  Nuts,  (see  Nuts  Shelled  and  Nut  Kernels),.  . 
Sheetings,  (see  Cotton  Goods,  No.  2188)  


*Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  \V.  II.  if  stored  therein. 


834 


MDSE.  IN  WAKKIIol  si:s.  contlnnofl 


Shingles,  Wood,   . 

Metallic,  

Shirt  Waists,  Men's  

\V omens'  or  Childrens',  

"        "       and  Shirt  Waists  Suits,  Washable, .  . 

Shirtings,  (see  No.  2148),  

Shirts,  Collars  and  Cuffs,  (see  Collars  and  C.  No.  2148) 

Shoddy  

Shoe  Laces  or  Strings,   

Pegs  

Shoes  (see  Roots  and  Shoes,  No.  1  !)!)."> )  

Horse,  (sec  No.  2494),  

Shot,  lead,  (see  also  Lead  No.  2604),  

Shovels,  Spades,  Forks  and  Garden  Tools,  (see  1837), 

Show  Cards,  glass,  

"        "      other  than  glass,  (see  Advertising  1831), 

Show  Cases  

Sicilians  

Signs,  glass,  (see  Advertising  Matter,  No.  1832),. . 

"  metal  

Terra  Cotta  

Silex,  

Silica,  

Silicate  of  Carbon,  

Silicon,  Electro,  (see  No.  2267),'  

Silk  Artificial,  (see  No.  1896),  

"    Cocoons,  incases,  (see  Cocoons,  No.  2143)  

"    goods,  Satins  and  Velvets  (may  add  "  Silk"  before 

Velvet  if  desired), .   

"  "      and  Velvets,  if  policy  contains 

following  clause  "value  not  to 
exceed  §2  per  yard,"  (a  water 
damaged,  cheap  silk  will  usually 
sell  for  as  much  as  one  costing  1 

a  yard,)  

30931     "    and  Woolen,  and  Silk  and  Cotton,  mixed  Cloths. 

not  exceeding  $2  per  yard  in  value  may  be 
insured  under  the  .following  form  with  a 
charge  of  40  cents  viz;  "'On  Silk  and  Woolen 
and  Silk  and  Cotton,  Mixed  Cloths,  value 

not  to  exceed  $2  per  yard."  

"    Raw  I  30 

"    Spun,   |  58 

"    Thread  (see  Thread),  

"    Thrown,  (see  Thrown  Silk)  

'•    Waste  and  Silk  Noils,  (see  No.  2761)  I  50 


835 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


3098 

3099 
3100 
3101 
3102 
3103 
3104 


3105 
3106 
3107 
3108 
3109 
3110 
3111 
3112 
3113 
3114 
3115 
3116 
3117 
3118 

3119 
3120 
3121 
3122 
3123 
3124 


3125 
3126 


No. 

3097    Silk  Yarn 

"    Artificial,  (see  No.  1896))  

Silver  plated  ware,  (see  Plated  Ware  2932)  

"     solid  ware,  

Sisal  Grass,*  Fibre  rates  

Skates,  Ice,  

Roller,  

Skewers  or  toothpicks  

Skins,  Undressed,  other  than  Bird,  (which  see)  

Deer  or  Elk,  (sec  Goat  Skins,  Hides,  &c.,). . . . 

"     Waxed  Calf,  '.  

"     see  Sheep  and  1886,  

"  Calf,  

"     Dry  Lamb,  (see  2243)  

"-   Kangaroo,  (see  1886)  

"     Rabbit,  (see  2369)  

Skirts  and  Petticoats,  (see  2578)  

Slates,  School,  

"  Roofing,  

Sleighs,  large,  driving,  

"      small,  toy  sleds,  (see  Toys)  

Slippers,  

Snake  Root,  (see  Roots,  No.  3008)  

Snuff,  

Soap,  

"  Stock,  

"    Stone,  (Talc,)  

' '    Weed,  or  root  

Soda  Ash  

' '  Bicarbonate  

"     Bichromate  of ,  

"     Carbonate  of,  (see  2069)  

Caustic,  (Hydrate  of,)  

"    Chlorate  of,  

"        "        "  if  stored,  Non-Stip.  or  Chern.  W.  H. 

"  Crude,  

"    Crystals,  (Sal  Soda,)  

"    Hypo  sulphite,  and  Sulphate  of,  (Glauber's 

Salts,)  (No.  2400).  

"    Nitrate,*  (see  No.  2755)  

Phosphate  of ,  

"    Prussiate  of, . . .   

31271     "          "       "  if  stored,  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H. 
"    see  next  page,  


•Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  \V.  II.  if  stored  therein. 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 


No.       Soda,  continued. 

"    Sal,  (see  Sal  Soda,  No.  303(5)  ;  

3129  "    Silicate  of  

3130  "     Yellow  Prussiate  of,  

3131  "        "  "       "  if  stored,  Non-Stipulated  or 

Chem.  W.  H. . 

3132  "     Fountains  and  fixtures,  

3134  Sodium,  Hydrate,  in  glass  bottles,  

3135  "                   if  stored,  Non-Stip.  or  Chem.  W.  H 
phosphate,  (see  No.  3125)  

Sod  Oil,  (see  Oil  2800),  

Solder  

Sounds,  Fish,  (see  Fish  Sounds,  No.  2332)   

3139  Spades,  Shovels,  Manure  and  Hay  Forks,  (see  1837),. 

3140  Sparklets  

3141  Spectacles  and  Eyeglasses  

3142  Spelter,  (see  Zinc,)  

3143  Spermaceti,  

3144  Spices,  (not  specified)  

See  Cinnamon, 
"  Cloves, 
' '  Ginger, 
*'  Mace, 
"  Nutmegs, 
"  Pepper, 

"  Pimento  or  Allspice, 
Spirits  and  "Wines,  in  hhds,  butts  or  pipes,  (see  Nos. 

2640,  3345),  

"  bottles,  (see  No.  2641,  3346)  

3145  Sponges  

3146  Sporting  Goods,  (see  Athletic  Goods,  Fishing  Tackle 
&c,  Nos.  1906,  2333),  

3147  Sprats,  in  cases,  

3148  Springs,  Car,  India  Rubber,  (see  Car  Springs),  

3149  "       Carriage  or  Wagon,  of  Steel  

Watch,  (see  No.  3326)  

3151  "       Spiral  Steel,  in  barrels,  

Sprouts,  Malt  or  Brewers  Grain,  (see  No.  2666)  

Sprudel  Salts,  (see  Salts),  

Spun  Silk,  (see  Silk),  

3152  Squills  

3153  Stamped  Metal  Ware,  

3154  Stamps,  metal,  dating,  

3155  "      India  Rubber,  

"      Postage,  Cancelled,  (see  No.  2942)  

3156  Starch  


*Also  increaser  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  H.  if  stored  therein. 


MDSK.  IN  WAHEIKH'SKS,  continued. 


Stationery  

Statuary,  marble  or  stone,  

Bronze,  (see  No.  2020)  

"        Parian,  Bisque,  (see  No.  2105)  

"  plaster,  

Steam  Engines,  (see  Engines,  No.  2278,  2324)  

"     Gauges,  (see  Gauges,  No.  2381)  

and  Hot  Water  Heaters,  (see  No.  2472)  

Stearine,  (see  Lard)  

Steel,  

"     ingots  and  bars,  

"     pens,  (see  Pens,  No.  2885)  

"  Rails  

Sticklac,  

Stone,  Lithographic,  not  engraved,  (see  Lith.  S.  2644) 
"  "  engraved,  ( see  Eng.,  No.  2645) 

"     Marble,  ( )nyx,  Jasper,  or  Granite,  rough  

"         "         "        "       "       "    dressed  bld'g 

stone  

"  Marble,  Onyx,  Jasper,  or  Granite,  cut  or 
carved  in  ornamental  designs,  (see  Statuary,) 

"     Pumice,  (see  Pumice  Stone,  No.  2974)  

"     Ware,  (see  Crockery,  Earthenware,  &c.,)  

Stove  Polish  or  blacking,  solid  

"        "      "        "  liquid  

Stoves,  Stove  castings,  parts  and  pipe  

"      furniture,  (sec  Kitchen  Utensils,  No.  2567).. 

Straw,  (Fibre  rates)  

Straw  Board,  (see  also  Jute  Board  No.  2556)  

"     Braid,  (see  No.  2007)  

"    Imitation,  (see  No.  2007),  

"     Covers,  in  bales  

"  Goods,  

"     Hats,  not  made  up,  (see  Nos.  2468,  2470)  

"     made  up,  (see  No.  2468)  

Straw  and  Wood  Braid,  plain,  mixed  or  fancy,  (see 

No.  2007)  

Strychnine  Seed,  (see  No.  2980)  

Stuffed  Animals,  Birds,  (see  Taxidermy,  No.  3215). . 
Sugar,  

"     Hayden,  (see  No.  2471)  

"     of  Milk  

"      (or  Acetate)  of  Lead  

Sulphate  of  Alumina  

"      see  next  page,  


Add  t.. 

Base 
rate. 


838 


3211 

3212 

3213 

3214 

3214^ 

3215 

3216 

3217 

3218 

3219 

3220 

3221 

3222 

3223 

3224 

3225 

3226 

3227 

3228 


*Also 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued. 
Sulphate  of,  continued. 

"  Ammonia,  (see  No.  1865),  

"  Antimony  

•'  if  stored,  Non-Stip.  or  Cliem.  W.  H. . . . 

"  Copper,  (sec  No.  2168),  

Sulphide  of  Iron  

Sulphur  &  Brimstone,  (see  Brimstone,  2016 )  

Sumac  

Suspenders,  

Sweet  Oil,  in  bottles  or  cases,  (see  Olive  Oil  or  Oil 

No.  2794),  

Swisses,  Fancy,  (see  Fancy  Swisses  No.  2299),  

Table  Cloths,  (see  General  Linen  form),  

Tacks,  iron  

"  copper  

Tags,  Paper  

Tin,  

Tailors'  Linings  and  Trimmings,  

Talc,  (Soapstone,  which  see  No.  3114)  

Tallow,  

"     Oil,  (see  No.  2804)  

Tamarinds,  preserved,  

Tampico*  fibre,  Fibre  store  rates  

Tanners'  Oil,  (see  No.  2805)  

Tapioca  

Flour,  (see  No.  2348)  

Tapestries,  

Tar,  (see  Naval  Stores,  No.  2747)  

Tarpaulins,  

Tartaric  Acid,  

Tartar  Emetic,  

Taxidermy,  Animal  and  Bird  Specimens,  Stuffed, . . . 

Tea  Gowns,  (see  Nos.  2234,  2706),  

Teak  Wood,  (see  Woods,  No.  3359)  

Teasels,  

Teas,  

Teeth,  Artificial,  (see  Artificial  Teeth,  1897)  

Telephones,  

Tents,  (see  Awnings  and  Tents,  No.  1910)  

Terra  Alba,  (see  Earths,  No.  2253)  

Cotta,  for  Building  purposes,  

"       "     gas  logs  

"       "  ornaments,  

"       "  signs,  

"    Sienna,  (see  Earths,  No.  2253)  

increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  H.  if  stored  therein. 


83U 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued, 


Terra  Umber,  (see  Earths,  No.  2253)  

Theatrical  Scenery  6c  Properties,  (see  Scenery,  3048) 

Costumes,  (see  Costumes  2184.)  

Thorium  Nitrate  

Thread,  other  than  Tinsel  and  Gold  

Gold,  

Silk  

Tinsel,  (see  Tinsel  3245),  

Thrown  Silk,  

Tiff  


Tiles,  decorated  art  

"  drainage,  

"     galvanized  iron  

Tin,  block,  

"  Foil,  (see  Foil,  No.  2352)  

"  Plate  

"  Ware,  (see  Kitchen  Utensils  2567). 

Tinsel  and  Tinsel  Thread  

Tobacco,  Leaf,  Foreign  

"         "  Domestic  

"  "  "  in  hhds., .  .  . 
"  Chewinji  


"        Porto  Rico,  

"  Smoking,  

"  Stems  

Tobacco  and  its  Products,  this  item  may  be  used  if 
written  at  the  highest  charge 
named  under  3246  to  3253, . . 
Toilet  Articles,  (see  Druggists'  Sundries,  No.  2239). . 

Tombstones,  (see  Monuments,  No.  2720)  

Tonic,  Hair,  (see  No.  2454),  

Tonqua  or  Tonca  Beans,  

Tools,  steel,  edge,  (see  also  Files,  No.  2323,  1837),. . . 

"     iron  or  other  metal  than  steel,  (see  1837)  

Tortoise  Shell  Goods,  manufactured,  

"        "  unmanufactured  

Tow,*  Russia,  &c  Fibre  rates  

Towels  and  Towelings,  (see  Linen  and  Linen  form),. 

Toys  and  Dolls  

"     if  specifying  Hobby  horses,  wagons,  sleds, 

velocipedes,  (see  Sleighs)  

Traveling  Bags,  Satchels  (see  also  Bags,  1918)  

Trees  


•All 


iso  Increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  II  If  stored  therein. 


840 


Tricycles,  (see  Bicycles,  No.  1954) 
Trimmings,  Braid,  Gimp,  (see  Nos.  2006,  2357) 
Tripoli 
Trunks 

filled  with  wearing  apparel  (see  Household 
Furniture,  No.  2500)  

3272  Tubs,  wooden,  

3273  "    porcelain,  wash,  bath,  

3274  "    iron,  enameled,  .  

3275  Turkish  and  Oriental  Goods,  

3276  Turmeric,  (see  Dye  Woods,  No.  2248),  

Turnings,  Composition,  (see  No.  2153), 

Gun  Metal,  in  casks  and  barrels,  (see  3439) 

3278  Turpentine  

3279  Twine  and  Cord,  (see  Cordage,  No.  2169)  

3280  Type  

3281  Typewriters  

3282  "         supplies,  ribbons,  carbon  paper, 

3283  "         Cabinet  stands,  

3284  Ultramarine  

Umber,  (see  Terra  Umber  No.  3229)  

3285  Umbrellas,  and  Parasols,  

3286  "        sticks,  ribs,  

3287  "         Stands,  or  holders,  metal  

3288  "  "       "       "  wood,  

3289  Underwear,  Mens',  Womens'  or  Childrens'  (see  2578) 

Muslin,  (see  No.  2739)  

3290  Utensils,  Farm  and  Garden,  hand  only,  (see  No.  1837 

and  Tools, . . 

3291  Upholstery  Goods,  (see  Down,  Feathers,)  

3292  Urinals,  crockery,  

3293  Valerian,  (see  Roots,  No.  3008)  

3294  Valises,  (see  Trunks,  No.  3270)  

3295  Vanilla  Beans,  

3296  Vanilla  Extract  

3297  Varnish  

3298  Vaseline,  

3299  Vegetable  Ivory,  Nuts,  (see  Ivory  Veg.  2545)  

3300  "  "  goods,....  

3301  Vegetable  roots,  Onions,  Potatoes,  Turnips,  in  bbls., 

or  bags  

"       Oils,  (see  Oils)  

3302  Vegetables,  in  brine,  

3303  Veilings,  


*Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  H.  if  stored  therein. 


841 


MDSE.  IN  WAREHOUSES,  continued, 


No 

3304  Velocipedes,  Childrens,  (see  Toys,) 

Velours,  Flax,  (see  No.  2340),  

Velvets,  (see  Silks,)  

3305  Velveteens,  (see  Dress  Cloths) 

33071    Veneers,  (see  No.  2664)  

3308!    Venetian  Blinds  

3309  "  Red,  

3310  Verdigris,  

3311  Vermicelli  and  Macaroni,  (see  Macaroni,  2656). 

3312  Vermilion,  (see  Cinnabar,  No.  2120)  

3313  Vinegar  

Violin  Strings,  (see  Catgut,  No.  2088)  

Vitriol,  Blue,  (see  2168),  

3314  Vises  

3315  Wagons  and  Carts,  (see  Carts  and  Wagons,  No.  2082) 

(see  also  Carriages,  No.  2078) 

3316  Walnuts,  (see  Nuts,  No.  2765)  

3316a  Warehousemen  on  accrued  charges  shall  take  a  rate 

arrived  at  by  adding  35  cents  to  the  base  rate  of  the 
W.  H.  if  written  specific.    If  blanket  form  is  used 
rate  for  the  entire  policy  must  be  that  of  the  high- 
est rated  risk  covered. 
3316b  Warehousemen's  errors  and  omissions  policies  shall 
take  a  rate  based  upon  a  charge  of  50  cents  being 
added  to  base  rate  of  each  warehouse  covered,  ii 
being  understood  that  such  policies  need  not  have 
the  80#  Co-insurance  Clause  attached,  provided  thai 
a  specific  amount  attaches  within  each  warehousi 
or  building  covered.    If  a  blanket  form  isused  rate 
for  the  entire  policy  must  be  that  of  the  highest 
rated  risk  covered. 
3316c  Warehousemen's  furniture  and  fixtures  and  tools  and 
implements  used  in  his  business  

3317  Washing  Machines,  

3318  Warps,  Cotton  

3319  Washboards,  

3320  Waste,  (Clean,  Woolen,  Cop),  

3321  "      Woolen  or  Cotton  including  Noil  other  than 

Silk,  

3322  "     Wool  Yarn,  

3323  Watches  and  Watch  Movements,  

3324  Watch  Cases  

3325  "  Crystals  

3326  "     Springs,  see  Springs  

Waters,  Aerated  in  bottles,  (see  2709),  

"  bbls.  or  hhds.,  (see  No.  2710),... . 

*Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  11.  if  stoicd  therein. 


Add  to 
Base 
rate. 

Cents. 

70 

58 

28 
65 
60 
45 
40 
35 
45 
30 


20 

30 

35 


50 
40 
25 
72 
100* 

200 
200* 

50 

35 

45 
100 

38 

34 


MUSE.  IN  W  AREHOUSES,  continued, 


Wax,  Bees,  

"  Figures  

Mineral  

Paper  

Sealing,  (see  Sealing  Wax  30ol)  

"  Vegetable  

Waxed  Calf  Skins,  (see  Skins)  

Weather  Strips,   

Whalebone,  

Wheelbarrows,  

Wheels,  

Whetstones,  (see  Hones,  No.  2486)  

Whips  

Whiskey  and  High  Wines,  in  bottles  

"  "      "  Octaves  and  Quarters, 

"  "  "  "  "  puncheons  or  bbls., . . 
"  "      "  "         if  stored,  Non-Stip  or 

Chem.  W.  H  

White  Lead  

Whiting,  ( see  Paris  White,  No.  2871)  

Willows  and  Reeds,.  .  

Willow  ware,  

Wine,  in  hhds.,  butts  bbls,  casks  or  pipes,.  

"      "  bottles  

Wines,  Liquors,  Spirits  and  Cordials,  in  bbls.,  hhds. 

butts,  casks  or  pipes  

"  "  "      and  Cordials,  in  bottles,  .. . 

Wine-lees,  in  bags,  

Window  Shades  and  fixtures  -  

Wire,  Iron  

Brass,  Copper,  Aluminum,  Platinum  

Work  

Fence,  (see  No.  2314),  

Rope  or  Cable  

Rods,  (see  Rods),  

Witch  Hazel,  Crude  in  barrels  

Womens'  clothing,  see  2126,  2131  

Wood  Carpeting,  mats  and  flooring  

Oil,  (see  No.  2807)  

Pulp,  

"  "   Plates,  Dishes  and  Platters  

Woods  of  value  

See  Woods  next  page  


*Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  H.  if  stored  therein. 


sr.; 


MDSE.  IN  WAHKHOt'SKS,  continued. 


Box,  sec  No.  2005,  Mahogany,  see  No.  2662 

Camphor,  see  No.  2053,  Olive, 

Chestnut,  Rosewood, 

Ebony,  see  No.  2256,  Sandal, 

Lignum  Vitae,  Teak, 

and  other  valuable  woods. 

Woods,  Rough  sticks  of  Wild  Chestnut  , 

Wooden  ware,  see  Tubs,  Pails,  Baskets  

Wool  

"    Yarn  Waste,  (see  Waste),  

Woolen  and  Worsted  Cloths,  (see  No.  2132),  

"      Clippings,  Clean  

Woolen  Mixed  Cloths  not  exceeding  $2  per  yard  

Wormseed,  (see  Seeds,  No.  3052)  

Yankee  Notions,  (see  Notions,  No.  2763)  

Yarn,  Woolen,  Linen  or  Cotton,  

"     Angora  Worsted,  (see  No.  1872)  

"     Artificial  Silk  

made  of  Jute,  Sisal,  Manilla,  Flax,  China, 

Esparto  or  Malta  Grass,  

"  Mohair  

"  Silk,  

Yeast  Cakes  

Yellow  Berries,  

"      Prussiate  of  Potash,  (see  Potash),  

"  "       "  Soda,  (see  Soda),  

Ylang  Ylang,  

Zanzibar  Gum,  

Zinc,  Chloride,  

"  Dust,  

Oxide,  

"     Pigs,  or  slabs  

"  Sheets,  

"  Spelter,  

"  Sulphate,  

"      White,  in  barrels  

Zylonite  Goods,  (see  Celluloid,)  


♦Also  increases  base  rate  of  a  Stipulated  W.  H.  if  stored  therein. 


Ml 


General  Forms  which  may  be  used. 

The  following  forms  were  prepared  in  the  New  York  Fire  Insurance  Exchange  to  meet  the 
convenience  of  merchants  dealing  in  certain  lines  of  goods,  and  have  been  carefully  worded  so 
that,  at  the  rate  named  for  them,  they  could  not  he  construed  to  cover  merchandise  for  which 
higher  rates  are  specified  in  the  list. 

"On  Paper,  Printed  Sheets  and  Bound  Books,"  may  be  written  at  96  cents. 

"On  Printed  Cotton  Piece  Goods;  Calicoes"  may  be  written  at  28  cents. 

"On  Cotton  Goods,  dyed  and  printed  and  also  in  the  gray  and  on  Linen," 
may  be  written  at  28  cents.  (See  2188,  2189,  2190). 

"On  Wool,  Cotton  Cloth  and  Cotton  Velveteens,"  may  be  written  at  28  cts. 

"On  "Woolens,  Worsteds,  Mixed  Cloths  and  Satinets— This  policy  does  not 
include  Silks,  Satins  or  Velvets,"  may  be  written  at  28  cents. 

"On  Wines  and  Liquors  in  bottles,  barrels  and  casks  and  Olive  Oil  in  bottles 
and  tins,"  may  be  written  at  80  cents. 

"It  is  understood  and  agreed  that  any  floating  policies  held  by  the  assured 
are  not  to  be  considered  as  contributing  insurance  in  case  of  loss  under  this 
policy." 

LINEN  AND  JUTE  FORM. 

Add  40  cents  to  Base  Rate  of  Warehouse. 

On  Manufactures  of  Linen,  of  Linen  and  Jute,  of  Jute,  of  Cotton,  of  Cotton 
and  Linen,  and  of  Cotton  and  Jute,  the  property  of  the  assured  or  held  by  said 
assured  in  trust  or  on  commission,  or  sold  but  not  delivered  while  contained  in 


This  policy  does  not  cover,  attach  or  apply  to  any  merchandise  above 
enumerated  the  value  of  which  exceeds  $2.00  per  square  yard;  nor  does  this 
policy  cover  Awnings,  Banners,  Braids,  Burlaps  coated  or  backed  for  wall 
decorations,  Carpets,  Comforters,  Cord,  Cordage,  Cotton  batting,  Curtains, 
Flags,  Fringes,  Gimps,  Labels,  Gunny  bags,  Laces,  Mattings,  Nettings,  Quilts, 
Rove  bagging  made  of  jute,  Rugs,  Tassels,  Tents,  Twine,  Velours,  Window 
shades,  Yarns,  or  Articles  of  Wearing  apparel. 

This  policy  shall  not  attach,  apply  to  or  cover  any  merchandise  insured 
more  specifically  or  more  generally  than  this  policy  covers. 

Other  insurance  permitted  without  notice  until  required. 

Attached  to  and  forming  part  of  Policy  No  Insurance  Co. 


INDEX. 


A 

Abandonment,  none  in  lire  insurance, 
5. 

Abattoirs,  see  Slaughter  Houses,  533, 
539. 

Abbreviations,  avoid  in  policies,  305. 
Academies,  423,  424. 
Accessibility  to  fire  department,  666. 
Accounts,  304. 

Acetylene  Gas  Machines,  write  for 
National  Board  Rules,  424. 

Acetylene  Gas  Plants,  See  National 
Board  Rules,  424. 

Acid  Works,  424. 

Acre,  618. 

Adequate  Rates  in  interest  of  Public, 
12. 

Adirondack  Guide  removing  boul- 
ders, 403. 

Adjusters'  estimates  of  moral  hazard 

fires,  44. 
Adjustment  of  losses,  334,  335. 
Advantages  of  rating  by  Schedule, 

629. 

Adverse  legislation,  338,  631. 

Advertising  material,  27. 

Advertisements,  203,  204. 

Adze  Manufactories,  425. 

Age  of  building,  charge  for,  655. 

Agents'  Commission,  25;  compensa- 
tion, 28;  powers  of.  30;  cannot  waive 
conditions,  292. 

Agent,  insurance  of  instead  of  princi- 
pal, 297. 

Agent's  own  property,  297. 

Agency  supplies,  25;  agency  may  be 
withdrawn,  30. 

Agreements,  never  make  verbal,  291. 

Agricultural  implement  manufactor- 
ies, 425. 

Air,  keep  air  from  fire,  drug  store 
fire,  323. 

Air  space,  under  tin  or  other  metal 

sheathing,  404. 
Albany,   N.    Y.,    Capitol,  exposed 

girder,  613. 
Album  manufactories,  425. 


Alcohol  manufactories,  425. 
Ale  and  Beer  measure,  618. 
Almshouses,  426. 

Alphabetical  list  of  hazards  and  occu- 
pancy, 739;  of  merchandise  in  ware- 
houses, 796. 

Ambiguous  phraseology  in  policies, 
304. 

American  Fine  Arts  Society  Building 

fire,  399. 
Ampere,  416. 

Anchors,  wall  for  beams,  125. 
"&c",  avoid  in  policies,  305. 
Angell  on  Insurance,  344. 
Angle  brace,  102. 

Animals,  (See  Live  Stock);  wild,  519; 
saving  in  case  of  fire,  324. 

Animal-black  manufactories,  426. 

Annealing,  405. 

Annual  fire  waste,  201. 

"Another  good  man  gone  wrong,"  55. 

Anti  Compact  laws,  629. 

Anxiety  of  owner  for  safety  of  his 
property,  46. 

Application  blanks,  26,  307. 

Application  of  U.  M.  Schedule,  679. 

Appraisement,  331;  selection  of  ap- 
praisers, 332;  Waiver  of,  575;  form 
of  award,  592. 

Arch,  trimmer  for  fireplace,  88;  floor 
arches,  material  for,  110, 115;  rating, 
686. 

Architects,  secure  custom  of,  37. 
Arc  lamps,  419. 

Area,   non-fireproof  buildings,  647; 

fireproof,  686. 
Are,  French  measure,  619. 
Armories,  426. 

Armour  pork  house  fire,  532. 
Arrangement  of  this  book,  23. 
Arrangement  of  merchandise  on  floors, 

89,  90,  781. 
Arson,  43,  133. 
Artificial  flowers,  471. 
Artificial  flower  manufactories,  427. 
Articles,  304,  305. 
Ashrstos  manufactories,  427. 


846 


INDEX 


Asbes,  carelessness  as  to,  55,  137. 

Asphalt  and  roofing  works,  427. 

Assets,  ratio  to  amount  at  risk,  203, 

Assignment  of  policy,  591 ;  of  mort- 
gage interest,  591. 

Assignee  in  bankruptcy,  296. 

Assist  honest  claimants,  337. 

Asylums,  428. 

Atkinson,  Edward,  79,  145. 

Auction  stocks,  428. 

Authority  of  agent,  25. 

Automatic  sprinklers,  174,  175,  176, 
659,  write  l"i  National  Hoard  Rules. 

Automatic  trap  doors,  367;  elevator 
traps,  368;  illustrated,  384. 

Automatic  alarms;  write  for  National 
Board  Rules,  see  p.  45  U.  M.  S. 

Automobiles,  428. 

Auxiliary  private  fire  extinguishing 

plants,  694,  696. 
Average  Clauses,  570,  571,  574,  575; 

New  York  Standard  form  of,  574; 

French  form,  574;  German  form, 

574. 

Avoirdupois  weight,  617. 

Award  of  appraisers,  form  for,  592. 

Awnings,  spreading  fire,  68;  charges 

for  U.  M.  S.  651,  652. 
Axe  factories,  428. 

B 

Back  drafts,  406,  526. 
Bag  factories,  428;  leather,  429;  paper. 
429. 

Baggage-room,  hotel,  503. 
Bakeries,  429. 

Baking  powrder  manufactories,  429. 

Balderson  &  Daggett  fire,  90. 

Balloon  frame,  101. 

Bamboo  factories,  429. 

Bank  of  New  York  fire,  398,  400. 

Bankruptcy,  assignee  in,  insurance 

of,  296. 
Bark,  430. 

Bark  mills,  429,  542. 

Barns  in  outskirts  of  towns,  57. 

Barrels,  empty,  160. 

Barrel  manufactories,  450. 

Baseball  grounds,  430. 

Base  rate  U.  M.  S.  632. 

Basket  manufactories,  430. 

Bath  houses,  430. 

Bath  rooms,  hotel,  498. 

Bath-tub  manufactories,  430. 

Batting  and  wadding  mills,  430. 

Beams,  wTood  floor,  86;  strength  of, 

88;  safe  loads,  603. 
Bedstead  manufactories,  431. 
Bellows  manufactories,  431. 
Bell  manufactories,  431. 


Belt  openings,  466,  414;  illustrated, 

383,  650. 
Belts,  electricity  from,  447. 
Benzine,  166. 

Bicycle  manufactories,  431. 
Billiard  table  manufactories,  431. 
Hinders  for  fire  doors,  363. 
Bit  uminouscoal,  spontaneous  ignition 
of,  147. 

Black  and  brown  yarns,  spontaneous 

combustion,  149. 
Blacking  manufactories,  431. 
Blacksmith -shops,  4:il . 
Blackstone,  558. 
Blank  policies,  25. 
Blanket  mills,  432. 
Blast  furnaces.  431. 
Bleacheries,  432. 

Blind,  sash  and  door  manufactories, 
432. 

Block  and  pump  manufactories,  432. 
Bloomingdale  Bros.,  Building  N.  Y., 

fire,  U.  M.  S.  661. 
Blow-off  valves  in  water  pipes,  259. 
Boarding  houses,  432. 
Boarding  schools,  423,  424. 
Boat  builders,  432. 
Boats  and  boat  houses,  433. 
Boats,  fire,  268. 

Bobbin  and  shuttle  manufactories, 
433. 

Boiler  rooms,  405;  underground,  406; 
standard  boiler-room,  407;  chim- 
neys, 406;  space  over,  406. 

Boilers  underground,  526. 

Boiler  makers,  433. 

Bolt  and  nut  works,  433. 

Bond  stones,  75. 

Bone-black  manufactories,  426,  433. 
Bone  boiling  establishments;  434. 
Bone  mills,  434. 

Bonnet  and  hat  frame  manufactories, 
434. 

Bonner,  Chief  Hugh,  advice  as  to 

fires,  325. 
Book  of  instructions,  26. 
Books  of  account  in  safes,  48. 
Bookbinderies,  434. 
Boot  and  shoe  manufactories  (See 

Shoe  Mfrs.) 
Boston  fire,  the  great,  Nov.  9,  1872. 

(the  second  fire  Nov.  28,  1889.) 
Box  manufactories,  434. 
Boyleston  Manufacturing  Co.,  169. 
Brace,  angle,  102. 
Braced  frame,  101. 

Braidwood,  Sup't.  London  Fire  Bri- 
gade, 173,  229;  448,  545. 
Branch  stores,  56. 
Brass  works,  434. 


INDEX. 


847 


Brazing,  409. 

Breweries,  435. 

Brick  manufactories,  435. 

Brick  for  enclosing  walls,  best  fire- 
resisting,  75,  80;  brick  walls,  how 
laid,  81 ;  face,  82;  brick  under  stoves, 
100. 

Brick  buildings  in  frame  rows,  64. 
Brick  kilns,  435. 

Brickwork,  safe  loads  for,  596,  598. 
Bridges,  436. 

Bridging,  between  floors,  86. 
Brood  mares,  515. 

Broom  corn  manufactories,  4:!ti;  in 
elevators,  462. 

Broom  manufactories.  436. 

Brown  Hoisting  Machine  Co.  tire,  37. 

Brush  manufactories.  436. 

Bucket  and  pail  manufactories,  436. 

Buffing.  408. 

Builders',  materials,  436. 

Builders'  risks,  129,  436. 

Builders  and  architects,  secure  busi- 
ness of,  37. 

Building  laws,  722. 

Bullion,  304. 

Bumper  shoes  for  fireproof  doors,  363. 
Burglar  alarm  in  rates,  665. 
Burial  case  manufactories,  437. 
Burnley,  Eng.  Mill,  iron  beams,  613. 
Bushing  for  electric  wires,  417. 
Butler,  William  Allen,  564. 
Butt,  618. 

C 

Cabinet  Manufactories,  437. 
Cabinets,  collections,  &c,  304. 
Cable,  measure  of  length,  617. 
Cammeyer  Building,  New  York,  75, 
79. 

Camp,  403. 

Camp  Meeting  dwellings,  61, 
Cancellation,  312;  Standard  Policy, 

315,  316;  Notice  to  mortgagee,  317; 

Non-pavment,  318;  Claim  pending, 

318,  319;  Policy  lost,  320;  Void 

policies,  321 ;  Tender,  317. 
Candy  manufactories,  437. 
Candle  manufactories,  437. 
Cane  manufactories,  438. 
Canning  manufactories,  438. 
Capacity  or  discharge  of  water  pipes, 

254,  255. 
Capacity  measure  of,  618. 
Cap  and  hat  manufactories,  (See  Hi.t 

Manufactories,  476.) 
Card  (playing)  manufactories,  438. 
Card  clothing  manufactories,  438. 
Carelessness,  132,  404;  as  to  ashes,  55; 

causes  of  fires,  55,  56,  404. 


Carpet  manufactories,  439. 
Carpel  cleaning  establishments,  439. 
Carpet  lining  manufactories,  439. 
(  arpenter  shops,  439. 
Carriage  shops,  439. 
Carrying  capacity  of  materials,  600, 
601. 

Cars,  insurance  of,  438. 
Car  stables,  438;  barns,  438;  manufac- 
tories, 439. 
Cartridge  manufactories,  439. 
Casks  and  pails,  426,  665. 
Cast-iron,  107. 

Cast-iron  water  pipe,  266;  columns 
safe  loads,  602;  hollow  cylindrical, 
630,  612. 

Causes  of  fires,  44,  131,  134;  cigars, 
135;  in  hotels,  507. 

Ceiling,  wooden,  128. 

Cellar  floor  surfaces,  93;  floors  and 
walls  should  be  water-proof,  93; 
drains  to  sewers,  93. 

Celluloid  works,  440. 

Cement  mills,  440;  lined  water  pipes, 
266;  mortar,  81,  82. 

Chafing  strips  for  fireproof  doors,  363. 

Chain  measure,  617. 

Chair  manufactories,  440. 

Chance,  eliminated  in  insurance,  6, 
198,  199,  215. 

Chandelier  manufactories,  441. 

Chandler,  Prof.  C.  F..  154.  155. 

Change  of  location,  form  for,  590;  of 
ownership,  591. 

Charcoal  grinding,  441;  spontaneous 
ignition,  147,  166. 

Charged  silks,  149. 

Charlotte,  N.  C,  cotton  fire,  454. 

Chases  in  walls,  82,  91. 

Chattel  mortgages,  293. 

Cheese  factories,  441. 

Chemical  warehouses. 

Chemical  works,  441;  fire  extinguish- 
ers, 421;  combinations,  395;  fire- 
proofing  solutions,  546. 

Chemist  indifferent  to  fire,  395. 

Chicago  fire,  the  great,  Oct.  8  and  9, 
1871. 

Chimney,  how  to  build,  89;  of  tile, 
136;  for  boilers,  406;  stone  caps  on, 
493;  unsafe,  560;  charges  for,  653. 

Chloric  acid.  396, 

Chocolate  and  cocoa  manufactories, 
441. 

Christmas  tree  festivities,  dangers  of, 
587. 

Churches,  441;  insurance  of,  584,  585; 

organs,  442;  stone  columns,  spires, 

etc.,  584,  585. 
Chutes,  650. 


I  XI )  B  X  . 


Cigaret  te  manufactories,  442. 

Cigar  manufactories,  442. 

(  inder  concrete  or  tilling  for  fireproof 

floors,  502. 
Circuit  breakers,  418. 
Cisterns,  285;  capacity  of,  285. 
clauses,  Standard  N.  Y..  562. 
Cleaning  and  dye  works,  442. 
Cleanliness,  137.  importance  of,  404. 
Clinch  nailing,  376. 
Cloak  and  mantilla  manufactories,  443 
Cloak  manufactories,  443. 
Clock  manufactories,  443. 
Closets,  127;  in  hotels,  500. 
(  lutliiiiu  manufactories,  4  13. 
Club  houses,  443. 

Coal  breakers,  443;  mine  property. 
443;  mines,  spontaneous  combus- 
tion, 143;  bituminous,  spontaneous 
ignition,  147,  407. 

(  'oellieient ,  595 

Coffee  roasting  establishments,  444; 
roasted,  149. 

Coffin  manufactories,  437. 

Coins  must  not  be  insured,  304. 

Co-insurance,  computation  of  allow- 
ance for,  709,  7to,  711;  in  fireproof 
bdgs.  U.  M.  S.  690,  712;  on  stocks 
in  fireproof  bdgs.  692,  304,  708,  709; 
forms,  etc.,  560,  571,  574;  in  interest 
of  assured,  18,  49,  53;  in  Universal 
Schedule,  627;  graded  rates  for,  580, 
U.  M.  S.  p.  690,  692  also  p.  708,  710, 
etc.,  New  Jersey  form,  567. 

Cold  air  boxes  of  furnaces,  97. 

Cold  storage,  444,  568,  569,  forms  A, 
B,  571. 

Collar  beam,  102. 

Colleges,  423,  424. 

Columns,  stone  in  Churches.  586. 

Columns,  strength  of  iron,  steel,  wood, 
etc.,  599, 600,  etc;  cast-iron,  602,  612. 

Combinations  of  chemicals,  395;  of  in- 
surance companies  in  interest  of 
property-owners,  17;  to  reduce  ex- 
pense, 18. 

Commissions,  28. 

Commission  clause,  298,  590. 

Commission  of  authority  of  agent,  25; 
clause,  298. 

Communications  between  buildings, 
111,  112,  113,  114. 

Comparative  tests,  defective,  614. 

Comparison  of  experience  of  com- 
panies. 8,  18,  197. 

Compensation,  28;  of  errors  in  causes 
of  fires,  44. 

Competition  in  fire  insurance.  31,  33. 

Compressive  strain,  595 


Computation  of  safe  Loads  for  columns 

600. 
Concrete,  81. 

Concurrent  policies,  288,  289. 
Conestoga  mills,  167. 
Confectionery  manufactories,  437. 
Confidential   relation  of  agent  and 

company,  29. 
Conflagration  hazard,  charge  for,  638. 
Conflagrations  in  zero  weather,  71. 
(  onstant,  595. 

Construction  of  buildings,  75;  interest 

of  Underwriters  in,  616. 
( lonsumption  of  water,  267. 
"Contents,"  use  of  word  in  policies, 

304. 

Contested  claims,  small  percentage 
of,  345. 

Co-operation  of  companies,  18,  19. 
Cooper  shops,  445. 
(  'oped  walls,  N,->. 

Copper  stamp  mills,  539,  flashing,  &c, 
105. 

Cork  manufactories.  445. 
Cornices,  wooden,  65,  651. 
Coronado  Hotel,  397. 
Corporations,  public  prejudice  against 

13;  in  interest  of  people  of  small 

means,  13. 
Correspondence,  311. 
Cost,  fire,  per  $100  at  risk,  196,  201; 

of  iron  pipe  and  hose.  262. 
Cotton  gins,  445;  in  transit,  445;  on 

railroad  platforms.  454 ;  and  woolen 

mills,  445,  446,  447,  etc;  pickeries, 

454:  presses,  454;  seed  oil  mills,  454. 
Coulomb,  416. 
Country  stores,  57,  454. 
Couplings,  uniform  size,  278. 
Court  houses,  455. 
Cracked  walls,  663. 
Cracker  bakeries,  455. 
Creameries,  455. 
Crematories,  456. 
Creosote  works,  456. 
Cross  road  stores,  57,  454. 
Cross  bridging  between  floor  beams, 

86,  103. 
Crucible  works,  456. 
Crushing  weight,  596. 
Cubic  measure,  618. 
Curiosities,  304,  584. 
Currier  shops,  456. 
Curtain  walls,  615. 
Cut-offs,  fire,  91. 
Cutlerjr  manufactories,  456. 
Cutting,  409;  cutting  rates,  prevention, 

of,  728. 
Cycloramas,  456,  522. 


TNI)  K  X  . 


D 

Daily  reports,  26,  308. 

Damage  by  removal,  336;  explosion, 

337;  lightning,  337. 
Dating  back  policies  and  renewals, 

290. 

Dawson,  Miles  M.,  199. 
Dead  ends,  253. 

Declined  by  other  companies,  risks, 
60. 

Defective  flues,  459. 
Definition  of  terms,  5. 
Deflection  of  beams,  595. 
Delivery— sold  but  not  delivered— 298, 
300. 

Department  stores,  (see  Alphabetical 

list),  752. 
Depots,  457. 

Detroit  fire -boats,   269,   270;  small 

mains,  277. 
Deviling,  409. 

Diagram,  pipe,  281;  of  business  por- 
tion of  town,  308. 

Dining-room,  hotel,  49T. 

Dipping  paint  process,  440. 

Direct  pressure  systems  of  water- 
works, 249. 

Discounting  loss  claims,  340. 

Distilleries,  457. 

Distribution  of  fire  loss  by  insurance, 
20;  Fire  Chief's  views,  58;  New 
York  Times,  58;  form  of  average 
clause,  577,  578,  579. 

Division  of  risks,  397,  398. 

Domestic  consumption  of  water,  256. 

Doors,  fireproof,  361,  362,  363,  &c. 
plates,  369;  sliding,  387,  388. 

Double  roof,  105. 

Double  or  Spliced  beams,  125,  604. 
Drachms,  617. 

Drain  pipe  manufactories,  457,  525. 
Dredges,  457. 

Driving  park  buildings,  457. 
Dropped  girt.  102. 

Drug  mills,  457;  wholesale,  457,  stores, 
458. 

Druggists'  bottles,  fountain.  &c,  304. 
Drums,  store  for  heating,  56. 
Drying  clothes  on  screens,  139. 
Drying,  409. 

Dryers,  grain,  (see  National  Board 
Rules). 

Dry-goods  district  values,  271. 

Dry  houses,  409. 

Dry  pipe  sprinklers,  679. 

Dry  plates,  films,  etc.,  525. 

Dry-rooms,  no  woodwork  in,  410;  gas 

in,  450. 
Dry  rot,  82,  83,  125,  128. 


Dumb-waiter  shafts,  93;  charges  for, 

U.  M.  S.  650. 
Dusting,  409. 

Dust  explosions  in  woodworkers,  442; 

in  flour-mills,  465.  466,  467. 
Dwellings,  458;  unoccupied,  460;  large 

expensive,  60;  season,  60;  forms  for 

insurance  of,  581 ;  altered  into  stores. 

606;  occupancy  in  rates,  666. 
Dye  and  paint  works,  432. 
Dyeing  and  cleaning,  442. 
Dynamos,  461;  room,  floor,  &c,  93. 

E 

Earnings  of  premium  by  months,  227. 
Eccentric  loading  of  columns,  600. 
Educational  Building  Standard,  705. 
"Effects,"  304. 
Elasticity,  limit  of,  595. 
Electricity,  hazards  of,  414,  415,  416, 

&c;  from  belts  as  a  source  of  fires, 

447. 

Electric  plants,  private,  93;  car  stables, 
461 ;  light  cut-offs  at  street,  116;  light 
and  power  stations,  461;  lighting, 
heating,  power,  etc.,  (write  for 
National  Board  Rules). 

Electrical  employees  for  installing 
should  be  licensed,  416. 

Electricity  clause,  572. 

Electrolysis,  274. 

Electrotypers,  461. 

Elevators,  92;  in  U.  M.  S.  649;  in  fire- 
proof bdgs.  687;  traps  automatic, 
368;  grain,  461;  shafts  in  hotels,  489; 
charges  for,  649,  U.  M.  S. 

Elevators,  grain,  461. 

Elevator  car  manufactories,  462. 

Employees,  charge  for  No.  of,  U.  M. 
S.  655. 

Empty  boxes,  barrels,  &c,  66,  603; 
kerosene,  naphtha  and  gasolene 
barrels,  160;  salt  petre  bags,  463. 

Enameling,  410. 

Enameled  cloth  manufactories,  521, 
Enclosing  walls,  114,  126. 
Enclosures  for  stairways,  367,  385. 
Endorsement  blanks,  26. 
Endorsements,  do  not  make  too  many 

on  policies,  305;  none  on  renewals, 

306. 

Engine  manufactories,  (see  Machine- 

Shops),  518. 
Engine  (fire)  houses,  462;  proximity 

in  rates,  668,  U.  M.  S. 
English  Mills,  fires,  611,  613. 
Envelope  manufactories,  462 
Erasures,  avoid,  290. 
"Estate  of,"  297. 


Sol) 


INDEX. 


Estimates,  offhand,  of  fires,  44. 

"Et  al,"  avoid  in  policies,  30"). 

"Etc.,"  "&c,"  avoid  in  policies,  305. 

Evans,  President,  577,  581. 

Evaporators,  fruit,  472. 

Everybody  knows  more  than  any- 
body, 479. 

Excelsior  manufactories,  403. 

Exceptional  property,  do  not  insure, 
53;  features  of  construction,  057, 
706,  U.  M.  S;  fire  appliances,  604. 

Exhaust  box  in  flour  mills,  467,  468. 

Expansion  of  iron  beams,  96,  107,  111 
609;  in  English  mills.  611;  marble, 
masonry,  etc.,  609,  612. 

Expense  of  insurance  business,  14; 

should  be  s:  •  f<  >r  all  companies. 

33;  percentage  of,  243. 

Expensive  dwellings,  60,  460. 

Experiments,  54. 

Experience,  comparison  of  companies, 
8. 

Expert  judgment  in  rating,  188,  189; 
management  of  fire  department, 
water-works,  etc.,  282. 

Experts  rating  by,  729. 

Expiration  notices,  26. 

Explosion,  damage  by,  337;  in  grease 
rendering,  531;  dust  in  cigar  manu- 
factories, 442. 

Exposures,  62,  708;  Jacksonville,  Fla., 
fire,  63;  computing  rate  for,  62,  72; 
safe  distance,  70;  diagrams,  71;  to 
fireproof  buildings,  73;  fireproof 
buildings  as  exposures,  74;  to  brick 
buildings,  346,  347,  348,  etc. 

Express  charges,  do  not  pay,  27. 

Extensions,  frame,  656. 

Extinguishing,  fire  appliances  for, 
172;  chimney  fires,  325;  steam  jets, 
324. 

Extra  hours,  permit  for,  592. 

'  'Eye-sore"  bdgs,  old,  dilapidated,  58. 

F 

Face  bricks,  82. 

Factors  of  safety,  89,  90,  599. 

Fair-ground  buildings,  463. 

Fargo,  Dakota,  131. 

Fanning,  J.  T.,  267. 

Farm  insurance,  moral  hazard  fires, 

44;  property,  463. 
Fathoms,  617. 

Faults  of  management,  662. 

Felt  mills,  (see  Cotton  and  Woolen 

Mills),  446,  447,  &c. 
Fences,  304. 

Fertilizer  manufactories,  463. 
Fibre  storage,  90. 


File  manufactories.  (See  1  laid  ware 

manufactories),  475. 
Films,  525. 

Fire  appliances,  exceptional,  664; 
how  to  proceed  in  case  of,  321; 
windows,  &c,  322;  Chief  Bonner's 
advice,  325;  keep  near  floor,  323; 
saving  animals,  324;  cost,  6;  per 
SUM)  at  risk,  196,  202;  doors,  361; 
proof  construction,  interesl  of  Un- 
derwriters in,  616;  shutters,  69;  not 
neede  d  if  no  exposure,  69;  National 
Hoard  Rules,  361;  places,  663;  stops, 
91;  cut-offs,  91,  447;  engine,  steam, 
capacity,  173;  engine-houses,  462; 
departments,  172;  paid,  173,  706; 
subscription  to,  179;  should  have 
charge  of  locating  hydrants,  276; 
expert  management  of,  282;  waste, 
annual,  201;  boats,  268;  drill,  im- 
portance of,  454;  extinguishers,  453; 
proof  safe  clause,  589;  temperatures, 
606. 

Fire  alarm  telegraph,  637. 
Fire-arms  manufactories,  464. 
Fire  boats,  268. 
Fire  drill,  454. 

Fire  Department  organization,  639. 

Fire  extinguishing  appliances,  allow- 
ance for  in  rate,  see  U.  M.  S.  667, 
668,  etc.,  fire  673. 

Fire  Marshal,  638. 

Fires  in  fireproof  buildings,  117,  118, 

119,  120,  121. 
Fireplaces,  how  trimmed,  87;  trimmer 

arch,  88,  89. 
Fireproof  buildings,  contents,  of,  38, 

106;  standard,   684;  construction, 

106;  fires  in,  117,  118,  119,  120,  121. 
Fireproofing  solutions,  646. 
Fireproof  pumping  station,  634. 
Fireproof  safes,  673. 
Fireproof  schedule,  682. 
Fire  record,  previous,  U.  M.  S.  639; 

improved,  639,  723,  724,  725. 
Fire  waste,  annual,  201. 
Fire-works   manufactories,  decline, 

464;  stocks  of,  464;  permit  for,  591. 
Firkin,  618. 
Fish  plates,  103. 

Fitchburg,  Mass.,  pipe  diagram  of, 
281. 

Five  days'  notice  of  cancellation,  315, 
316. 

Fixtures  and  furniture,  464. 
Flags  and  banners,  decline,  464.  ■ 
Flash  test,  166. 
Flax  mills,  464. 
Flexible  cords,  420. 
Flitch  beams,  603. 


INDEX. 


851 


Floating  insurance,  555. 

Floating  oil  on  water  fires,  70. 

Floors,  confining  fires  to,  723,  double, 
88,  90;  tin  or  iron  between,  90;  open 
ings  through,  92;  waterproof,  scup- 
pers, &c,  111;  arches,  material  for, 
110,  115;  in  mill  construction,  124; 
in  hotels,  500;  safe  loads,  597;  con- 
fining fires  to,  723;  in  U.  M.  S.  646. 

"Flour  mills,"  305,  404,  405,  466,  etc. 
dust  explosions  in,  405,  466. 

Florists'  stocks,  471. 

Flowers,  artificial,  471. 

Flues,  defective,  45(1,  491;  lining,  493. 

Foley,  Chief,  of  Milwaukee,  269; 
death  of,  794. 

Force  pumps,  importance  of,  422,  453; 
run  by  belts,  453. 

Forest  fires,  63. 

Forging,  410. 

Forms  of  policies,  554,  555,  etc. 
Forms  of  Policies,  write  to  Company 

for,  307,  554;  clauses,  564,  565,  566, 

567,  568,  etc. 
Forms,  standard,  filed  with  Insurance 

Department,  562. 
Foundries,  471. 

For  whom  it  may  concern,  297. 
Frame  rows,  63;  brick  buildings  in, 

64;  rears  and  extensions,  charge  for 

656,  U.  M.  8. 
Frame  buildings,  construction  of ,  100; 

construction,  102. 
Frames  for  fireproof  doors,  369,  382; 

illustrated,  386. 
Framing,  "balloon,"  "braced."  101. 
Francis,  James  B.,  C.  E.,  447. 
Freeman,  John  R.,  262,  273,  275,  280, 

286. 

French  co-insurance  clause,  574. 

French  Metric  System,  619. 

Fresco  work,  581. 

Frictional  head,  246,  247,  252. 

Frost  line,  water  pipes  below,  274. 

Fruit  evaporators,  472. 

Full  insurance,  49,  51,  52;  full  co- 
insurance 579,  586. 

Fulling  mills,  (see  woolen  mills),  446, 
etc. 

Furlongs,  617. 

Furnaces,  96.  431;  blast,  431. 
Furniture,  household  forms,  582. 
Furniture  in  fireproof  buildings,  38; 

manufactories,  437. 
Fur  stocks,  472. 
Fuse,  safety,  416,  418. 
Fusible  links  for  doors,  363. 

G 

Galvanizing,  410. 


Gambling,  insurance  not,  199. 

Gas,  cut  off  at  street,  116;  from  wool 
oils,  450;  meter,  414,  449;  works, 
472;  lights,  danger  distance,  448. 

Gasolene,  115;  gas  machines,  160; 
Write  for  National  Board  Rules; 
422;  stoves,  163;  best  method  of 
storing  for  automobiles,  etc.,  428. 

Gates,  water,  272. 

German  co-insurance  clause,  574. 

Gibson,  Chief  Justice,  344. 

Gins,  445. 

Girts,  101. 

Glass  fronts  and  sides,  351;  Glass 
factories,  472;  Glass  floor  to  dyna- 
mo room,  94. 

Glove  factories,  472. 

Glucose  manufactories,  473. 

Glue  manufactories,  473. 

Gluing,  410. 

Good  faith  of  insurance  contracts, 
342,  561. 

"Goods,"  use  of  word  in  policies,  304. 
Goods  held  in  trust,  298. 
Goodyear  Rubber  Manufactory,  511. 
Gould,  Geo.  J.,  fire  in  house  of,  585. 
Graded  rates  for  co-insurance,  580. 
Grain  elevators,  461;  dryers.  Write 

for  National  Board  Rules,  422. 
Gramme,  French  measure  of  weight, 

617,  620. 
Grand-stands,  473. 

Gravity  water  pressure  in  rates,  667, 
670. 

Green-houses,  473. 
Grist-mills,  471. 
Groceries,  198;  wholesale,  473. 
Grounded  circuits,  419. 
Grouting,  93. 

Guano,  spontaneous  combustion,  149. 
Gun  manufactories,  475;  powder  per- 
mit, 591. 

H 

Hall,  Henry  H.,  422. 
Halls,  with  scenery,  475;  see  Theatres, 
542. 

Halsey,  Charles  C.  335. 
Hammer,  water,  249. 
Hangers  for  fire  doors,  363. 
Harbor  water,  use  of  for  fires,  271. 
Hard  times,  46. 

Hardware  manufactories,  475;  stocks, 
475. 

Hardwoods,  oiling  of,  146. 
Hasty  payments  of  losses,  339,  340. 
Hatchways,  charge  for,  650. 
Hat  factories,  476. 

Hay  in  stacks,  476;  spontaneous  com- 
bustion, 149;  presses  or  barns,  476. 


s.vj 


INDEX. 


Head  or  pressure  of  water,  245,  250; 

tables  for  con  verting  head  in  feet  to 

pounds,  251;  test  of,  252;  loss  of 

head  per  1,000  feet,  253. 
Headers,  brick,  82;  beams,  87. 
Heat  of  fire,  in  fireproof  buildings, 

100;  heat  convertible  into  force,  894, 
"Hedge,"  insurance  is  a.  199. 
Ileighth,  charges  for,  648,  U.  M.  S. 

fireproof  buildings,  686. 
Heirs  of,  insurance  of,  297. 
Hemlock,  602,  603. 
Hem])  and  jute  mills,  476. 
Henneries,  476. 

High  and  low  water  service,  260. 
High  winds,  639. 
High  wines  manufactories,  457. 
Hinges  for  fire  doors,  364;  vault  doors, 
370. 

History  and  analysis  of  U.  M.  S,  697, 
785. 

Hollow  spaces,  avoid.  92. 
Holly  water-works.  249. 
Home  Life  Building,  67,  121,  122,  401. 
Hominy  mills.  476. 
Honest  claimants  should  be  assisted, 
337. 

Honorable  dealing  of  insurance  com- 
panies, 344. 

Hop  houses,  477. 

Hops,  stocks  of,  477. 

Home  Building,  well-hole.  92,  94;  loss 
on,  117,  118,  119,  120,  401,  402. 

Horse  car  stables,  416,  438;  power, 
electric,  416. 

Horses,  saving  in  case  of  fire,  324. 

Hose  nozzle,  280;  hose  more  expensive 
than  pipe,  275;  sizes,  etc.,  278;  write 
for  National  Board  Rules,  as  to  hose. 

Hosierjr  mills,  478. 

Hospitals,  478. 

Hotels,  478;  furniture,  479. 

Hot  air  registers,  97;  pipes  of  furnaces, 
96,  97. 

Hot  houses,  511. 

Houses  of  refuge.  511. 

Household  furniture  insurance  of, 
581,  582. 

How  to  proceed  in  case  of  fire,  321; 
loss,  327;  suspicious  losses,  329. 

How  to  inspect  special  hazards,  393. 

Hub  and  spoke  factories,  511. 

Hunting  and  fishing  clubs,  443. 

Hydrants,  pressure  at,  245;  sizes, 
spacing,  etc.,  274,  275;  write  for 
National  Board  Rules;  post,  275; 
should  be  6-inch,  276;  fire  depart- 
ment should  have  charge  of  locat- 
ing, 276;  should  be  flushed,  278; 
should  not  be  on  small  mains,  277 ; 


should  be  painted  red,  277;  should 
be  staggered,  274;  "two-way,"  275; 
proximitj  to  in  rates,  665,  667. 
Hydraulics,  246. 

Hydraulic  press,  246;  H.  grade  line, 
259. 

Hydrod  yiiamies,  240. 

I 

Ice,   artificial,    manufactories,  511; 

houses,  511;  in  stand-pipes,  258; 

lens,  147. 
Ideal  fireproof  construction,  107. 
Illustrations  fire  doors,  374,  375,  &c. 
Immunity  from  fire,  200. 
Importance  of  insurance,  20. 
Improvement  of  special  hazards,  553. 
Improved  fire  record,  U.  M.  S.  723. 
Incendiary  fires,  percentage  of,  43,  44, 

133. 

Incubators,  511. 

India  rubber  manufactories,  511. 

Indifference  of  business  men  to 
strength  of  companies,  32;  as  to 
reading  their  policies,  345. 

Ink  manufactories,  512. 

Insane  asylums,  428. 

Inspection,  43. 

Instrument  manufactories,  512. 

Instructions,  book  of,  26. 

Insurance,  importance  of,  20;  policy 
(see  Policy.) 

Insulation,  416,  419. 

Interest  of  agent  and  company  ident- 
ical, 28;  assured  must  be  stated  in 
policy,  293. 

Inventory  and  appraisal,  waving,  575. 

Iron  safe  clause,  589. 

Iron  caps  for  wooden  columus,  597; 
expansion  of,  107;  foundries,  471; 
fronts,  94,  see  U.  M.  S.  644;  beams, 
strength  of,  96;  spacing,  115;  mem- 
bers, 114;  columns,  114,  656;  must 
be  protected,  107,  398,  399.  400,  401, 
402,  403,  656;  cast,  107;  so  as  to  be 
examined  as  to  rust,  114;  scraps, 
spontaneous  ignition,  142;  pyrites, 
143;  doors  and  shutters,  372,  374; 
furnaces,  431;  pipe  manufactories, 
525;  pintles  for  wooden  columns. 
597. 

Itinerant  tradesmen,  53. 

J 

Jacks,  insurance  of,  515. 

Jackson,  Prof.,  167. 

Jacksonville,  Fla  ,  fire,  May  3,  1901, 

58,  63. 
Jails.  455,  512. 
Jambs  for  fire-doors,  364. 


INDEX. 


853 


Japanning,  410;  works,  411. 
Jewelry  manufactories,  512. 
Joists,  floor,  86. 
Joule's  law,  394. 
"Jump"  adjustments,  337. 
Junk  stores,  151,  513. 
Jute  factories,  513. 

K 

Kane,  Dr.,  ice  lens,  147. 

Keuyou,  Lord,  556. 

Kerosene  oil,  153;  explosive,  158;  tests 

of,  158;  manufactories,  513;  permit 

to  sell,  590. 
Kennedy,  E.  R.,  564. 
Key  rate  of  cities,  U.  M.  S.,  642,  705. 
Kilns,  513,  409. 
Kilowatt,  416. 

Kindling-wood  factories,  513. 

King  post,  102. 

Knitting  mills,  446. 

Knot  or  geographical  mile,  617. 

Knowledge  of  underwriter,  22. 

Knowles,  Clarence,  554. 

L 

Laboratories,  441. 

Lacquering,  411. 

Ladder  manufactories,  513. 

Lamp  black,  148;  manufactories,  513. 

Lamp  manufactories,  514. 

Lanterns  for  watchmen,  421,  449;  oils 
for,  449. 

Lard  oil  refineries,  514. 

Large  dwellings,  60,  460. 

Latches  for  fire  doors,  364,  382. 

Lath  and  shingle  mills,  514. 

Lathing,  metallic,  91. 

Laundries,  514;  in  hotels,  496. 

Lead  manufactories,  514. 

Leases,  54;  form  for  insuring,  587. 

Leased  ground,  buildings,  59,  591. 

Leasehold,  insurance  of,  294;  form, 
write  company  for,  587. 

Legal  tender,  314. 

Leonard  Building,  85. 

Letters,  correspondence,  etc.,  answer- 
ing, 311. 

Lever  bars  for  doors,  370. 

Levied  on,  property,  54. 

Licorice  manufactories,  514. 

Life  estate,  insurance  of,  294. 

Lights  in  show  windows,  137. 

Lightning,  133;  danger  to  live  stock 
in  fields,  517;  and  rods,  108;  danger 
to  cement-lined  wrought  iron  water 
pipes,  266;  clause,  572,  588. 

Lime,  care  as  to,  130,  139,  146,  147; 
mortar,  80. 


Limit  of  insurance  to  value,  46; 
amount  of  insurance,  289. 

Limit  of  elasticity,  595. 

Line,  rate  indicates,  210,  781. 

Lines,  excessive,  6,  211,  214;  how  esti- 
mated, 210;  camp-meeting  dwell- 
ings, incendiary  hazard  involved, 
61,  210;  average  line,  210. 

Links,  617. 

Linoleum  manufactories,  514. 

Linseed  oil  mills,  515. 

Liquids,  press  equally  in  all  direc- 
tions, 246. 

Lithographing  establishments,  515. 

Litigious  men,  do  not  insure,  53. 

Litre,  French  measure,  620. 

Live  stock,  insurance  of,  302,  304,  516. 

Livery  stables,  67,  515. 

Loading  of  floors,  88. 

Location  of  risk,  policy  should  accu- 
rately describe,  291. 

Local  agents,  advantage  of  schedule 
rating  to,  729. 

Local  boards  in  interest  of  public,  17. 

Lock  factories,  517. 

Locomotive  works,  517. 

Locust  posts,  599. 

Lombard  street,  556. 

London  Fire  Brigade  Superintendent, 
448,  545. 

Long  measure,  617. 

Looking-glass  manufactories,  517. 

Loss,  how  to  proceed  in  case  of,  327; 
personal,  movable  property,  332; 
payment  of,  339;  pa}rable  clause,  590 

Lost  policies,  290,  592. 

Lounge,  spontaneous  combustion  in, 
152. 

Luck,  none  in  fire  insurance,  6,  199 
Lumber  yards,  517;  clauses,  573. 
Lunatic  asylums,  428. 
Lynn,  Mass.,  fire,  the  great,  Nov.  26, 
1889. 

M 

Macaroni  manufactories,  58. 
Machine  shops,  518. 
Mains,  water,  sizes,  etc.,  261. 
Malt  houses,  519. 

Management,  faults  of,  in  rates,  U. 

M.  8.,  662. 
Manhattan  Savings  Bank  Building, 

123,  401. 
Mansfield,  Lord,  344. 
Manufactoring  risks,  how  to  inspect, 

393;  alphabetical  list  of,  423. 
Manuscripts  304. 
Maps,  insurance,  26,  308,  309. 
Marshals,  property  in  custody  of,  54. 
Marshall,  Chief  Justice,  344. 


854 


INDEX. 


Masonry,  safe  load  for,  598. 
Match  factories,  51!). 
Matches  in  stone  jars,  135;  safety,  138. 
Material,  best  fire- resisting  for  walls, 
75. 

Materials,  strength  of,  594. 

.Mat  I  ivss  making,  519. 

Measures,  tables  of,  017. 

Mechanics,  employment  of,  in  rating 

731,  U.  31.  S. 
Melting,  411. 
Menageries,  519. 

Mercantile  (Universal)  Schedule,  621. 

Meiehandise,  arrangement  of  on  floors, 
88,  782;  form  for  insuring,  587;  with 
aisles,  90;  above  grade  floor,  07*;  in 
fireproof  bdgs.  693;  in  warehouses, 
779,  780;  rules  for  rating,  675;  de- 
finition of,  304. 

Mercantile  building  form,  587. 

Metal-worker,  fire,  37;  sheathing,  97, 
98,  404. 

Metallic  lathing,  91. 

Meter,  gas,  414,  449. 

Metre,  617,  619. 

Metric,  system  of  measures,  619. 

Metrical  system,  French,  619. 

Mill   construction,    124,    129;  yard 

Mills  bdg,  N.  Y.,  fire  in,  U.  M.  S.  650. 

Milwaukee  fire-boats,  268. 

Mining  property,  519. 

Mirror  manufactories,  517. 

Modulus,  595. 

Monthly  reports,  26. 

Montreal  Board  of  Trade  fire,  611. 

Moral  hazard,  percentage  of,  43,  45; 
in  New  York,  45;  difficulty  of  de- 
tecting, 49. 

Morocco  manufactories,  520. 

Mortgagee,  interest  of,  293. 

Mortgages,  chattel,  294. 

Mortgage  interest,  assignment  of,  591. 

Mortar,  lime,  80;  lime  and  cement,  81; 
cement,  81. 

Moss  factories,  520. 

Motor,  Hydraulic  water,  261. 

Moulding  mills,  520. 

Mount  Washington  Hotel,  the,  487. 

Municipal  ownership  of  water-works, 
282,  283. 

Mural  decorations,  581. 

Museums,  520. 

Music  room,  hotel,  503. 

N 

Nailing  fire-doors,  377. 
Naphtha,  155. 
Napping,  412. 


Narrow  streets  and  st  reams  of  water, 
65. 

Nashua,  N.  II.  (water  consumption), 
267. 

National  Board  Rules  and  Require- 
ments, 422;  forms  of  policies,  555, 
567,  568. 

Natural  gas,  639. 

Neat  or  safe  load,  596. 

"Never  had  a  fire,"  200. 

New  Jersey  co-insurance  clause,  567. 

Newspaper  printing  offices,  534. 

New  York  Building  Law  walls,  83; 
as  to  furnaces,  ranges,  &c,  96,  97, 
98,  etc;  standard  policy,  556,  557, 
558. 

New  York  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers' co-insurance  clause,  299, 
300. 

New  York  consumption  of  water  for 
fires  for  an  entire  year,  (98  million 
gallons),  as  show  n  by  record  of  Fire 
Dept.,  is  less  than  the  number  of 
gallons  consumed  in  half  a  day  for 
domestic  purposes. 

New  York  Times,  58. 

New  York  Warehouse  System,  786, 
787,  etc. 

Night  work  in  woodworkers,  530, 
permit  for,  592. 

Nitric  acid  fumes,  death  of  Chief 
Foley,  794. 

Nothing  to  burn,  37;  fireproof  build- 
ings, 38. 

Nozzle,  hose,  280. 

Nuisances,  57. 

Numbering  policies,  290. 

Nut  and  bolt  works,  433. 

O 

Oatmeal  mills,  520. 

Occupancy,   limit  in  policy,  306; 

charges  in  U.  M.  Schedule,  737. 
Offhand  estimates  of  losses,  44. 
Office  furniture,  304:  and  fixtures, 

464. 
Ohm,  416. 

Oil  yards,  refineries,  etc.,  as  ex- 
posures, 65,  70;  mills,  see  Linseed, 
Lard,  Cottonseed,  etc.,  refineries, 
decline,  521;  warehouses  and  tanks, 
521;  cloth  manufactories,  521;  cloth- 
ing, spontaneous  ignition  of,  147; 
barrels,  empty,  160;  rooms,  413;  for 
fuel,  408;  for  watchmen's  lanterns, 
449;  on  wools,  450;  floating  on  water, 
70;  oil  clothing  manufactories,  521. 

Oil  fires,  sand  for,  665. 

Old,  dilapidated  buildings,  58. 

Omnibus  blocks,  64. 


INDEX. 


855 


Openings  in  walls,  limit  to  25$  of 
area,  82;  through  floors,  92. 

Opera-houses.    See  Theatres,  542. 

Order  of  arrangement  of  this  book, 
23. 

Ordway,  Prof.,  on  coal,  407. 

Organ  manufactories,  521;  organs  in 
churches,  442,  521. 

Organization  of  employees,  453.  of 
fire  department,  638. 

Other  insurance,  289;  limit,  289;  with- 
out permission,  560,  561. 

Outhouses,  fences,  etc.,  304. 

Outlying  exposures  of  cities,  63. 

Outside  staircases,  114. 

Over  hours,  working,  139;  loading  of 
floors,  88;  over  valuation,  48;  over 
insurance,  46. 

P 

Packing  box  manufactories,  434. 
Pails,  water,  420;  manufactories,  436. 
Paint  manufactories,  522. 
Painting,  412. 

Paintings,  works  of  art,  insurance  of 
by  schedule,  584. 

Palatial  dwellings,  60,  460. 

Panoramas,  456,  522. 

Paper  box  manufactories,  434;  hang- 
ing, (see  wall-paper),  550;  mills,  522. 

Parapet  walls,  85;  U.  M.  S.  658. 

Park  Avenue,  New  York,  Hotel  fire, 
489. 

Parsons  on  Commercial  Law,  299. 
Partition,  should  not  foot  on  beams, 

103;  of  tile  and  angle  iron,  109. 
Party  walls,  U.  M.  S.  643. 
Pascal's  law  as  to  liquids,  247. 
Patent  leather  manufactories,  523; 

medicine  manufactories,  523;  floor 

arches,  506. 
Paterson,  N.  J.,  fire,  February  9, 1902. 
Patterns,  471,  523. 
Pawnbrokers,  524. 
Payments  of  losses,  339;  hasty,  339. 
Penitentiaries,  524. 
Pensacola,  Fla.,  fire,  68,  652. 
Perch,  measure,  617. 
Percentage  of  expense,  243. 
Permanent  set,  596. 
Petroleum  risks  as  exposures,  65. 
Phosphate  mills,  468,  524. 
Phosphorus,  148,  396. 
Photographers'  stocks,  524. 
Physical  hazard,  62. 
Piano  manufactories,  524. 
Piazzas,  hotel,  503. 
Picking,  412. 

Pickers  and  picker  rooms,  451. 


Pictures,  ins.  of  by  schedule  with 

cost  prices,  583. 
Piers,  brick,  76.  77. 
Pintles,  125,  597. 

Pipe  manufactories,  525;  cast-iron 
best,  265,  266;  cement-lined,  266; 
cheaper  than  hose,  275;  distribution, 
261;  sizes  of,  261,  262,  263,  264; 
economy  in  large  sizes,  262;  dia- 
gram, 281;  (measure  of  wine),  619. 

Plan  or  order  of  arrangement  of  this 
book,  23. 

Planing-mills,  525. 

Plaster  mills,  526. 

Plaster  of  Paris  will  rot  wood,  83. 

Plate,  102,  104;  glass  in  doors  and 
windows,  304. 

Playing-card  manufactories,  438. 

Plow  works,  530. 

Pointing  with  plaster  of  Paris,  83. 

Poisons  separate  from  food,  783,  789. 

Polarity,  418. 

Pole,  measure  of  length,  617. 

Policies,  should  be  specific,  303;  am- 
biguous phraseology  in,  304;  ab- 
breviations in,  avoid,  305;  limit 
occupancy  in,  306;  do  not  make 
alterations  in  after  a  fire,  331;  writ- 
ing, 287;  should  be  examined,  287; 
should  be  concurrent,  288;  number- 
ing 290;  erasures  in,  209;  lost,  290; 
should  accurately  describe  risk,  291 ; 
location,  291;  interest  of  assured 
must  be  stated  in,  293;  blanks,  25; 
reading,  345. 

Policy  register,  25. 

Populat  ion,  fire  streams  based  on,  273 

Poor-houses,  426. 

Pork  houses,  531. 

Post  &  McCord  Building,  107,  108. 
Post  or  pillars,  slow-burning,  125. 
Potassium  chlorate,  395. 
Potteries,  533. 
Powers  of  agent,  30. 
Prairie  tires,  63. 
Premium,  small,  (SI. 50),  306. 
Pressure  of  Liquids  in  all  directions, 

pascal's  law,  247. 
Preventable  fires,  721,  U.  M.  S. 
Preventing  conflagrations,  722. 
Previous  fire  record,  U.  M.  S.,  639,  727. 
Printing  offices,  534. 
Printeries,  432. 
Prisons,  524. 

Private  extinguishing  devices,  420; 
666. 

vs.  municipal  ownership  of  water- 
works, 282. 
Profits  of  insurance  companies,  11, 
235. 


856 


INDEX. 


Proflt  and  loss  account,  235. 
Property,  use  of  word  in  policies,  304. 
Public,  adequate  rates  in  interest  of, 

12;  halls,  475. 
Public  halls,  475;  see  Theatres,  542. 
Publication  of  business  statistics  by 

insurance  departmentsof  States,  1 1. 
I'ulp  manufactories,  534. 
Pumps,  private,  422. 
Pump-room,  116. 
Pumping  station,  fireproof,  'jsl, 
Puncheon,  ale,  618,  wine,  619. 
Pyrites,  iron,  1  13. 

Q 

Quarrelsome  men,  don't  insure,  .">:;. 

Quartz,  mills,  535,  539. 

Quarter,  mi  asure,  tils. 

Queen  post,  102. 

Quilt  manufactories,  535. 

R 

Race  horses,  515. 
Rafter,  102. 
Rags,  535. 

Rail  road  property,  535. 
Ranges,  99. 

Rates,  33,  181;  based  on  average,  6; 
should  be  uniform  forall  companies, 
33;  fixed  for  55$  loss  ratio,  197;  re- 
duced for  reduced  losses  24;  for 
term  policies,  206;  incorrect  an  in- 
jury to  the  community,  210;  on 
stocks  as  compared  with  buildings, 
U.  M.  S.,  660;  importance  of  com- 
bined judgment  in,  U.  M.  S.  133; 
adequate,  in  interest  of  public,  12. 

Ratio  of  assets  to  amount  at  risk,  203, 
204. 

Rats  and  mice  as  causes  of  fires,  138. 
Reading  policies  of  insurance,  345. 
Rear  wall,  frame  building  exposure 

to,  68. 
Rectifying  535. 

Reduced  rates  for  reduced  losses,  204, 
640,  723;  average  or  co-insurance 
form,  571. 

Refineries,  oil,  521;  sugar,  541. 

Reform  schools,  511. 

Register,  policy,  25. 

Registers,  furnace,  97. 

Reinsurance  fund,  218;  between  com- 
panies, 301;  form  of  policy  for,  588. 

Relative  cost  of  hose  and  iron  water 
pipes,  275;  damage  by  fire  to  fire- 
proof buildings  and  contents,  116. 

Remote  risks,  535. 

Removal,  damage  by,  336. 

Rendering,  531. 

Renewals,  305. 


Rents,  insurance!  of,  296;  forms,  572. 
Reports,  daily,  26;  monthly,  26,  308. 
Reverbcratory  furnace,  106. 
Revolving  wire  glass  doors,  485. 
Ribbons,  103. 

Richards,  W  alter  H.  (hydraulic  water 

motor),  261. 
Richards,  Mr.  E.  G.,  92. 
Rice  mills,  536. 
Ridge  roll,  102. 
Ridge  board,  102. 

Right-angles,  buildings  exposed  at, 
65. 

Rivets,  steel  rust,  6118. 
Road  houses,  536. 
Rolling  mills,  536, 
Rinks,  decline,  539. 
Rood,  618. 

Roof  of  non-fireproof  buildings,  104, 

645;  of  fireproof   buildings,  109; 

double,   105;   hydrants,   421,  666; 

sprinklers,  422,  537,  666,  U.  M.  S. 

mansard,  645. 
Roofing  material  manufactories,  536. 
Roof  spaces,  blind  attics,  etc.,  046, 

663. 

Rope  walks,  536. 

Rossiter  &  Skidmore  Warehouse  fire, 
70. 

Rot,  dry,  83,  125,  128. 

Rubber  works,  511. 

Rubbish,  receptacles  for,  67,  137. 

Rust,  79,  115;  in  water  pipes,  255,  256. 
of  steam-pipes,  142;  danger  of,  in 
iron  members,  606,  607,  etc;  cast- 
iron,  607;  steel,  607;  in  plate  girder 
of  Washington  Bridge  Boston,  608. 

S 

Safety  fuses,  416,  418;  matches,  138; 
lamps,  160. 

Safe  loading  of  floors,  90,  596;  wooden 
beams,  604;  cast-iron  rectangular 
columns,  602;  round,  605;  brick- 
work, rubble  stone,  concrete,  etc., 
698. 

Safes,  hooks  of  account  should  be 
kept  in,  48;  manufactories  of,  563; 
iron,  clause,  589. 

Salt  for  extinguishing  fire,  325. 

Salt  blocks,  536. 

Salt  petre  bags,  empty,  464. 

Salt-water  pipe  service,  271. 

Sand,  80;  for  extinguishing  fires,  665. 

Sanitariums,  478,  536;  how  to  build 
(see  Hotels),  479. 

Sash  and  blind  manufactories,  432. 

Sawdust  on  floors,  spittoons,  etc.,  56. 

Saw  manufactories,  537. 

Sawmill,  305,  537. 


INDEX. 


857 


Schedule  rating,  180,  181,  183,  U.  M. 

S.,  621,  etc. 
School  house,  423,  537. 
Schedules  of  paintings,  works  of  art, 

etc.,  for  insurance,  584. 
Scuppers,  111. 
Season  dwellings,  60,  460. 
Seed  warehouses,  605. 
Segar  manufactories,  442. 
Sellers,  324. 
Seminaries,  423. 

Separation  of  buildings,  111,  112,  113, 
114. 

Set,  permanent,  of  beam,  596. 

Sewer  pipe  manufactories,  525. 

Shaft  openings,  366. 

Shavings  for  fuel,  406;  vault,  526. 

Shearing  strain,  595. 

Sheathing,  102,  103,  128. 

Shedd,  J.  Herbert,  273. 

Sheet-iron  doors,  372. 

Sheriff,  property  in  hands  of,  54,  296 

Shingle  mills,  514. 

Shirt  manufactories,  538. 

Shoddy  mills,  538. 

Shoe  manufactories,  538. 

Shot  towers,  538. 

Show-windows,  wires  in,  420;  lights 
in,  137. 

Shuttle  manufactories,  433. 

Siamesing  hose,  265. 

Siegel,  Cooper  Co.,  iron  columns,  613. 

Silicate  of  soda,  546. 

Sill,  102;  National  Board  standard, 
361,  369;  illustrated,  374. 

Silks,  charged,  149. 

Silk  mills,  538. 

Singeing  in  pork  houses,  533. 

Single  stick  beams  and  girders,  12  x 
12  for  beams,  125,  604. 

Skating  rinks,  decline,  539. 

Skeleton  construction,  615,  684. 

Skin  friction  of  water  pipes,  246. 

Skylights,  96,  116,  128,  651. 

Slaughtering,  533,  539. 

Sliding  fire  doors,  364,  370,  371;  illus- 
trated, 387,  388. 

Slop  closets,  hotel,  502. 

Slow-burning  construction,  124;  im- 
portant features  of,  129. 

Small  premium  ($1.50),  306. 

Smelters,  535. 

Smiley  &  Henderson's  drug  store,  fire 
in,  323. 

Smoke  pipe,  97;  houses,  532. 

Smooth  throatage  in  pipes,  impor- 
tance of,  266. 

Sneed  process  of  ventilation,  537. 

Snow,  E.  G.,  Vice-President  of  Home 
Ins.  Co.,  151. 


Soap  manufactories,  437,  539. 

Sold  but  not  removed  from  store,  300; 

but  not  delivered,  298,  300. 
Soldering,  412. 
Soliciting,  30. 
Soluble  glass,  546. 
Spacing  beams,  115. 
Specific,  policy  should  be,  303. 
Special  building  call  to  Fire  Dept.  665. 
Special  hazards,  alphabetical  list  of, 

423,  424,  etc. 
Speed,  in  rating,  780. 
"Specially     hazardous  purposes," 

avoid  phrase  in  policies,  306. 
Spice  mills,  539. 

Spliced  or  double  timber  for  beams, 
125,  604.  (Since  writing  the  para- 
graph on  page  125,  a  fire  occurred 
in  the  Oswego  Falls  Pulp  and  Paper 
Mill,  Fulton,  X.  Y.,  which  caused 
the  complete  destruction  of  6"  x  16  ' 
timbers  bolted  together,  showing 
the  importance  of  having  solid  single 
stakes.  Where  timbers  are  spliced, 
even  when  thoroughly  bolted  to- 
gether, they  are  apt  to  separate  in 
seasoning  and  offer  a  vulnerable 
point  for  fire.) 

Spontaneous  combustion,  140,  141, 
142,  etc;  in  mills,  144;  of  coal,  407. 

Spongeing  and  refinishing,  539. 

Spool  manufactories,  539. 

Sprinklers,  automatic,  174,  666,  671. 
Write  for  National  Board  Rules  for 
installing,  422;  in  stalls,  516;  base 
ments,  roof,  422,  537;  clause,  573. 

Spruce,  603. 

Square  measure,  618. 

Stables,  57;  as  exposures,  67,  539. 

Staircases,  treads,  91,  114;  outside, 
114;  enclosures  for.  367;  illustrated, 
385;  charges  for,  U.  M.  S.,  649;  in 
fireproof  buildings,  687. 

Stallions,  515. 

Stamp  mills,  539. 

Standard  fire  doors  and  shutters,  361, 
&c;  building  Universal  Schedule, 
95.  N.  B.  erratum  in  the  tilth  line 
"below  the  ground"  should  read 
"below  to  the  ground,"  631;  educ- 
tional,  705;  insurance  policy,  can 
cellation  of,  315;  fireproof  building, 
108;  policy,  556,  558;  city,  631; 
building,  631. 

Stand-pipes,  94, 109, 116, 172,  257,  665; 
capacitv  of,  285;  and  hose,  421;  ice 
in,  258.' 

Starch  manufactories,  540. 

State,  insurance  by,  10. 

State  houses,  455. ' 


858 


I  \  i- 1. \  . 


Statuary,  insurance  of,  583. 

Stave  manufactories,  430. 

Steam  pipes,  128;  rusting,  142,  164, 
404,  422. 

Steam  boats,  540. 

Steam  boilers,  charge  for,  657. 

Steam  fire  engines,  279,  637,  641; 
capacity  of,  173. 

Steam  jets  for  extinguishing  fire,  324, 
410,  470. 

Steel  rivets,  rust,  609. 

Steel,  roll  doors,  373. 

Steeples,  586. 

Stemmeries,  548. 

Stere,  French  measure,  619. 

Mi  rreotypers,  401 . 

Stipulated  warehouses,  7*8,  789,  etc. 

Stirrup  irons  for  supporting  floor 
beam,  girders,  etc.,  are  dangerous, 
yielding  to  heat  and  releasing  the 
beam,  125. 

Stocks,  exposures  to,  351;  of  merchan- 
dise, difficulty  of  estimating  value 
of,  48;  removal  of,  48;  rating,  675; 
rates  as  compared  with  buildings, 
715;  U.  M.  S.,  676;  mixed,  677. 

Stock  yards,  540. 

Stone  caps  on  chimneys,  493;  stair- 
case treads,  91,  107,  115,  501,  688; 
as  a  building  material,  75,  76,  78, 
106;  fire  at  Washington,  D.  C,  78; 
pillars,  79,  85,  403;  in  church,  s,  586; 
fronts,  351;  steeples,  586;  piers, 
bonds,  etc. ,  charge  for,  656. 

Stop-valves,  272. 

Story,  Judge,  344. 

Stoves  and  pipes,  135,  653,  662. 

Stove  foundries,  471. 

Straw  board  mills,  522. 

Straw  goods  manufactories,  541. 

Streams  of  water,  narrow,  65. 

Streets,  width  of,  654. 

Strength  of  companies,  indifference 
of  merchants  as  to,  32;  of  beam,  88; 
of  materials,  594. 

Stretchers,  brick,  82. 

Stresses,  computing,  88,  594;  arrange- 
ment of  merchandise,  88;  iron  beams 
96. 

Stud,  102. 

Subscriptions  to  fire  departments,  179. 
Successful  undertakings,  55. 
Sugar  houses  and  refineries,  541. 
Saint,  450. 

Sulphur  for  chimney  fires,  325;  burn- 
ing, 413. 

Sun's  rays  cause  fires,  150. 

Supply  of  water,  266;  mains,  water, 
must  not  be  within  12  feet  of  each 
other,  245. 


Supplies  furnished  to  agents,  25. 
Surveyors  chain,  expansion  of,  610. 
Surveyors  measure,  617. 
Sweepings,  56,  153. 
Sweeping  fires  in  zero  weather,  71. 
Swinging  fire  doors,  364,  371;  gas 

brackets,  663. 
Switch-board,  electric,  93. 
Switches,  electric,  417. 

T 

Tack  manufactories,  541. 

Tact  vs.  talent,  33,  34. 

Tanks,  water,  94,  111,  113,  127,  421. 

Tanneries,  542. 

Tapestries,  insurance  of,  584. 

Tariffville,  Conn.,  carpet-mill  fire,  451 

Tarrant  KuiMin-,  New  York,  explos- 
ion in,  395. 

Taxation  in  U.  M.  S.,  662. 

Taxes  paid  by  insurance  companies, 
16. 

Taylor,  R.  J.,  335. 
Telegraphing  losses,  327,  328. 
Telephone  exchanges,  542;  form  of 

policy,  570,  571. 
Temperatures  reached  in  burning 

buildings,    84,   606;   in  fireproof 

buildings,  106. 
Temperatures,  tire,  COO. 
Templates,  82. 

Tenants,  charge  for  extra,  654. 

Tender,  legal,  314. 

Tensile  strain,  595. 

Terms,  definition  of,  5. 

Term  policies,  206;  do  not  issue  on 

mercantile  or  manufacturing  risks, 

306. 

Tests  of  materials,  615. 
Test  of  water  pressure.  252. 
Testing  kerosene,  156. 
Theft  at  fires,  324. 
Theatres,  542. 
Theory  of  fire  insurance,  5. 
Thread,  uniform,  278. 
Thread  manufactories,  cotton  mills. 
446. 

Three-quarter  clause,  46,  50;  form, 
589 

Thurston,  Prof.,  249. 
Tierce,  wine  measure,  619. 
Tie  rods,  110,  115. 

Tile  walls,  85;  and  angle-iron  par- 
titions 109;  chimneys,  136;  manufac- 
tories, 547. 

Times,  New  York,  as  to  Jacksonville 
fire,  58. 

Tin  covered  eases,  U.  M.  S.,  669. 


INDEX. 


Tin  sheathing  on  wood,  97,  98,  99, 

3(52,  404;  covering  for  doors  and 

shutters,  362,  365,'  451. 
Tinning,  413. 
Tired  materials,  596. 
Tobacco  factories,  549. 
Tobacco  storage,  548. 
Tobacco  barns,  547. 
Tobacco  stemmeries,  prizeries  and 

rehandling  houses,  548. 
Toboggan  slides,  549. 
Torn  down,  buildings  about  to  be.  59. 
Torsional  strain,  595. 
Tool  manufactories,  see  Hardware  M., 

475. 

Town  Halls,  455. 
Toy  manufactories,  549. 
Track  for  fireproof  doors,  362. 
Fraction  risks,  438,  549. 
Trade  profit,  235,  236,  238,  242. 
Training  stables,  516,  549. 
Transformers,  417. 

Transfer  of  pol.  to  new  location,  590. 

Transverse  strain,  595. 

Trap  doors,  automatic,  367;  illus- 
trated, 384. 

Treads  of  staircases,  91. 

Trezevant,  J.  T. ,  on  co-insurance,  576. 

Trimmer  beams,  87;  arch,  88. 

Trolley  currents,  419. 

Troy  weight,  617. 

Trunk  manufactories,  550. 

Truss,  120;  cheap  truss  roof  for  frame 
buildings,  104. 

Tryon,  James  E.,  report,  269,  277. 

Tug  boats,  550. 

Tumbling,  413. 

Tun  (wine  measure),  620. 

Tungstates,  546. 

Turpentine  distilleries,  550. 

Type  foundries,  550. 

U. 

Ultimate  stress,  594. 

Underwriter,  knowledge  required.  22. 

Unearned   premium,    218;  popular 

errors  as  to,  218,  219,  228. 
Uneven  settling  of  buildings,  104. 
Unhealthy  locations,  59. 
Uniform  "threads  and  couplings,  179, 

278. 

Universal  Schedule,  621,  walls,  83; 
standard  building,  95,  182,  183,  184, 
etc;  adjustable  to  any  town,  193; 
rates  can  be  raised  or  lowered  by  a 
percentage,  193;  its  detail,  194; 
needs  an  expert,  194;  easily  learned, 
194;  too  long  or  too  short,  194; 
water- works  in,  284. 


Unknown  causes  of  fires,  133. 
Unoccupied  buildings,  59,  460. 
Unprotected  iron,  656. 
Unproductive  property,  47. 
Upholsterers,  550. 

V 

Vacant  buildings,  59,  460. 
Vacuum  valves,  259. 
Value,  limit  of  insurance  to,  46,  47, 
50,  51. 

Values  of  dry-goods,  district,  271. 
Valued  policy,  584. 
Valued  policy,  do  not  write,  302. 
Valuable  animals,  515,  519. 
Valves,  air  and  vacuum,  259;  stop, 
272. 

Varnishing,  413. 
Varnish  manufactories,  550. 
Vattel's  Law  of  Nations,  343,  559. 
Vault,  pattern,  fireproof  doors,  368. 
Ventilating  shafts,  491. 
Ventilation,  Sneed  process  of,  537. 
Verbal  agreements,  never  make,  291. 
Vertical  pipes,  94. 
Vessels,  550. 

Vinegar  manufactories,  550. 
Void  policies,  321. 
Volt,  415. 

W 

Wadding  manufactories,  430,  550. 

Waiver,  agents  should  not,  292,  341; 
of  standard  policy  conditions,  564. 

Wagon  manufactories,  550. 

Wall  paper  manufactories,  550. 

Walls,  thickness  of,  83,  126;  see  U. 
M.  S.,  642,  643,  644;  party,  83,  643; 
New  York  Building  Law  require- 
ments, 83;  ignition  of  wood  through, 
84;  stone,  85;  parapet,  84,  85;  plate, 
103. 

Wall  frames  for  fireproof  doors,  369, 
382,  386;  eyes  for  fire  doors,  363; 
illustrated,  382. 

"Wares,"  use  of  word  in  policies,  304. 

Warehouse  rates,  188,  189;  see  U.  M. 
S.,  list,  796,  etc. 

Washburn  &  Moen,  wire  works,  552. 

Washburn,  President  of  Home  Ins. 
Company,  469. 

Waste,  receptacles  for,  67,  405;  pick- 
ers, 397;  "clean"  551. 

Watch  manufactories,  551. 

Watchmen,  109,  666;  lanterns,  421, 
449. 

Water  cures,  478,  536. 
Water  supply,  173,  245,   266,  267; 
mains,  must  not  be  ne  ar  each  other, 


860 


INDEX. 


245;  power,  414;  soaked  merchan- 
dise, 88;  fibre,  90;  proof  floors,  111, 
127;  tanks,  94,  111,  113,  127,  421; 
towers,  667;  works,  245;  in  U.  M. 
S.,  284,  633,  63.");  hammer,  249; 
private  vs.  municipal  ownership  of, 
282;  weight  of  cubic  foot  of,  248; 
motor,  261;  consumption  of,  267; 
closets,  .100;  pressure  in  all  direc- 
tions, pascal's  law,  247:  works,  U. 
M.  S.,  633;  water  motor,  261. 

Water  thrown  at  fires — New  York 
consumption  of  water  for  tires  for 
an  entire  year,  (98  million  gallons) 
as  shown  by  record  of  Fire  Dept., 
is  less  than  the  number  of  gallons 
consumed  in  half  a  day  for  domestic 
purposes. 

Watt,  416. 

Weaving  mills,  446,  551. 

Weights  of  materials,  59*. 

Weights  and  measures,  617. 

Well-holes,  110,  117,  650. 

"While  occupied  as,"  306. 

Whiskey,  experience  of  one  company 
on,  8;  distilleries,  457. 

White  lead  works.  552, 

Whiting,  C.  B.,  71. 

Willow  ware  manufactories,  552. 

Whole  hazard  or  risk,  insure.  303. 

Wholesale  groceries,  198;  drugs,  457. 

Why  cannot  individual  insure  him- 
self, 9,  state  insure  citizens,  10. 

Wife,  title  of  property  in  name  of, 
296. 

Wild  animals,  519. 

William  Wicke  Manufactory,  explos- 
ion in,  442. 


Windows,  aisles  from  through  mer- 
chandise piles,  90. 

Windsor  Hotel,  New  York,  burning 
of,  322,  489. 

Wine  measure.  619. 

Wire  lilass.  69,  1 10;  write  for  National 
Hoard  Kules.  122;  lathing,  91;  net- 
ting, 116;  fence,  danger  lightning 
to  live  stock,  517;  works,  552. 

Wolff  &  Co.,  wire  works,  552. 

Wood,  columns,  599.  605;  dry,  liable 
to  ignite,  410;  in  dry-rooms,  151: 
workers  as  exposures,  67,  552;  alco- 
hol, 426:  cord  445;  pulp,  534;  beams. 

safe  loads  for,  604,  605,  606. 

Wooden  sheat hint;  on  walls,  128, 

U.  M.  S..  26;  journals.  465,  470; 

beams,  safe  loads  for,  603. 
Wooden  ware  manufactories,  552. 
Woolen  mills,  446. 
Wool  scouring,  553. 
Working  over  hours,  139. 
Working  stresses  of  materials,  600, 

601. 

Worth  Street,  New  York,  fire,  93, 

645;  iron  fronts,  94,  645. 
Writing  policies,  287. 
Wrought  iron  bonds,  79;  water  pipe. 

266. 

Y 

Yachts,  553. 

Yellow  pine  beams,  603;  columns,  605. 
Z 

Zero  weather,  tires  in,  71. 
Zylonite,  440. 


